CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7. Strut-and-tie models

7.1 Introduction

Structural members may be divided into portions called B-regions, in which beam theory
applies, including linear strains and so on, and other portions called discontinuity regions, or
D-regions, adjacent to discontinuities or disturbances, where beam theory does not apply, as
illustrated in Fig. 7.1. D-regions can be geometric discontinuities, adjacent to holes, abrupt
changes in cross section, or direction, or statical discontinuities, which are regions near
concentrated loads and reactions. St. Venant's principle suggests that the localized effect of a
disturbance dies out by about one member-depth from the point of the disturbance. On this
basis, D-regions are assumed to extend one member-depth each way from the discontinuity.

Figure 7.1 B-regions and D-regions.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Prior to any cracking, an elastic stress field exists, which can be quantified with an elastic
analysis, such as a finite-element analysis. After cracking, the internal forces can be modeled
via a strut-and-tie model, as shown in Fig. 7.2 with an example of a deep beam, consisting of
(1) Concrete compression struts.
(2) Steel tension ties.
(3) Nodal zones.

Figure 7.2 A strut-and-tie model of a deep beam.

A strut-and-tie model is a model that satisfies the following

(1) A system of forces that is in equilibrium with a given set of loads.
(2) The factored-member forces in the struts, ties, and nodal zones do not exceed the
corresponding design member strengths.
(3) The structure must have sufficient ductility to make the transition from elastic behavior to
redistribute the factored internal forces into a set of forces that satisfy items (1) and (2).

If the three conditions mentioned above are satisfied, the system of forces is a lower bound on
the strength of the structure.

Failure of a strut-and-tie model:

(1) Longitudinal cracks of unreinforced struts.
(2) Crushing of reinforced struts.
(3) Yielding of tension ties.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

(4) Failure of bar anchorage.

(5) Failure of nodal zones.
Failure initiated by yielding of steel tension tie tends to be more ductile and is desirable.

Strut-and-tie models are seeing increased used for the design and detailing of for D-regions
such as
(1) Deep beams, dapped ends.
(2) Bracket and corbels.
(3) Beam-column joints and bridge bent caps.
(4) Shear walls with substantial penetrations or openings.
(5) Footings of bridge piers.
(6) End zones or end blocks of pre- and post-tensioned beams.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7.2 Struts, ties and nodal zones

Struts
In a strut-and-tie model, the struts represent concrete compressive stress fields with the
compression stresses acting parallel to the strut. The shape of the compression field may vary
depending on the geometry, the load, and the support conditions of the member. Schlaich et al.
have proposed three basic types of compression stress fields as shown in Fig. 7.3. The basic
type is a prism of uniform cross-sectional area, where the compression stress field is parallel
and constant over the length (Fig. 7.3a). The prismatic, parallel stress field is commonly
encountered in B-regions such as the compression zone of the beam as shown in Fig. 7.2. A
second type is bottle-shaped field, where the stresses may spread out at some distance away
from the loading point (Fig. 7.3b). For simplicity in design, however, bottle-shaped struts are
often idealized as prismatic struts as shown by the strut-and-tie model of the deep beam in Fig.
7.2. The third type of stress field is the fan-shaped field where the stresses fan out as shown in
Fig. 7.3(c). Fan-shaped action will develop, for example, in a simply supported deep beam
with a uniformly distributed load as shown in Fig. 7.4(a). In design, such regions will often be
modeled as a series of prismatic struts as illustrated in Fig. 7.4(b).

Figure 7.3 Basic compression fields: (a) parallel field; (b) bottle-shaped filed; (c) fan-shaped
field.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Figure 7.4 Fan-action in a deep beam.

The strength of the strut will depend on its shape and the presence of reinforcement (if any)
perpendicular to the strut axis. In a bottle-shaped strut, the spread of stresses from the end to
the middle of the strut will tend to split the strut near the end, which will weaken the strut (Fig.
7.5a). In fact, the flow of forces within a bottle-shaped strut may be idealized as a
strut-and-tie model as shown in Fig. 7.5(b). Researchers tend to agree that the strength of
compressive struts is less than the compressive cylinder strength f c' with values ranging
from 0.55 to 1 f c' .

Figure 7.5 Bottle-shaped strut; (a) splitting cracks near the strut ends; (b) idealized
strut-and-tie model of the strut.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Ties
Ties represent the tension members in the strut-and-tie model. They consist of the
reinforcement plus a portion of the concrete around it. A tie may consist of one or several
layers of reinforcement over the depth of the tie, as shown in Fig. 7.6. For crack control, it is
recommended that the reinforcement be distributed uniformly within the cross-section of the
tie. Note that the centroid of the reinforcement must coincide with the axis of the tie in the
model. In practice, the strength of the tie is given by the strength of the reinforcement alone,
which is often assumed to be at yield.

