Profiles

When pegging out has been cheeked, profiles are set up clear of the trench runs and the positions
of the ranging lines transferred to them. Figure3. Profiles consist of a horizontal boards fixed to
posts or pegs. The position of the wall and trench being marked on them (boards) by saw cuts or
nails. Profiles are placed at all corners and at the ends of cross walls figure 4. The positions of
walls can be obtained from lines strained between them. Figure5.

Setting out peg

Profiles

Trench Lines wall

Peg for marking position of drawing

Fig 3

Profiles

Trench
 Fig 4

Alternative arrangement for corner profile

Foundation width

Lines

Drop bob

Level

Position of wall

Peg fixing level of concrete

FOUNDATION
- Foundations are generally regarded as the lowest part of the building which
eventually transmits load into the ground in conjunction with the immediate ground
(natural foundation) that receives the loading.
- The artificial foundation must be able to safely do the transmission without causing
unnecessary movement of the structure.
- There are different types of foundations, the type chosen depending on.
- a) the type of structure used
- b) the soil bearing capacity
- c) the load imposed

Types of foundation

1) Strip foundation
These are suitable where there are continuous load bearing walls from the foundation.
The strip may either be made from concrete (mass or reinforced) or from masonry
construction e.g. brickwork. For mass concrete, the load is transmuted at an angle of
45º hence making the effective width of the strip is three times more the thickness of
the wall. The depth should be equal to this thickness as well. If it exceeds this the
foundation would have a tendency to crack along the line of shear unless
reinforcements are included.

Load bearing wall line of shear axial load

Line of load transmission
t t
45o Mass conc strip
3t tendency to fail if strip exceeds
3t with no reinforcement
2) Wide strip foundation
This type is used where the soil has a low bearing capacity and the aim is to distribute
load over as much an area as possible. The strip in this case should be reinforced so as
to arrest the shear failure together with the cracking (flexural) failure at the bottom
due to bending moment.

Distribution bar

Main bar
Tendency to pull due to bending moment

3) Deep strip foundation

These are used where the suitable bearing is way down and since concrete is good in
compression strength, it is mostly done in mass concrete.

Deep strip
 4) Stepped foundation
These are done where the site is sloping for an economical solution. The strip is
stepped in series according to the land and fall and the lap between two sections of
the strip must be equal to the depth of the strip.
Where the step is substantial, the foundation is designed like column. The height of
the step should be such that a whole number of courses for the foundation walling fit
to avoid a fraction of a course.

Land fall
Whole number of wall course

If the height is > 600mm it should be H

designed as a column

Stepped foundation strip

Leveling of trench bottom for stepped foundation

Same as that for ordinary strip foundation except for gauging the levels for steps
Factors to consider:
1. Slope of land
2. Depth of foundation at the highest point on site
3. Thickness of foundation concrete
4. Level of next step
Procedure of leveling
A gauge rod with the thickness of the foundation and the total height of walling units
required to reach the step marked on it is used. The gauge rod is used to get the level of
the next step. Cut and plumb the vertical part of the foundation step, and then continue
leveling the bed (horizontal) as for ordinary stripped foundation.
5) Pad foundation/ isolated area
This is done for isolated load bearing elements (column) and its mostly in reinforced
concrete since the tendency for failure is to cup in, the reinforcements are placed in
either direction.

Reinforced pad
Foundation

Main bars in both direction

6) Combined foundation
This is where two or three pad foundations are combined so as to distribute the load
effectively. This may be due to may be site boundary where the load cannot be
transmitted to the neighbors plot, a second column inside the site may be combined
with the first one so as to ease the loading on it.

Columns carrying equal loads

7) Raft foundations
These are used where the building has a basement, the bearing capacity of the soils
are quite low.
There are three types of raft foundations namely:
- Solid slab raft foundation
- Slab and beam raft foundation
- Cellular raft foundation
Solid slab raft foundation
This consists of a continuous slab of reinforced concrete forming the foundation.

Foundation wall

Solid R.C raft (maximizes the load bearing area)

Slab and beam raft foundation

Beams are combined with the slab to give more rigid base for heavier loading. These
beams may either face downwards or can be upwards on which the floor rests.

Floor finishing on beam

Slab Foundation
 Basement wall

Space created may be used as horizontal ducts

Cellular raft foundation
This is where the up stand beams are large as to form walls (basement walls) in lattice
manner (cells) these cells can be utilized i.e. used as rooms (i.e. for boilers or
storage). This type is done where very rigid bearing for heavy loading is required.
The cellular raft foundation may be combined with raft beam type and have down
facing beams.

