Inductors and Capacitors

• These are ideal circuit elements

• The circuit analysis techniques introduced so far

apply also to the circuits containing inductors and capacitors.

• An inductor is an electrical component

that opposes any change in electrical current.

• It is composed of a coil of wire wound around a supporting core

whose material may be magnetic or nonmagnetic.

• The source of the magnetic field is charge in motion, current

- If the current is varying with time, the magnetic field is also varying with
time
- A time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in any conductor linked
by the field.

• The circuit parameter of inductance relates the induced voltage to the current.

• A capacitor is an electrical component that

consist of two conductors seperated by an insulator or dielectric material.

• The behavior of capacitors is based on phenomena associated with electric fields.

• The source of electric field is separation of charge or voltage.

• If the voltage is varying with time, the electric field is varying with time

- A time-varying electric field produces a displacement current in the space

occupied by the field.

• The circuit parameter of capacitance relates the displacement current to the voltage.

• Inductors and capacitors are PASSIVE elements

as they can not generate energy.

5.1
The Inductor

• Inductance is the circuit parameter

used to describe an inductor.

• Symbolized by the letter L, measured in henrys(H) and represented graphically as a coiled

wire.

• Assigning the reference direction of the current in the direction of the voltage drop across the
terminals

di
V =L
dt
where

V : measured in volts, V

L : in henrys, H

i : amperes, A

t : seconds, s

In other words;

• The voltage across the terminals of an inductor is proportional to the time rate of change of the
current in the inductor.

Observations
1. If the current is constant, the voltage across the ideal inductor is zero

behaves as a short circuit in the presence of a constant or dc current

2. Current can not change instantaneously in an inductor

implying an infinte voltage across the terminals which is NOT possible.

5.2
Ex. The independent current source in the circuit shown generates zero current for t<0 and a pulse
10te −5t A for t>0

a. Sketch the current waveform

b. At what instant of time is the current maximum ?

di
= 10(−5te −5t + e −5t ) = 10e −5t (1 − 5t ) = 0
dt

1
⇒ t= = 0.2s
5

c. Express the voltage across the terminals of the 100mH inductor as a function of time.

di
V =L = 100.10 −3.10e −5t (1 − 5t )V
dt
= e −5t (1 − 5t )V , t > 0
V = 0, t < 0

d. Sketch the voltage waveform.

dV
= −5e −5t (1 − 5t ) − 5e −5t = 0
dt
⇒ 2 − 5t = 0 ⇒ t = 0.4

5.3
e. Are the voltage and the current at a maximum at the same time ?

• No, the voltage is proportional to di / dt , not i.

f. At what instant of time, does the voltage change polarity ?

At t = 0.25 , the voltage changes sign.

g. Is there ever an instantaneous change in voltage across the inductor ? If so, at what time ?

• Yes, at t=0 .Note that the voltage can change instantaneously across the terminals of an
inductor.

Current in an inductor

• We can also describe the current as a function of the voltage

• Multiplying V = L di / dt by a differential time dt in both sides

Vdt = Ldi

• Integrating both sides of the above equation

i (t ) t
L ∫
i ( t0 )
dx = ∫ Vdτ
t0
t
⇒ L[i (t ) − i (t 0 )] = ∫ Vdτ
t0
t
1
L t∫0
⇒ i (t ) = Vdτ + i (t 0 )

• In many practical applications, t 0 = 0 , then we have

t
1
i (t ) = ∫ Vdτ + i (0)
L0

5.4
Ex. The voltage pulse applied to the 100mH inductor shown is 0 for t<0 and is given by

V (t ) = 20te −10tV for t > 0 , i = 0 for t ≤ 0

a. Sketch the voltage as a function of time

b. Find the inductor current as a function of time.

t
1
i (t ) = ∫
0.1 0
20τ e −10τ dτ + 0
u =τ , du = dτ
e −10τ
t
= 200∫ τ e −10τ dτ dV = e −10τ , V = −
0 10
 e −10τ t t e −10τ 
= 200− τ − ∫ (− )dτ 
 10 0 0 10 
 e −10t  e −10τ  t 
= 200− t −  
 10  100  0
= −20te −10t − 2(e −10t − 1)
= 2(1 − 10te −10t − e −10t ) A , t > 0

c. Sketch the current as a function of time

5.5
Power and Energy in the Inductor

• Power and energy relationships for an inductor

can be derived directly from the current and voltage relationships

• If the current reference is in the direction of the voltage drop across the terminals of the
inductor.
p = Vi
di 1 t 
= L i = V  ∫ V dτ + i (t 0 )
dt  L t0 

• As power is the time rate of expending energy, we get

dw di
p= = Li in Watts
dt dt
w i
⇒ dw = L i di ⇒ ∫ dx = L ∫ ydy
0 0

1 2
⇒ W= Li in Joules
2

The capacitor

• The circuit parameter of capacitance is represented by the letter, C

• Measured in farads (F)