Figure 7.6 Tension tie consisting of several layers of reinforcement plus a portion of
surrounding concrete.

Nodal zones
The intersection between the axes of two or more struts and ties defines the nodes in the
model. The region surrounding the nodes is called a nodal zone. In a planar structural model,
at least three forces must intersect at a node in order to satisfy equilibrium. Depending on the
type of forces acting at a node intersection, nodes are often classified as C-C-C nodes when
they resist forces from three compression struts as shown in Fig. 7.6(a); or as C-C-T nodes
when two compressive struts and a tension tie intersect at the node as shown in Fig. 7.6(b).

If the faces of the nodal zone are perpendicular to the axes of the struts, the stresses will be
the same on all faces and equal to in-plane principal stresses. Such nodal zones are often
called hydrostatic nodal zones. A node anchoring one or more ties may also be considered as
hydrostatic by treating it as a compressive force acting on the far side of the nodal zone, as
shown in Fig.7.7(b).

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Figure 7.7 Classification of nodes; (a) C-C-C node; (b) C-C-T- node.

Laying out a model with hydrostatic nodal zones to meet the strength requirements in all faces
can be cumbersome in practice. A simplified approach to sizing the nodal region is that the
faces of the nodal zone need not be perpendicular to the axis of the strut as shown in Fig. 7.8.
In such a case, the node region is simply defined by the depth of the struts and ties
intersecting at the node. Unlike hydrostatic nodes, both normal and shear stresses will act on
the face of the nodal zone. The nodal zone should be considered safe if the stresses acting on
the cross-sectional area taken perpendicular to the strut or tie axis are below the nodal zone
stress limit.

Figure 7.8 A simplified arrangement of C-C-C nodes.

In another approach as illustrated in Fig. 7.9, the nodal zone can be treated using a
combination of hydrostatic sub-nodal zones and transition stress fields. Fig. 7.9 (b) below
shows the same nodal zone of Fig. 7.9 (a) using this approach
.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Figure 7.9 Nodal zone with four struts (a) simplified arrangement (b) hydrostatic nodal zones
and a transition stress field.

A nodal zone anchoring a tie may sometimes be too small to develop the tie reinforcement
within the nodal zone and an anchor plate may be required as shown in Fig. 7.10(a). The tie
reinforcement may be developed, however, outside of the nodal zone as shown in Fig. 7.10
(b). In this case, an extended nodal zone, defined by the intersection of the struts, bearing
plates, and the depth of the tie, may be used to compute the available development length for
the tie reinforcement. It is assumed that within the extended nodal zone the compression
stresses due to the reactions and the struts help transfer the forces from the tie to the struts. In
some situations, however, the development length computed with the inclusion of the
extended nodal zone may still be insufficient to anchor the tie. Hooks or mechanical

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

anchorage will be needed in such cases.

Figure 7.10 Anchorage of tie reinforcement.

The strength of a nodal zone will depend on its shape and the types of elements framing into
the node. In a hydrostatic C-C-C node, the nodal zone is subjected to a biaxial or triaxial state
of compressive stresses, a rather favorable condition for the node. On the other hand, if a node
anchors one or more ties, the tension stresses in the tie reinforcement will tend to weaken the
node and a lower strength of the nodal zone can be expected. Suggested values range from
about 0.7 to 0.85 f c' for C-C-C nodes to 0.52 to 0.6 f c' for C-T-T nodes

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7.3 ACI code provisions

Appendix A of the ACI 318 code contains the provisions for the design of D-regions using
strut-and-tie models. The basic design approach consists of ensuring that the selected
strut-and-tie model is capable of transferring the loads to the supports and to the adjacent
B-regions. The strut-and-tie model must satisfy the following main requirement:

(1) The strut-and-tie model must be in equilibrium with the applied factored loads and the
reactions.
(2) Struts shall not cross or overlap each other except at nodal zones. The strength of the strut
is calculated based on its depth and the concrete strength. Thus, if the struts overlap each
other, then a portion of the struts would be overstressed.
(3) Ties shall be permitted to cross struts or other ties. A tie crossing a strut will induce tensile
strains in the transverse direction which will reduce the strut strength. Thus, the ACI Code
reduces the strength of struts crossed by ties or whenever the compressive stresses are
transferred across cracks in a tension zone.
(4) The angle between the axis of a strut and that of a tie at a node shall not be taken less than
25°. This requirement is meant to reduce cracking and avoid incompatibility resulting
from shortening of a strut and lengthening of a tie in nearly the same direction.
(5) The strength of the struts, ties, and nodal zones must satisfy the basic requirement that

 Fn  Fu (7.1)

where Fu is the factored demand, Fn is the nominal strength, and  is the strength
reduction factor that is equal to 0.75 for struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas.

