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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 81(2):189-198. The walking group but not the flexibility
group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the
presented stimulus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 101(9):3316-3321. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in
cognitive control and response resolution (Casey et al., 2008; Aron et al., 2009), as well as the
growing body. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion
of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute
condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender. Gymnasium
availability in schools also was associated with an additional 8.3 minutes of physical activity weekly
overall and at least an additional 25 minutes for schools in humid climate zones. Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences 1124(1):111-126. P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional
resources when working memory is updated (Donchin and Coles, 1988) such that P3 is sensitive to
the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus (Polich, 1997; Polich and Heine, 2007).
Quality monitoring systems are crucially needed to enable monitoring and evaluation of these
important outcomes. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings
support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability
because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. Finally, the
abstract should name the instrument and explain the procedures for data collection and statistical
analysis. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum
required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful. The goals of skill
development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through
participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. However, the literature includes no
mention of injuries associated with classroom physical activity programs, and it is likely that any
injuries that might occur would be minor. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves
cognition. Research has shown that, if youth play before they eat, they will consume more fruits and
vegetables, drink. This paper fits nicely in the conversation about the existing literature surrounding
the implications of a culture of caring on school communities and tries to make the leap to connect
religiosity to this discussion. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the
quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade
through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical
education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics
presented in Box 5-4. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with
revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment
(Donchin, 1981). If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer
teachers serving more students. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess,
and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also
the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain
a healthy lifestyle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 36(11):1937. Archives of Pediatrics
and Adolescent Medicine 157(2):185-190. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 10(2):181-210.
Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during
physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. In The
handbook of aging and cognition. Vol. 2, edited by F. M. Craik and T. A. Salthouse. Mahweh, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pp. 1-90. Canadian Medical Association Journal 180(7):719-726.
Such as, high rates of television watching which has been found to be associated with greater risks
of obesity and also more unhealthy diets (Ulter et al, 2003). Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport 78(5):407-412. Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of
weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9.
Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-
14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii
over that expended during all sedentary activities. Findings of both Skinner and colleagues (2012)
and a new Australian study led by Richard Telford (Telford et al., 2012) show that obese youth
consume the same amount of calories as their normal-weight counterparts, suggesting that increased
physical activity in youth may be crucial in reducing obesity prevalence. For example, one must shift
attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one’s notes to write down information for later
study. The report includes guidance on fitness assessments in the school setting. International Journal
of Sport and Society 2(1):65-73. The foundation of the learning styles methodology is based in the
classification of psychological types. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral
interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention
(MacDonald et al., 2000; Botvinick et al., 2001). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive
control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Diamond,
2006), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Such models provide the
only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Findings
indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a
relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and
academic performance. From 2004 to 2007, 88 percent of 8th graders, 48 percent of 10th graders,
and only 20 percent of 12th graders attended schools that required physical education in their grade
(O’Malley et al., 2009). The average weekly minutes spent by high school students in physical
education classes. Councils have the capacity to plan, provide and maintain infrastructure and
facilities in their community. (Edwards, Butterworth, Leslie, 2006h. Journals of Gerontology Series
A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58(2):M176-M180. American Journal of Health
Promotion 24(5):340-343. The type and scope of each vary by school size (Landis et al., 2007) and
location (Kanters et al., 2013), as well as the socioeconomic status of students (Edwards et al.,
2012). Evidence shows benefits of participation in school sports for many aspects of health and well-
being (see Chapter 6 ). Playful City USA is a national recognition program honoring cities and towns
that make play a priority and use innovative programs to get children active, playing, and healthy.
Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and
physical activity also is described. Despite having choice and control when it comes down to
lifestyle factors such as what we eat or how often we exercise, lifestyle related diseases remains the
leading cause of death in Australia, with heart disease being the most prevalent (Australian Bureau
of Statistics, 2011). British Journal of Sports Medicine 45(11):886-895. Because of a lack of national
tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has
impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is
unclear. Evaluations of state and federal programs designed to increase the proportion of students
walking or cycling to school provide some evidence of success 1 (Staunton et al., 2003; Boarnet et
al., 2005; Buliung et al., 2011; Hinckson and Badland, 2011; Mendoza et al., 2011a,b). British
Association of Advisers and Lecturers in Physical Education. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise 32(5):963-975. Finally, the abstract should name the instrument and explain the procedures
for data collection and statistical analysis. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 5(1):88-103. This
has made it easy for people to conduct criminal activities online.. This study questions to what extent
and how Morning Meetings impact the classroom community. Bialystok and F. I. M. Craik. New
York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 70-95. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 13(2):210-216.
In the second study (Romero, 2012), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-
income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention.
Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself (Laban, 1980) and
others (e.g., Logsdon et al. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of
attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall,
correlations with BMI were not significant.
Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board
certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical
education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator (NASPE, 2012). Archives of
Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 157(8):816-820. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of
physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance
(Rasberry et al., 2011). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in
physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind (Hillman et al.,
2008). The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized
above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general
guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the
prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity. If required improvements are not made, schools are
penalized through decreased funding. The committee identified only one study that evaluated the
impact of a newly enacted joint-use agreement. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical
education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known
as exergaming. In addition, participation in sports may enhance school connectedness, social support,
and bonding among friends and teammates (Weintraub et al., 2008). There are developmental
benefits as well; involvement in school sports may enhance initiative, goal setting, and emotional
control (Gould and Carson, 2008), along with general well-being (Greenleaf et al., 2009). Some
school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs. Mhurchu
and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is
likely to be an effective means of increasing children’s overall level of physical activity. Two
additional correlational studies (Voss et al., 2011; Chaddock et al., 2012) compared higher- and
lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task
performance as a function of fitness. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 81(Suppl 2):16S-
23S. In case of needing further help and making education thesis writing the easiest task. However
due to this construction, there appeared to be limited access to the beach from the main road of
Nepean highway which would also contribute to the lack of residents using this wide open space.
Columbia, SC: The National Physical Activity Plan. (accessed February 1, 2013). If a school
produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school.
As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the
study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6 ). Fully 59 percent of states allow
required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. From a public health and
policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack
of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by
nonresearchers or through self-report methods. The physical education policy of one online school,
the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3. For example, use of a randomized controlled
design to study the effects of a new physical education policy at the state level may not be feasible.
When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was
considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more
time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but
not test scores (Coe et al., 2006). CATCH also incorporated family- and home-based programs to
complement in-school activities (Perry et al., 1990). Their findings indicate that academic
performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to
average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. They identified three
categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of
performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Journal of Physical
Activity and Health 9(3):442-448. The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts and Standardized Tests: The
K-12 Education That Every Child Deserves. However, in saying this, being healthy isn't just eating
properly it 'is a complete state of physical, mental and social wellbeing, not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity' (Wass, 2000,p7). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat
mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks
involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. Accordingly, quality physical education
contributes to a child’s daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for
children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment
(NASPE, 2012).
In particular, a series of studies (Colcombe et al., 2003, 2004, 2006; Kramer and Erickson, 2007;
Hillman et al., 2008) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic
fitness to the brain and cognition. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 157(9):905-912.
In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is
measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. Their
results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed
across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship
between physical activity and response speed. These four reasons will include: the level of lifestyle-
related diseases within the community and how this would affect their physical activity, the location
of a persons home and if they have walkable access to basic resources, the crime rate in the area and
whether people feel safe within their community to participate in unstructured physical activity, and
the impact aesthetics has on the environment in inviting community members to be physically active.
A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship
between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum
models adopted by their schools. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been
conducted. From 2004 to 2007, 88 percent of 8th graders, 48 percent of 10th graders, and only 20
percent of 12th graders attended schools that required physical education in their grade (O’Malley et
al., 2009). The average weekly minutes spent by high school students in physical education classes.