• Symbolized graphically by two short parallel conductive plates

• Because the farad is an extremely large quantity of capacitance

practical capacitor values usually lie in the range of

pF − µF

dielectric

• The capacitance occurs whenever electrical conductors are separated by

a dielectric or insulating material

5.6
 • Applying a voltage to the terminals of a capacitor

can only displace a charge within the dielectric

• As the voltage varies with time, the displacement current also varies with time

dV
i=C
dt
where
i: amperes, A
C: farads, C
V: volts, V
t: seconds, s

• Obeys the passive sign convention

the current reference is in the direction of the voltage drop across the capacitor

Observations

• Two important observations :

1. Voltage can not change instantaneously across the terminals of a capacitor

such a change would produce infinite current

2. If the voltage drop across the terminals is constant

the capacitor current is zero, i.e. only a time-varying voltage can

produce a displacement current.

Capacitor voltage

• Multiplying both sides of capacitor eqn. by dt gives

idt = CdV
OR
V (t ) t
1
∫ dV = ∫ i dτ
V ( t0 )
C t0

t
1
C t∫0
⇒ V (t ) = i dτ + V (t 0 )

5.7
 • In many practical applications, t 0 = 0
t
1
C ∫0
V (t ) = i dτ + V (0)

Capacitor power

• From the definition of power

dV
p = Vi = CV
dt
OR
1 t 
p = i  ∫ i dτ + V (t 0 )
 C t0 

Energy of capacitor

• Power is the rate of change of energy

dw dV
= CV
dt dt
⇒ dw = C V dV
• Integrating both sides gives

W V

∫ dw = C ∫ y dy ,
0 0 zero energy corresponds to zero voltage.
1
⇒ W = CV 2
2

Ex. An uncharged 0.2 µF capacitor is driven by a triangular current pulse described by

a. Find V , p, W

for t ≤ 0 , V , p, W all zero

5.8
 t
1 1
−6 ∫
V= 5000τ dτ + 0 = 5 ⋅ 10 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 10 3 ⋅ t 2 = 12.5 ⋅ 10 9 t 2V
0.2 ⋅ 10 0 2

p = Vi = 62.5 ⋅ 1012 t 3W
1 1
W= CV 2 = ⋅ 0.2 ⋅ 10 −6 (12.5 ⋅ 10 9 t 2 ) 2 = 15.625t 4 ⋅ 1012 Ͻ
2 2

for 20µ s ≤ t ≤ 40µ s

t
V = 5 ⋅ 10 6 ∫µ(0.2 − 5000τ )dτ + 12.5 ⋅ 10 (20 ⋅ 10 −6 ) 2
9

20 s

V (20 µs )

= (10 6 t − 12.5 ⋅ 10 9 t 2 − 10)V

p = Vi = (62.5 ⋅ 1012 t 3 − 7.5 ⋅ 10 9 t 2 + 2.5 ⋅ 10 5 t − 2) Watts

1
W= CV 2
2
= (15.625 ⋅ 1012 t 4 − 2.5 ⋅ 10 9 t 3 + 0.125 ⋅ 10 6 t 2 − 2t + 10 −5 ) Ͻ

for t ≥ 40µs

V = −10V
p=0
1
W= CV 2 = 10µ Ͻ
2

b. Why does a voltage remain on the capacitor after the current returns to zero ?

• Note that, the power is always positive for the duration of the current pulse

i.e. energy is being continuously stored in the capacitor

• When the current returns to zero

the stored energy is trapped because an ideal capacitor can NOT deliver
energy.

5.9
 • Thus a voltage remains on the capacitor after i returns to zero.

Series-parallel combinations of inductance and capacitance

• Series-parallel combinations of inductors or capacitors

can be reduced to a single inductor or capacitor.

• Consider the inductors in series

di di di
V1 = L1 , V 2 = L2 , V3 = L3
dt dt dt

• The voltage across the series connection is

di
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = ( L1 + L2 + L3 )
dt

Leq

i.e. Leq = L1 + L2 + L3

the equivalent inductance of series connected inductors is the sum of the

individual inductances

n
Leq = ∑ Li
i =1

Inductors in parallel

5.10
 t
1
L1 t∫0
i1 = V dτ + i1 (t 0 )
t
1 1 1
1
t i = i1 + i2 + i3 = ( + + ) ∫ V dτ + i1 (t 0 ) + i 2 (t 0 ) + i3 (t 0 )
i2 =
L2 ∫ V dτ + i
t0
2 (t 0 ) L1 L2 L3 t0

t
1
∫ V dτ + i (t
t
i3 = ) 1
L3 t0
3 0
=
Leq ∫ V dτ + i(t
t0
0 )

where
3
1 1 1 1
= + + , i (t 0 ) = ∑ i j (t 0 )
Leq L1 L2 L3 j =1

• For n inductors in parallel,

n
1 1
=∑
Leq j =1 L j

n
i (t 0 ) = ∑ i j (t 0 )
j =1

Capacitors in series

• Consider n capacitors connected in series

t
1
V1 =
C1 ∫ i dτ + V (t
t0
1 0 )

t
1
V2 =
C2 ∫ i dτ + V (t
t0
2 0 )