Strength of struts Fns

The nominal strength Fns of a strut is taken as the smaller of the strengths computed at the
two ends of the strut as follows

Fns  f ce Acs (7.2)

where Acs is the cross-sectional area at the end of the strut and f ce is the effective strength
in a strut. The effective compressive strength of a strut is calculated as

f ce  0.85 s f c' (7.3)

where  s is a factor that accounts for the effect of cracking and confinement reinforcement
as shown Table 7.1.

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Table 7.1 Values of  s for computing strut strength according to ACI A3.2
Strut type s
Prism of uniform cross-section over its length (parallel stress field) 1.0
Bottle-shaped struts:
with reinforcement satisfying ACI A3.3 0.75
without reinforcement satisfying ACI A3.3 0.60 
Struts in tension members or in the tension flanges of members 0.4
All other cases (see Fig. 7.11) 0.6
 is 1.0 for normal-weight concrete, 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete, and 0.75 for
all-lightweight concrete.

(b) Struts crossed by skew cracks

Figure 7.11 Struts in the compression field of a beam web,  s =0.6: (a) struts parallel to
cracks; (b) struts crossed by cracks.

In bottle-shaped struts, a greater strength (  s equal to 0.75) is permitted in the calculations

when transverse reinforcement is provided in accordance with ACI-A.3.3. ACI-A.3.3 allows
designers to use a strut-and-tie model for the bottle-shaped strut to compute the required
amount of transverse reinforcement assuming that the compressive forces spread out at a 2:1
slope (Fig. 7.5b). Alternatively, for f c'  6000 psi , the transverse reinforcement requirement
may be satisfied if

Asi
 sin  i  0.003 (7.4)
bs si
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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

where Asi is the total area of reinforcement at a spacing si of a layer of reinforcement at an

angle  i with the axis of the strut, and bs is the strut thickness.

ACI-A3.3.2 allows the reinforcement to be provided in two orthogonal directions as shown in

Fig. 7.12, or in one direction. In the latter case, the angle between the reinforcement layer and
the strut axis shall not be less than 40°.

Figure 7.12 Details of reinforcement crossing a strut.

Compression reinforcement can be added to increase the strength of the strut. Such
reinforcement must be parallel to the strut axis and located within the strut. The strut will then
act as a column. Detailing rules for columns should then be followed. Transverse
reinforcement (ties or spirals)

Fns  f ce Acs  f s' As' (7.5)

where As' is the area of compressive reinforcement and f s' is the stress in the reinforcement
at the strain associated with the crushing of the strut. For 4200 and 2800 kgf/cm 2 rebar,
f s'  f y

Strength of nodal zones Fnn

The nominal strength of a nodal zone is taken as

Fnn  f ce Anz (7.6)

where f ce is the effective compressive strength of the concrete in the nodal zone and Anz is
the area of the face of the nodal zone taken perpendicular to the line of action of the strut or
tie force.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

The effective compressive strength f ce in the nodal zone is computed as

f ce  0.85 n f c' (7.7)

where  n is a factor that accounts for the type of node (C-C-C, C-C-T, C-T-T, etc.) as
shown in the Table 7.2.

Table 7.2 Values of  s for computing strut strength according to ACI A3.2
Nodal zone type n
Bounded by struts or bearing areas (C-C-C nodes) 1.0
Anchoring one tie (C-C-T nodes) 0.8
Anchoring two or more ties (C-T-T nodes or bounded only by ties) 0.6

Strength of ties Fnt

The nominal strength of a tie is computed assuming that the reinforcement is at yield as
follows

Fnt  f y Ast (7.8)

where Ast is the area of reinforcing steel within the tie and f y is the yield strength of the
reinforcement.