In the second study (Romero, 2012), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-
income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. As
noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on
teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical
movement, including sports and exercise. The presence of sports fields and adequate playground
equipment also is associated with greater accumulation of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical
activity during recess (McKenzie et al., 2010; Ramstetter et al., 2010; Colabianchi et al., 2011; Saint-
Maurice et al., 2011; Beighle, 2012; Martin et al., 2012). Many efforts to increase classroom physical
activity are imbedded within programs also designed to increase activity during physical education.
However, the literature includes no mention of injuries associated with classroom physical activity
programs, and it is likely that any injuries that might occur would be minor. The strongest
relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ
and reading performance. However, the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004
requires all school districts to develop local school wellness policies by the 2006-2007 school year.
Today's young people are a familiar with technological devices as they are with their own families,
and this makes them ideal candidates for more distance education in the future. Whereas in 2011, for
crimes against the person Kingston had a massive increase to 780 (per 100,000 people) which is not
too much less than the rate of Victoria as a whole in 2011 which was 940 (per 100,000 people)
which shows that there is obviously an issue with crime rates within the shire of Kingston (Myboot,
2011). By the time it was completed, CATCH had demonstrated sustainable changes in dietary and
physical activity behaviors. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 7(2):184-193. Upon completion
of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children’s
behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity (Luepker et al.,
1996). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention (Nader et al., 1999). Quality
monitoring systems are crucially needed to enable monitoring and evaluation of these important
outcomes. Most of these studies showed enhanced learning due to greater classroom attentiveness
and on-task behavior among students participating in recess. In developing master schedules, school
site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for
“nonessential” subjects. The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons
that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. This section reviews these
barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them. Basset and colleagues (2013) estimate that
walking or biking to school adds an average of 16 minutes per day of vigorous- or moderate-
intensity physical activity. The program includes a health-related fitness assessment, professional
development, and motivational recognition. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of
mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette
smoking. Results of this study showed that the agreement enabled more than 1,000 community
members to participate in 900 class sessions (Maddock et al., 2008). However, the study did not
examine physical activity levels in class participants before or after implementation of the agreement.
Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component
reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the
physical activity intervention group.
Although its language allows school districts the flexibility to develop individualized physical
activity programs that accord with their existing schedules, it provides no direction or guidance for
this wellness policy component. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from
physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from
physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences
designed to increase academic performance (Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005; see Chapter 5 ).
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity Act 9:88. The way in which an
environment is designed can impact the unstructured and structured physical activity within a
community setting (Vic Health, 2001). A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for
physical education (see the discussion below). If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes
must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. British Journal of Sports Medicine
45(11):886-895. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses
more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to
meet national standards for learning and physical activity. Journal of the American Dietetic
Association 96(9):906. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to
develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. This chapter
reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity
and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in
children. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body
movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of
healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle (NASPE, 2004). Data are lacking, however,
to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is
of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.
Since it emerged in the literature about 25 years ago, it has been a philosophical topic for scholars
and intellectuals in the field of physical education (PE). Tip 1 Your topic selection of writing
education thesis should relate to your interest as well as it should be interesting enough for the
readers. International Journal of Psychophysiology 48(3):307-314. Unlike previous research, which
demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage (Duncan et al., 2007), this study
found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly (Van Dusen et al., 2011). Aerobic
fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response
relationship (Van Dusen et al., 2011). The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced
cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. The
objectives of each of these programs are stated below. In contrast, in a random sample of low-income
rural Colorado elementary schools, Belansky and colleagues (2009) found that the number of minutes
of recess provided to students decreased after implementation of the federally mandated local
wellness policy. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 10(2):181-210. Research conducted in both
laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary
underlying mechanisms. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children
having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on
that day. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 31(1):86-100. They observed larger bilateral
hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of
relational memory. While some studies document no effects on body weight, others report significant
associations with measures of skinfolds and percent body fat, and some document significant
relationships with BMI. American Journal of Public Health 93(9):1431-1434. Additional discussion
of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers
to quality physical education. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.
Despite its health benefits, physical inactivity is pervasive, particularly among those living in lower-
income urban communities (Bennett et al, 2007).