.
.
.
t
1
Vn =
Cn ∫ i dτ + V
t0
n (t 0 )

5.11
 n t
1 1 1
⇒ V1 + V2 + ....... + Vn = V = ( + + ...... + ) ∫ i dτ + ∑ V j (t 0 )
C1 C 2 C n t0 j =1

• Hence,
n
1 1
=∑
C eq j =1 C j
n
V (t 0 ) = ∑ V j (t 0 )
j =1

Capacitors in parallel

• Consider n capacitors connected in parallel

dV
i1 = C1
dt
dV
i2 = C 2
dt
dV
. i1 + i 2 + ....... + in = i = (C1 + C 2 + ...... + C n )
dt
.
.
C eq = C1 + C 2 + ...... + C n
dV
in = C n
dt

Ex. Consider the following inductor circuit

i1 (0) = 3 A , i2 (0) = −5 A
V (t ) = −30e −5t mV , t ≥ 0

5.12
 a. Leq = ?
60.240
Leq = = 48mH
300

b. ieq (0) = ?
i ( 0) = 3 − 5 = − 2 A

c. i (t ) = ?
t
1
∫ − 30e
−5τ
i (t ) = dτ + (−2)
48 ⋅ 10 −3 0

1 10 −3 −5τ t
= .30 . .e −2
48 ⋅ 10 −3 5 0
= 0.125 (e −5t − 1) − 2 = (0.125e −5t − 2.125) A , t ≥ 0

d. i1 (t ), i2 (t ) = ?
t
1
i1 (t ) = ⋅ 10 −3 ∫ − 30e −5τ dτ + 3
60 ⋅ 10 −3 0

1 1
= ⋅ 30 ⋅ ⋅ (e −5t − 1) + 3
60 5
−5t
= (0.1e + 2.9) A , t ≥ 0

i2 (t ) = i (t ) − i1 (t )
= (0.025e −5t − 5.025) A , t ≥ 0
OR
t
1 1 1
i2 (t ) = −3
⋅ 10 −3 ∫ − 30e −5τ dτ − 5 = ⋅ 30 ⋅ ⋅ (e −5t − 1) − 2
240 ⋅ 10 0
240 5
= (0.025e −5t − 5.025) A ⇒ verifies KCL

Ex. Consider the capacitors connected in series.

i (t ) = 240e −10t µA , t ≥ 0
V1 (0) = −10V
V2 (0) = −5V

5.13
 • Calculate the total energy trapped in the capacitors as t→∞

t
1
−6 ∫
V1 (t ) = 240e −10τ dτ − 10
2 ⋅ 10 0
1 −1
= 10 6 240 (e −10t − 1) − 10
2 10
−10t
= (−12e + 2)V , t ≥ 0

t
1
−6 ∫
V2 (t ) = 240 e −10τ dτ − 5
8 ⋅ 10 0
1 −1
= 10 6 ⋅ 240 ⋅ (e −10τ − 1) − 5
8 10
−10t
= (−3e − 2)V , t ≥ 0

• Then
1
W1 = ⋅ 2 ⋅ 10 −6 (−12e −10t + 2) 2 = (144e − 20t − 48e −10t + 4) µ Joule
2
1
W2 = ⋅ 8 ⋅ 10 −6 (−3e −10t − 2) 2 = (36e − 20t + 48e −10t + 16) µ Joule
2
W = W1 + W2 = (180e −20t + 20) µ Joule

• Therefore, as t→∞

lim W = lim (180e −20t + 16) = 20 µ Joule

t →∞ t →∞

Mutual Inductance

• We now consider the situation in which

two circuits are linked by a magnetic field.

5.14
 • The voltage induced in the second circuit can be related to the time-varying current in the first
circuit

known as “mutual inductance” labeled as M.

Note that;

• There will be two voltages across each coil :

di1
i. a self induced voltage L1
dt
di2
ii. a mutually induced voltage M
dt

Dot convention

• Used to keep track of the polarities

• A dot is placed on one terminal of each winding.

Rule. When the reference direction for a current enters the dotted terminal of a coil,

the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces in the other coil is positive
at its dotted terminal.

• Now we shall look at the sum of the voltages around each closed loop

di1 di
− V g + i1 R1 + L1 −M 2 =0
dt dt
di2 di1
i 2 R2 + L 2 −M =0
dt dt

How to determine dot markings !

• Arbitrarily select one terminal of one coil and mark it with a dot

• Assign a current into the dotted terminal and label it i1

5.15
• Use right-hand rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field established by i1

inside the coupled coils and label as φ1

• Arbitrarily pick one terminal of the second coil and assign a current into this terminal as i 2

• Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the flux established by i 2

inside the coupled coils and label as φ 2

• If the fluxes φ1 and φ 2 have the same reference direction

place a dot on the terminal of the second coil where the test current i 2 enters.

OTHERWISE

place a dot on the terminal of the second coil where the test current i 2 leaves

5.16