R.C wall forming lattice cell

Slab

PILES (foundation)
These are underground columns done so as to span between the bearing stratum and
the building so as to transfer the load. They are similar to those in underpinning but
they are done together with the building.
Piles are classified according to:
a) Mode of bearing load
b) Mode of placing load
a) Mode of bearing load
i) End bearing piles: these simply bears load by transferring it to the lower
end where the bearing stratum is.

Load weak soil

Strong stratum

ii) Friction piles: these bears the load as a result of the frictional forces
created between the sides of the pile and the ground.

Load

Frictional force

b) Mode of placing
i) Displacement piles: this includes those piles that are driven into the
ground hence displacing the ground material in its way.

Driving force

Material being displaced

 ii) Replacement piles: These piles are casted into pre-drilled or bored holes
to replace the grounds material be casted insitu concrete piles.

Concrete

Reinforcement

Driven piles

This type of piles consists of rigid materials designed to be able to take the hammering often
done by mechanical means (and the design load). They are normally circular or hexagonal in
section so as to allow for easy penetration to the ground. The driving action is normally noisy
and causes a lot of vibration into the ground. This make it unsuitable in a heavy built up locality
where the vibration can easily destabilize existing foundation

Hammer

Supporting frame

Pile
Bored piles

These are typically replacement piles and involve casting or inserting piles in predrilled holes.
The process involves little vibration and so the more suitable in heavily built environment than
driven piles

Piles are designed to take certain load (i.e. bearing capacity) and since they should not be so
bulky so as to necessitate easy driving where more load is anticipated the piles are combined
(grouped)

Pile grouping
These grouping are joined at the top by means of a slab (pad) which intern supports the ground
beam on which the building rests.

Driven tube piles

These piles consist of a hollow tube made from either precast concrete or steel, driven into the
ground and then filled with cast insitu concrete. There are two basic types:

i) Open end tube Pile; the hollow tube is simply plugged by means of hammering and
once driven filled up.

Space filled after drilling

Concrete/steel tube

ii) Closed end tube pile; the lower end in this case is closed by means of a steel cap and
again once driven, the hollow space is filled up say with reinforced concrete

Hollow tube

Steel cup

Structural stability
 This concern the change in the soils caused by the imposed loading from the building
(dead & live loads) due to the variations in the soil, the nature of the soil must be
investigated before the design of a suitable foundation that would affect maximum
stability and to avoid overstressing the soil.
Bearing capacity
- This is the property of the soil dictating the maximum loading that it can take. This
measure is force per m². in determining this, soil sample is subjected to a load and the
point of failure determined. The bearing capacity is also a function of the
compactness of the soil.
- If the bearing capacity of the soil is known and the load imposed by the building also
known, the safe bearing area of the foundation can be worked out by using the
relationship

Bearing capacity = load imposed

Foundation area
NB/ as long as the ratio L/A does not exceed the bearing capacity, the soil would be
able to support the load without excessive settlement.
 Foundation area = length × width for strip foundation
 While for raft foundation = area of the raft
Distribution of contact pressure
This is an effect which results from a combination of varying soil conditions and
foundations stiffness which causes unequal pressure distribution underneath the
foundation. It creates points of maximum pressure.
The pressure bulbs (diagrams)

Strip foundation

BC = load
area
 Maximum pressure

Minimum pressure

Maximum pressure

Distribution of pressure

This is given by load

Area at any depth

The pressure distribution would more or less be uniform across any horizontal section and would
reduce as you go deeper since most of the loading is counteracted by the soil resistance. For strip
foundations, it would define a triangle at an angle of 45.

Pressure distribution with depth

45º 45º

Mass concrete foundation

) 45º

Increased area also reduced pressure

Distribution of shear stress

Soils under the foundation are always subjected to shear stress due to resistant to the downward
force of the foundation. This is normally not uniformly distributed. Stress bulbs like those of
pressure can also be determined each bulb linking points of equal shear stress.

Ultimate bearing capacity

This is a measure of the soil strength. A point where the soils fail to support a load (imposed) due
to the safe bearing point or shear resistance bearing exceeded

Maximum bearing capacity

At this point the soil shear resistance is not exceeded though considerable settlement takes place.