ACI-A.4.3 requires that the tie reinforcement be anchored within the nodal zone, including
the extended nodal zone as shown in the Fig. 7.10(b). The available development length La
is shown in the figure. The bar may be developed by extending the reinforcement beyond the
nodal zone if enough room is available. If La is insufficient to anchor the bar, the
reinforcement may be anchored using 90 hooks or mechanical anchors, such as an anchor
plate. If 90 hooks are provided, the hooks should be confined by reinforcement to avoid
splitting of the concrete within the anchorage region.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7.4 Selecting a strut-and-tie model

(1) Selection of statically admissible truss.

(2) Equilibrium and strength limits are satisfied.
(3) A model with the minimum number and shortest ties is preferred (Fig. 7.13).
(4) Selection could be based on principal stress trajectories obtained from linear finite
element analysis.

Figure 7.13 Strut-and-tie models for a deep beam with uniformly distributed load.

Figure 7.14 Examples of strut-and-tie models.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Figure 7.15 Examples of strut-and-tie models: (a) corbel; (b) knee joint under closing moment;
(c) knee joint under opening moment; (d) interior beam-column joint.

Figure 7.16 Examples of strut-and-tie model for pile cap.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7.5 Deep beams

When the shear span-to-depth ratio a / d is lower than about 2 (Fig. 7.17), a simply
supported beam tends to behave like a tied-arch as shown in Fig. 4.4. If no transverse
reinforcement is provided, large cracks may open near the midspan though the beam may
have considerable reserve capacity after inclined cracking occurs. These large cracks are often
undesirable and thus it is common practice to provide both horizontal and vertical
reinforcement to control such cracks.

Figure 7.17 An example of a deep beam.

The ACI Code classifies a deep beam as one having a ratio Ln / h of clear span Ln to
overall member depth h equal to or less than 4, or the region of a beam supported on one face
and loaded on the opposite face with a concentrated load within twice the member depth from
the support. For a concentrated load at midspan, an Ln / h ratio of 4 would be equivalent to a
shear span-to-depth ratio a / d of about 2.

Deep beams are entirely D-region situations; thus, special procedures must be used for design.
Two approaches may be taken: (1) nonlinear analyses, or (2) strut-and-tie models.

Minimum shear reinforcement

(1) Vertical reinforcement Av  0.0025bw s1 , where s1  d / 5 or 30 cm.
(2) Horizontal reinforcement Avh  0.0015bw s2 , where s2  d / 5 or 30 cm.
where bw is the beam width; s1 is the spacing of the vertical reinforcement; and s2 is the
spacing of the horizontal reinforcement. Fig. 7.18 shows an example of the reinforcing details
of a deep beam.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

In lieu of the minimum vertical and horizontal reinforcement specified above, ACI permits
A
providing reinforcement satisfying  si sin  i  0.003 .
bs si

Figure 7.18 An example of reinforcing details of a deep beam.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Example 7.1
57tf 57tf
122 122

105

35

40 365 40 Unit: cm

Materials: f c'  250 kgf/cm 2 and f y  4200 kgf/cm 2 .

Two concentrated service live loads 57 tf. Self-weight is ignored.

The beam is loaded on one face and supported on the other face with a concentrated load at
122
 1.16  2 A deep beam
105

d e

B C
f hsBC

c A  D
htAD
a
b

Strut BC and tie AD

 40 
M u  1.6  57   122   129.5 tf-m
 2 
The effective compressive stress of the concrete in the strut
f ce  0.85 s f c'
 s  1.0 A parallel stress field
The effective compressive stress of the nodal zone
f ce  0.85 n f c'
 n  1.0 C-C-C node

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Design strength of strut BC

 FnsBC   f ce Acs  0.75  0.85 f c'bhsBC
b  35 cm

The strength of tie is governed by

(1) Strength of node (This normally will control)
(2) Yield strength of tie
FnnA  FnnD  f ce Anz  0.85 n f c' Anz
 n  0.8 for C-C-T node
 FnnA  0.75  0.85  0.8 f c'bhtAD

 C T
C   FnsBC  0.75  0.85 f c'bhsBC  0.75  0.85  0.8 f c'bhtAD
hsBC  0.8htAD
 hsBC htAD 
 M n  0.75  0.85  250  35  hsBC  105   
 2 2 
 hsBC hsBC 
 5578  h BC
 105     129.5 10
5

2  0.8 
s
 2
hsBC  36 cm
hsBC
htAD   45 cm
0.8

The force in Strut BC and the tie is

 FnsBC   f ce Acs  0.75  0.85  250  35  36  200 tf

Check the angle between the strut and tie axes at nodes A and D.
 36 45 
 105   
  tan 1  2 2  24.4  25
 OK
 122  20 
 

