Linking Words (Conjunctions and Connectors)

Definition
Broadly speaking, conjunctions and connectors describe the relationship between two statements. Conjunctions
grammatically join two clauses (independent or dependent, depending on the conjunction) so that it reads as one
sentence. Connectors are used between two separate sentences.

Type of conjunctions
There are four types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, subordinating, and conjunctive adverbs. One
sentence can contain multiple types of conjunctions, and often does.

Coordinating Conjunction

These linking words give equal value to the two elements (nouns, adjectives, clauses, etc.)
Definition
which they coordinate

• And (addition)
• or (alternative)
Words used • but (contrastive)
(limited list) • yet (contrastive)
• nor (negative)

Note: For and so are sometimes mentioned as coordinating conjunctions, but modern
English rarely uses them anymore for that purpose. They are more commonly used as
subordinating conjunctions.
• Conjunctions must go between two elements (nouns, clauses, etc.) they link
• Commas are optional EXCEPT for and and but:
o and: if there are more than 2 elements being described, a comma must follow
each element being connected. The and must come between the second to last
and last element it links. For only 2 elements, no comma is necessary
Grammar rules o but: a comma must always precede but
• When to use nor vs. or:
o or: links nouns, adjectives, adverb phrases, or positive verb phrases.
o nor: links a negative verb phrase.
§ Nor is also often used with “neither.” See the last example sentence
below as well as the correlative conjunctions section for more details.

• The graduate student had to teach section and take classes.

• The graduate student had to teach section, take classes, and conduct research.
• The service animal was not a pony, but a miniature horse.
Example
• He was exhausted yet very happy.
Sentences
• Mary had not gone to the store nor had she visited the gym.
o Note: Notice here that “not” could be replaced with “neither” and have the same
meaning. This is a good way to check if you’ve used nor correctly.
 • The investigators found a hair clip a bottle of nail polish, and a credit card belonging to
Quick Practice:
the kidnapping victim.
correct the
sentences • She had a scholarship to ballet school but longed to be a doctor.

• Since you cannot swim, you are not allowed on the boat nor near the docks.

Correlative Conjunction

These are pairs of coordinating conjunctions; these pairs must be used together. Like
Definition
coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions describe equal elements.

• both…and, not only…but also (combining or addition)

Words used
• either…or, whether…or not (binary choice)
(limited list)
• neither…nor (negative)

• The first word of the conjunction must go directly before the first subject or clause; the
second word of the conjunction must go directly before the second.
Grammar rules
• both…and can only be used with simple subjects
• However, not only…but also can be used with simple subjects and clauses

• The paper’s results were both impressive and innovative.

• I will not only grow the cells for the assay, but also interpret the results.
Example
• The daughter bought not only a designer purse, but also a custom wallet.
Sentences
• Harry will either go to the market or the mall this afternoon.
• I neither want to clean my room nor desire to go caroling.

Quick Practice: • Jill neither wanted or needed singing bass novelty.

correct the • The child both ate an entire cake and drank a liter of soda; she soon vomited.
sentences
• Mark wanted either Cheerios and Raisin Bran.

Subordinating Conjunction

These linking words are often used to expand or further describe the main clause/element
Definition
(the explanation clause is subordinate).

• as, because, since (cause)

• so, so that (purpose)
Words used
• although, though (contrastive)
(limited list)
• after, before, until, while (temporal)
• if, unless, provided, whichever, whenever (conditional)

• The conjunction must go before the subordinating clause (the explanation clause)
Grammar rules • Commas must go at the end of the first clause, which can be either the subordinating or
main clause

• Before going to the game (subordinate), we often eat at the pub (main).
Example • Although very cute (sub), pandas are not suitable pets (main).
Sentences • Candice was feeling lonely (main), so she adopted another cat (sub).
• Peanut butter is delicious (main), provided you don’t have a nut allergy (sub).
 • Mary was hungry while at the grocery store so she bought chips ice cream and an entire
Quick Practice: cake.
correct the
sentences • The cable TV is lagging, the internet is fast, though.
• Because the island was beautiful, it had an infestation of coconut crabs.

Types of connectors
We can think of connectors as functionally similar to coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, but the former
connects complete sentences (instead of) nouns, clauses, etc. Because connectors often use different words than
conjunctions, we need to be careful that we do not use a conjunction where a connector should be and vice versa.
Below are some common connectors and their corresponding conjunction. If you often struggle with run---on
sentences, try replacing the conjunction with the correct connector!

• Connectors must go between the two Corresponding

statements which they connect. Conjunction
Connector
• Connectors can go before or after the
subject of the second sentence.
o Ex. Mount Kilimanjaro is on the also, in addition,
Equator. It, however, has a and additionally, moreover,
covering of snow and ice. furthermore
• A comma must follow a connector if it is however, even so, though,
Grammar the 1st word in the sentence. If it’s not: nevertheless, nonetheless,
rules • If the connector goes after the subject but still, yet, in
of the sentence but beforethe verb, use contrast, on the other hand,
a comma before andafter the connector on the contrary
(see above).
therefore, thus,
• Connectors can sometimes go after the so, because consequently, hence, for
subject and verb of the sentence, but they (cause---effect) this reason, as a result, that
follow different grammar rules (not is why
discussed). Usually, though, these
connectors do not require commas. so
similarly, likewise
(similarity)
• A ghost named Casper haunted the house.
beforehand, before this,
It, though, was not friendly. before first, then, next, afterwards
• We had to get to the beach early.
Otherwise, we have missed the sunrise. or alternatively, otherwise
Example
• The windows were very old.
Sentences
Consequently, the room was cold and
drafty. while meanwhile, at the same
• Steph loves ice cream. Her sister, (same time) time/moment
likewise, adores gelato.
• Meanwhile, Timmy had fallen in the well. Lassie was at the vet.
• The meadow seemed bucolic and innocuous. The people of the village nonetheless knew its
Quick dark secret.
Practice: • PETA loves saving animals. They love shocking the public, also.
correct the
sentences
When to use conjunction vs. connector
Two main considerations should be taken into account:

1. When conjunctions are used, this implies that the statement after the conjunction is relaying knowledge
already known to the reader. Connectors are used when the information is presented in the preceding
sentences and is not assumed knowledge.

If it snows tomorrow, the city will send the plows. It may snow tomorrow. If so, the city will send the plows.

In the left example, the statement that follows the conjunction implies that the reader already knows that there
is a chance of snow. The example on the right must state first that it may snow and then the connector describes
the effect of the snow.

2. Joining the statement with a conjunction implies that they are part of the same idea. By using a connector,
the separation between two statements allows their relationship to be more precisely defined, which is
especially important for professional writing.
Cars can be dangerous and they pollute. Cars can be dangerous. Moreover, they pollute.

The left sentence is structured so that “dangerous” and “pollute” are two equal points that emphasize one
broader message: cars are bad. The example on the right is structured to make two separate points, and
“moreover” indicates that “pollute” is more important.

Practice
Re---write the sentence with the appropriate punctuation and linking word. (There are multiple correct
answers)

3. She is afraid of dogs | She was bitten by her 1. Penny did not pass the class | She never did her
neighbors’ Chihuahua as a child homework

4. Tsunamis are highly destructive events | They 2. The Mayans were one of the most academically
are rare and often unpredictable advanced cultures in pre---Colombian North
America | The cause for the collapse of their
civilization is still unknown

5. Chickens have wings | They cannot fly---vers