Strain and stress (tensile deformation)

Load and displacement information may be sufficient for certain product tests, but
evaluations of material properties must use size-independent parameters: stress and
strain.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝜎 = 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴1

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ Δ𝑙
𝜀 = 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙1

1
Strain and stress (shear deformation)

Shearing is defined as the application of load in opposite directions along two parallel
surfaces. As displacement occurs, the parallel surfaces remain parallel but are shifted.

𝐹
𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
Δ𝑙
𝛾 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = tan 𝜃
𝑙

2
Linear Elastic behavior, Hooke’s Law
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
“Take a wire string of 20 or 30 or 40 feet long and fasten the upper part . . . to a nail, and to the other end fasten
a scale to receive the weights. Then with a pair of compasses [measure] the distance [from] the bottom of the
scale [to] the ground or floor beneath. Then put . . . weights into the . . . scale and measure the several
stretchings of the said string and set them down. Then compare the several stretchings of the . . . string and you
will find that they will always bear the same proportions one to the other that the weights do that made them.”
Hooke 1678
Force = proportionality factor x displacement
F= k.x

3
Hooke’s Law in 1D

𝜎=𝐸𝜀 𝐸: 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔G 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠

𝜏=𝐺𝛾 𝐺: 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠

Poisson’s ratio

For the uniaxial tension applied along the x direction,

the elongation in the x-direction is accompanied by
contraction in the other directions; assuming that the
material is isotropic:

𝜀;; = 𝜀<< ≠ 0

Poisson’s ratio is defined as:

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 −𝜀;; −𝜀<<

𝜈= = =
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀BB 𝜀BB

4
Elastic properties of engineering materials

5
Stress tensor
Components of the 3D stress tensor acting on a volume element

𝜎BB 𝜎B; 𝜎B<

𝝈 = 𝜎;B 𝜎;; 𝜎;<
𝜎<B 𝜎<; 𝜎<<

By changing the coordinate system, the physical stress state does not change, only
the decomposition of the stress state parallel to different spatial directions changes.

𝜎M = 𝐴N 𝜎O 𝐴

where A is a rotation matrix describing the relationship between two coordinate

systems.

6
Stress tensor

There is always a choice of coordinate system in which only the normal

stresses are non-zero.

𝜎BB 𝜎B; 𝜎B< 𝜎O 0 0

𝝈 = 𝜎;B 𝜎;; 𝜎;< → 𝝈G = 0 𝜎M 0
𝜎<B 𝜎<; 𝜎<< 0 0 𝜎Q

σ1, σ2, σ3 are called the principal stresses or the Eigenvalues

For any choice of the coordinate system, 𝜎O + 𝜎M + 𝜎Q = 𝜎BB + 𝜎;; + 𝜎<<

7
Recall

• Mohr’s circle e.g. Mechanical metallurgy (by Dieter)

• State of stress in 2D (plane stress)

8
Stress tensor

𝜎BB 𝜎B; 𝜎B< 𝜎BB 𝜏B; 𝜏B<

𝝈 = 𝜎;B 𝜎;; 𝜎;< = 𝜏;B 𝜎;; 𝜏;<
𝜎<B 𝜎<; 𝜎<< 𝜏<B 𝜏<; 𝜎<<

𝜏ST = 𝜏TS , because of the equilibrium of the balance of moments in any volume
element.
The stress tensor is always symmetrical with six independent components.

𝜎BB 𝜏B; 𝜏B<

𝝈 = 𝜏B; 𝜎;; 𝜏;<
𝜏B< 𝜏;< 𝜎<<

9
Description of strain at a point

Displacement of points in a continuum

• Rigid body translation
• Rotation
• deformation

Concepts of displacement gradient, deformation gradient and strain tensors

u(x+dx) q1
q
dx dX
p1
p u(x)
dx

3 x
x+

Original Deformed
Configuration Configuration

10
Description of strain at a point
Concepts of displacement gradient, deformation gradient and strain tensors

u(x+dx) q1
u(x+dx)-u(x)= q
dx dX
p1
Taylor series expansion: p u(x)
3 x
Original Deformed
Configuration Configuration