The force in diagonal struts AB and CD is

1.6  57
FuAB  FuCD   221 tf
sin 24.4

Check strength of nodal zones

Nodal zone A
C-C-T node:  n =0.8

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Face a-c: already satisfied

a-b: Anz  40  35 ,  FnnA  0.75  0.85  0.8  250  Anz =179 tf  RA  1.6  57  91.2 tf
b-c: Anz  b  d s , d s  45cos   40sin   58 cm ,
 FnnA  0.75  0.85  0.8  250  35  58  259 tf > FuAB  221 tf

Nodal zone B
C-C-C node:  n =1.0
Face e-f: already satisfied
d-e: bearing plate is required.  FnnB  0.75  0.85  1.0  250  35  Lb  1.6  57  91.2 tf
Lb  16.3 cm
d-f: d s  36 cos   16.3sin   40 cm ,
 FnnB  0.75  0.85 1.0  250  35  40  223 tf > FuAB  221 tf

Check the strength of strut AB

Bottle-shape strut and transverse reinforcement will be provided,  s =0.75.
FnsAB  f ce Acs
f ce  0.75  0.85  250  159 kgf/cm 2

40 cm

 FnsAB  0.75 159  40  35  167 tf < 221 tf NG

58 cm
 FnsAB  0.75 159  58  35  242 tf > 221 tf OK

Top surface needs to be increased

53 cm

221103
Minimum depth =  53 cm
0.75 159  35
d s  53 cm  36 cos   Lb sin 
58 cm Lb  49 cm bearing plate width

Required area for steel

Tie AD
200 103
Ast   63.49 cm 2
0.75  4200

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

12 #9 Ast  12  6.47  77.64 cm 2

Check anchorage of tie AD

45 / 2
La  40   4  85.6 cm
tan 24.4

Use 90 hook

 0.075 f y e    0.075  4200 11 

 dh    db    2.86  56.9 cm ( kgf/cm 2 )
 f c   250 
 
Use headed bar
 0.06 e f y   0.06 1 4200 
 dt    db    2.86  45.5 cm ( kgf/cm 2 )
 f c'   250 
 

Minimum shear reinforcement

Horizontal reinforcement
Avh
 0.0015  bw  0.0015  35  0.0525
s2
Use 2-#3 bars, one in each face,
2  0.71
 0.0525 , s2  27 cm , and s2  d / 5  17 cm or 30 cm
s2
Use #3 @ 15 cm

Vertical reinforcement

Asi
To satisfy  sin  i  0.003
bs si

Av A
sin 1  vh sin  2  0.003 ,
bs1 bs2
2  0.71 2  0.71
sin  90  24.4   sin 24.4  0.003
35s1 35 15
s1  19.6 cm , and s2  d / 5  17 cm or 30 cm
Use #3 @ 15 cm.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7.6 Shear friction

For situations in which a crack may form and slippage along that crack interface might occur
if no steel reinforcement crosses the crack, and the usual design procedures for shear
reinforcement to resist inclined cracking are inappropriate, the shear-friction concept of shear
transfer should be applied. The shear friction concept is appropriate for providing a shear
transfer mechanism in such cases as:

(1) At the interface between concretes cast at different times.

(2) At the junction of a corbel (bracket) with a column, such as shown in Fig. 7.19(a).
(3) At the junction of elements in precast concrete construction, such as the bearing detail
shown in Fig. 7.19(b).
(4) At an interface between steel and concrete, such as the steel bracket attachment to a
concrete column shown in Fig. 7.19(c).

(a) Corbel

Figure 7.19 Uses for shear-friction concept.

Since the crack tends to be rough, sliding will produce a separation, leading to tension in
reinforcement across the crack, which results in compression on the interface as shown in Fig.
7.20. A friction force is then developed.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Figure 7.20 Idealization of the shear-friction concept.

If we assume the separation is sufficient to cause yielding of the reinforcement, the shear
resistance is

Vn  Avf f y  (7.9)

Avf is the area of reinforcement extending across the potential crack at 90 to it, and  is
the coefficient of friction between materials along the potential crack. If the shear-friction
reinforcement is inclined at an angle to the assumed crack as illustrated in Fig. 7.21, then

Vn  Avf f y   sin  f  cos  f  (7.10)

Figure 7.21 Action of shear-friction reinforcement when inclined to shear plane.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

The coefficient of friction  is to be taken as follows:

(1) Concrete cast monolithically.   1.4
(2) Concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally   1.0
roughened and shall be clean and free of laitance
(3) Concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally   0.6
roughened
(4) Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by   0.7
reinforcing bars, with as-rolled steel clean and free of paint

In the above expressions for  , the multiplier  shall be 1.0 for normal-weight concrete,
0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete, and 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete.