Safe bearing pressure (capacity)

A point where the soils are loaded without any shear failure and settlement is within acceptable
limits.
PREPARATION FOR THE FOUNDATION
After site investigation it may be found that the top soil is soft and has poor bearing
capacity. It is usually economical to dig down to a layer of soil firm enough and of
good bearing capacity on which to lay foundation.
Before the start of any foundation trench work on the site the outlines of the
foundation concrete and the foundation wall has to be set out. After the setting out is
done and the diagonals checked for accuracy, work on trench excavation can began.
For small jobs work for excavation is done manually to a layer of good bearing
capacity. A width of at least 600mm is required for a man to be able to work in.
The sides of the trench should be trimmed vertically by hand and supported for the
safety of the people who will work in them. This is done so as to get a straight,
vertical and a fair finished face of the sides.

Supports for deep foundation

Supporting or propping of trench sides is done to keep the sides in place in case of
loose soil or wet sides which may cave- in.
Timbering is used to refer to temporary supports to the sides of the excavations. It is
sometimes referred to as plunking and strutting.
The main factors to be considered whether timbering will be provided or not are:
a) Safety of the men working in the trench. This is to protect them from the
collapsing sides.
b) The safety of the surrounding property and roads.
c) The nature of the sub soil.
d) The length of the time the trench will remain open before backfilling.

Terminology

Poling boards: boards varying in length depending on depth of excavation, it is

placed vertically against the face of the ground.
Walling: horizontal timber member which supports the polling boards between struts,
sizes vary from 75mm × 75mm to 225mm × 75mm

Struts: horizontal member holding the poling board apart, usually placed 1.8m to2m
depending on the type of soil and to allow for working space.

225 x 50 polling board

225 x 75 walling board

150 x 50mm struts @ 180 c/c

Leveling of the trench bottom

The base of foundation concrete should rest of a firm and level base for it to distribute
the loads uniformly on to the adjoining soil below.
Transfer of datum to the bottom of trench

The practice usually is to fix level pegs in the trench one at each corner of the
building. The use of a gauge rod together with a spirit level may only be used easy in
shallow trenches while in deep trenches other methods such as the use of water levels
or dumpy levels may be adopted.

The first peg is driven into the bottom of the foundation and with the aid of water
level (water filled in a clear hose pipe) and a gouge rod; the peg is driven down until
the required height of the foundation is attained. One end of the hose pipe is held
level with top of the site datum which is at the same level with the proposed floor
level. The other end is held level with the height of the foundation wall up to damp
proof course. The heights of the courses are marked on the gouge rod.

Water level

Straight edge on datum peg

Datum peg

Gauge rod
Establishing levels

After the first peg has been driven to the required level, the levels for the other pegs
can be transferred from the established one. This may be done by the use of a long
leveling board and a spirit level.

Spirit level straight edge board

Level peg

Trench bottom

NB: care must be taken to reverse the leveling board each time you work from peg to
peg so as to minimize errors in leveling.

Bottoming

This is referred to as the leveling of the bottom of the trench. It is done by cutting the
high positions, filling the low areas and compacting the loose earth as may be found
necessary after establishing the level pegs. Preparation of the bottom is done to ensure
that the foundation rests on an even firm bed.

Procedure for laying the foundation

1) Leveling: any of the methods of leveling the bottom trench may be used ( hose
leveling, spirit level with board )
2) Pegging: for deep strip foundation, it is necessary to transfer the level of the site
datum to some other pegs at corners and along the foundation trench. These level
pegs are also placed at junctions of wall. The pegs will help in obtaining the
leveled top of the mass concrete in the foundation trench. The desired level of
 concrete can be obtained by transferring levels from these pegs to the top of
concrete by using a gauge rod and a straight edge.

3) Wetting: before the mixed concrete is poured into the foundation trench, during
dry and hot season, the trench must be wetted to minimize rapid loss of water
from the concrete to dry soil. This rapid loss of water would weaken the
foundation.
4) Placing the concrete: concrete should be poured into the foundation trench
carefully in uniform layers not exceeding 300mm. these layers should be
thoroughly compacted and leveled until the required thickness is achieved in
order to avoid segregation and air pockets forming in the concrete, it should be
poured at low heights.
When pouring manually the concrete should be lowered to the bottom in mortar
pans (karais) and buckets. At no time should the concrete be poured from a height
greater than 1.5m. The poured concrete should be cured for not less than three
days by wetting the top twice a day.