The maximum nominal shear stress may not exceed 0.2 f c' or 56 kgf/cm 2 (5.49 MPa)

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

7.7 Brackets and corbels

Brackets and corbels (Fig. 7.22) projecting from the faces of columns are widely used in
precast concrete construction to support beams and girders. It is inappropriate to design
brackets and corbels as cantilever beams using the usual beam provisions for shear. Deep
beam theory should apply. Brackets and corbels, furthermore, differ from the deep beams
because design calculations for horizontal forces must also be made. Because the beams are
attached to the bracket, the restraint on the beams due to creep, shrinkage, and temperature
deformations give rise to horizontal forces N uc . Fig. 7.23 shows possible failure modes of
corbels.

Figure 7.22 Bracket or corbel.

Figure 7.23 Corbel details and possible failure modes.

Brackets and corbels can be designed using shear-friction concept (traditional method) or

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

strut-and-tie models with the following limitations.

Shear-friction concept: a / d  1
Strut-and-tie models: a / d  2

Equilibrium equations
Using the shear-friction concept introduced in the previous section, the shear strength Vn and
tension strength N nc can be obtained by

Vertical force equilibrium

Vn   C

Horizontal force equilibrium

V
N nc  T  C  As f y  n

Vn N V N
Required As   nc  u  uc  Avf  An
fy fy  fy  fy
where Avf is shear-friction reinforcement; and An is axial tension reinforcement.

Moment equilibrium
 a   a 
Vn a  N nc  h  1   T  d  1 
 2  2
 a   a 
Vn a  N nc  h  d   N nc  d  1   As f y  d  1 
 2  2
Vn a  N nc  h  d  N nc Vu a  N uc  h  d  N uc
Required As      Af  An
f y  d  a1 / 2  fy  f y  d  a1 / 2   f y
where Af beam moment reinforcement.

Figure 7.24 Equilibrium of forces acting on a bracket and corbel.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

ACI code provisions

The area of primary tension reinforcement should satisfy
2
Required As  Avf  An (7.11)
3
Required As  Af  An (7.12)

Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As must be used, having a total area Ah not less than
Required Ah  0.5  As  An 
This reinforcement is to be uniformly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth from
As .

Figure 7.25 Effective depth of bracket or corbel.

Other design requirements:

(1) Factored tensile force N uc may not exceed factored shear Vu .
(2) Factored tensile force N uc may not be taken less than 0.2 Vu unless special precautions
are taken to avoid tensile forces.
(3) Critical section is at face of support, where the effective depth d is to be measured, as
shown in Fig. 7.25. The effective depth may not be more than twice the depth d1 at the
outer edge of the bearing area.
(4) The strength reduction factor  is to be taken as 0.75 for all calculations relating to the
design of brackets and corbels.
(5) The maximum strength Vn for which brackets and corbels may be designed using
normal-weight concrete is

max Vn  0.2 f c'bw d   800 psi  bw d (7.13)

(6) The minimum reinforcement ratio  for the main tension steel As is

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

f c'
min   0.04 (7.14)
fy

(7) Primary reinforcement As at front face must be anchored by (a) a structural weld to
transverse bar of at least equal size to develop a force of As f y , or (b) bending As bars
back to form a horizontal loop, or (c) some means of positive anchorage.
(8) Bearing area must not project beyond straight portion of As bars, nor beyond the interior
face of the transverse anchor bar if one is provided.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Example 7.2
Design a bracket that is to support gravity dead and live loads of 15 and 25 kips, respectively.
The vertical reaction is 10 in. from the face of a 14-in. square column. Provide a horizontal
reaction of 9.5 kips due to creep and shrinkage of a restrained beam. Use f c'  5000 psi and
f y  40000 psi .

Vu  1.2(15)  1.6(25)  18  40  58 kips

N uc  1.6(9.5)  15.2 kips
ACI-11.9.3.4 states that N uc is to be regarded as live load when it results from creep,
shrinkage, or temperature change.

N uc 15.2
  0.26  0.20 OK
Vu 58

Depth of bracket for shear.

Max Vn  0.2 f c'bw d  (800 psi)bw d
0.2 f c'  800 psi, use 800 psi
Vu 58, 000
Min d    6.9 in
 bw (800) 0.75(14)(800)

Depth of bracket for flexure.

M u  Vu a  N uc (h  d )  58(10)  15.2(h  d )
Estimating (h  d ) at 2 in.
M u  58(10)  15.2(2)  610 in.-kips
Using the minimum reinforcement ratio,

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

f c' 5
Min   0.04  0.04( )  0.005 , which corresponds to minimum Rn  193 psi
fy 40

Mu 610, 000
Required d    17.4 in.
 Rnb 0.75(193)14
For the maximum reinforcement ratio  max , maximum Rn  1209 psi , which gives
610, 000
Required d   6.9 in.
0.75(1209)14

Select bracket depth. Since the provisions of ACI-11.9.3 and 11.9.4 for bracket and corbel
design apply only when a does not exceed 1.0,
d
Min d  a  10 in.
Try a bracket with overall depth of 15 in. d  13.5 in.

Determine the shear-friction reinforcement Avf .

Vu 58
Required Avf    1.38 in 2 , where   1.4 for monolithic concrete.
 f y  0.75(40)1.4

Determine the flexure reinforcement Af .

Mu
Required Rn 
 bd 2
where, M u  Vu a  N uc (h  d )  58(10)  15.2(1.5)  603 in.-kips
603, 000
Required Rn   315 psi
0.75(14)(13.5) 2

1 2mRn  fy
Required   1  1    0.0082, m 

m fy  0.85 f c'

Required Af  0.0082(14)13.5  1.55 in 2

Determine additional reinforcement An for axial tension.

N uc 15.2
Required An    0.51 in 2
 f y 0.75(40)
Total main tension reinforcement As .
Required As  Af  An  1.55  0.51  2.06 in 2
or
2 2
Required As  Avf  An  (1.38)  0.51  1.43 in 2
3 3

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

The required As  2.06 in 2

Use 5-#6 for main tension steel, As =2.20 in 2

Determine stirrup (or tie) requirements.

Required Ah  0.5( As  An )  0.5(2.06  0.51)  0.78 in 2
Use 3-#4 closed stirrups, Ah  0.40(3)  1.20 in 2
 2  13.5 
The spacing of which should be     3.0 in. Use 3-in. spacing
 3   3 

Overall bracket dimensions. Assuming that a 1-in.-thick bearing plate is to be welded to the
main tension reinforcement, the overall depth is
h= bearing plate + bar radius + effective depth, d
=1 + 0.44 + 13.5 = 14.94 in., use 15 in.
Vu 58, 000
Bearing plate length =   1.50 in.
 0.85 f c (column width) 0.65(0.85)5000(14)
'

Use 3 in. plate length.

1
Length of bracket projection =2 in. + bearing plate + shear span, a
2
=2 + 1.5 + 10 = 13.5 in.
1 1
Depth of outer face of bracket = overall depth = 7 in.
2 2

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Example 7.3
Design a bracket that projects from a 14” square tied column. It must support a dead load
reaction of 26 kips and a live load reaction of 51 kips, resulting from gravity load. Assume
that suitable bearings are provided for the supported prestressed concrete girder so that
horizontal restraint forces are eliminated. The tolerance gap between the beam end and
column face is 1”. Use f c'  5000 psi and f y  60000 psi .

Factor loads
Vu  1.2(26)  1.6(51)  113 kips
Preliminary bracket size
The shear span a is dependent on the bearing length required to support the reaction on the
concrete. According to ACI 10.17, the nominal bearing strength is 0.85 f c' A1 and   0.65 .
Vu 113, 000
Bearing plate length =   2.9 in.
 0.85 f (column width) 0.65(0.85)5000(14)
c
'

Use 3 in. plate length.

Allowing the tolerance gap of 1” clear between face of column and beam for possible overrun
in beam length and also because the beam might be 1” too short, the shear span is
1
a  2  bearing plate width   2  1.5  3.5 in
2

Depth of bracket for shear.

Max Vn  0.2 f c'bw d  (800 psi)bw d
0.2 f c'  800 psi, use 800 psi
Vu 113, 000
Min d    13.5 in
 bw (800) 0.75(14)(800)

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Choose h=15 in, d  13.5 in.

a 3.75
  0.28  1.0
d 13.5

Determine the shear-friction reinforcement Avf .

Vu 113
Required Avf    1.79 in 2 , where   1.4 for monolithic concrete.
 f y  0.75(60)1.4

Determine the flexure reinforcement Af .

Mu
Required Rn 
 bd 2
1
where, M u  Vu a  N uc (h  d )  113(3.5)  33 ft-kips
12
33 12000 
Required Rn   207 psi
0.75(14)(13.5) 2

1 2mRn  fy
Required   1  1    0.0035, m 
m  fy 
 0.85 f c'

f c' 5
Min   0.04  0.04( )  0.0033
fy 60
Required Af  0.0035(14)13.5  0.66 in 2

Total main tension reinforcement As .

Required As  Af  An  0.66  0  0.66 in 2
or
2 2
Required As  Avf  An  (1.78)  1.19 in 2
3 3
The required As  1.19 in 2
Use 4-#5 for main tension steel, As =1.24 in 2

Determine stirrup (or tie) requirements.

Required Ah  0.5( As  An )  0.5(1.19)  0.6 in 2
Use 3-#3 closed stirrups, Ah  2(3)0.11  0.66 in 2
The spacing of the hoops must be within the upper two-thirds of the effective depth.

At the outer edge of the bearing area, the effective depth d1 must be at least half of that used
at the face of the column. In this case, making the outer face 8 in will satisfy this requirement.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Example 7.4
Redesign the bracket of the previous example by using the strut-and-tie model.

Factored loads
Vu  113 kips
Select a strut-and-tie model.
Determine preliminary bracket size.
The nodal zone beneath the bearing plate is a C-C-T node; thus, its effective compressive
stress is

f ce  0.85 n f c'

where  n  0.8
Therefore,
113, 000
Bearing plate width   3.17 in.
0.75(0.85)(0.8)(5000)14
1
Use 3 in. for bearing plate width. Allowing a tolerance gap of 1-in. clear between the face
2
of the column and the beam for possible overrun in beam length and also because the beam
might be 1 in. too short, then
1
a  2 (bearing plate width) =2  1.75  3.75 in.
2
Determine the depth of the bracket.
a/d can be less than 2 if the bracket is designed by a strut-and-tie model. Choose, h  15 in. ,
so that d  13.5 in. Also ACI-11.9.2 requires that the depth at the outer edge of the bearing
area should not be less than 0.5d . Select a depth of 8 in. for the outer face.

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Define the geometry of the strut-and –tie model.

Using a 1-in. clear cover and one layer of bars for tie AC, assume the center of the tie will be
at 1.5 in. from the top. Similarly, assuming a 1.5-in. clear cover for tie CE and one layer of
bars, assume the center of the tie is 2 in. from the face of the column.

The depth d sBD of strut BD will be governed by the strength of the strut itself or by the
strength of the nodal zone B. The design strength is the smaller of

 FnsBD   (0.85)  s f c' Acs

or

 FnnB   (0.85)  n f c' Anz

Acs  Anz =area of the strut at end B taken perpendicular to the line of action of the strut.

Strut BD is located in the compression zone of the column and may be considered a parallel
stress field. Thus  s  1 . On the other hand, nodal zone B is a C-C-C node and  n  1 .
Therefore, the strength at the end of the strut is the same as that on that face of the nodal zone.
C   FnsBD  0.75(0.85)(1)5 Acs  3.19 Acs  3.19(14) d sBD  44.6d sBD
d sBD
M u  113(3.75  14  2)  c(14  2  )
2
d sBD
1780  44.6d BD
s (12  )
2
d sBD  3.99  4 in.

Check the angle between the strut and tie axes at nodes A and C.
Node A
15  1.5
  arctan ( )  66.9  25
3.75  2
Node C, between tie CE and strut BC
14  2  2
  arctan ( )  36.5  25
15  1.5
between tie AC and strut BC
  90  36.5  53.5  25

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CT5203 Behavior of reinforced concrete members Instructor: Yu‐Chen Ou

Compute truss member forces and check strength of struts, ties, and nodal zones. With the
geometry of the truss defined, the truss member forces are computed form equilibrium. These
forces are

The required area of steel reinforcement for tie AC is

FutAC 48
Ast    1.07 in 2
 f y 0.75(60)
Use 4#5 bars ( Ast =1.24 in2)

The required area of steel reinforcement for tie CE can be provided by the column
longitudinal reinforcement.

The required amount of transverse reinforcement is computed by

A
 b ssi sin  i  0.003
s i

Asi 2(0.11)
b s sin  i 
14(3)
sin 53.5  0.0042  0.003
s i

Use 3#3 closed hoops.

We will only provide horizontal reinforcement, so it is required that the angle  i be greater
than 40 . The angles between the struts AB and BC and the horizontal were computer earlier
as 66.9 and 53.5 , respectively.

Module 7 Page 36