𝜕𝑢S 𝜕𝑢S 𝜕𝑢S

𝑢S 𝑥O + 𝑑𝑥O , 𝑥M + 𝑑𝑥M , 𝑥Q + 𝑑𝑥Q = 𝑢S 𝑥O , 𝑥M , 𝑥Q + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 0
𝜕𝑥O O 𝜕𝑥M M 𝜕𝑥Q Q
𝜕𝑢O 𝜕𝑢O 𝜕𝑢O
𝜕𝑥O 𝜕𝑥M 𝜕𝑥Q
Q 𝑑𝑢O 𝑑𝑥O
𝜕𝑢S 𝜕𝑢M 𝜕𝑢M 𝜕𝑢M
𝑑𝑢S = W 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢M = 𝑑𝑥M
𝜕𝑥T T 𝜕𝑥O 𝜕𝑥M 𝜕𝑥Q
TXO 𝑑𝑢Q 𝑑𝑥Q
𝜕𝑢Q 𝜕𝑢Q 𝜕𝑢Q
𝜕𝑥O 𝜕𝑥M 𝜕𝑥Q
11
Description of strain at a point

Displacement gradient tensor

𝜕𝑢O 𝜕𝑢O 𝜕𝑢O u(x+dx) q1

q
𝜕𝑥O 𝜕𝑥M 𝜕𝑥Q dx dX
p1
𝜕𝑢S 𝜕𝑢M 𝜕𝑢M 𝜕𝑢M p u(x)
𝑒ST = =
𝜕𝑥T 𝜕𝑥O 𝜕𝑥M 𝜕𝑥Q 3 x
𝜕𝑢Q 𝜕𝑢Q 𝜕𝑢Q Original Deformed
Configuration Configuration
𝜕𝑥O 𝜕𝑥M 𝜕𝑥Q
2

12
 Strain tensor
1 1 g/2
𝑒ST = 𝑒ST + 𝑒TS + 𝑒ST − 𝑒TS g
2 2
= +
𝑒ST = 𝜀ST + 𝜔ST g/2

𝛾 𝛾
0 0
0 𝛾 2 2
= 𝛾 + 𝛾
0 0 0 − 0
2 2

^_` O ^_` ^_a O ^_` ^_b O ^_` ^_a O ^_` ^_b

^B M ^;
+ ^B M ^<
+ ^B
0 M ^;
− ^B M ^<
− ^B
O ^_` ^_a ^_a O ^_a ^_b O ^_` ^_a O ^_a ^_b
𝒆= M ^;
+ ^B ^; M ^<
+ ^;
+ −M ^;
− ^B
0 M ^<
− ^;
O ^_` ^_b O ^_a ^_b ^_b O ^_ ^_ O ^_a ^_b
M ^<
+ ^B M ^<
+ ^; ^<
− M ^<` − ^Bb −M ^<
− ^;
0

e w
symmetric anti-symmetric
Strain tensor Rigid body rotation

13
Strain tensor

𝝏𝒖𝒙 𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝒙 𝝏𝒖𝒚 𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝒙 𝝏𝒖

+ + 𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝟐 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝜺𝒙𝒙 𝜺𝒙𝒚 𝜺𝒙𝒛
𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝒙 𝝏𝒖𝒚 𝝏𝒖𝒚 𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝒚 𝝏𝒖
𝜺= 𝟐 𝝏𝒚
+
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝟐 𝝏𝒛
+ 𝒛
𝝏𝒚
= 𝜺𝒚𝒙 𝜺𝒚𝒚 𝜺𝒚𝒛
𝜺𝒛𝒙 𝜺𝒛𝒚 𝜺𝒛𝒛
𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝒙 𝝏𝒖𝒛 𝟏 𝝏𝒖𝒚 𝝏𝒖𝒛 𝝏𝒖𝒛
+ +
𝟐 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝟐 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Example 𝑦
𝑢B = +1
2
𝑢; = 2

0 0.5
𝑒=
0 0

0 0.25 0 −0.25
𝜀= 𝜔=
0 1 2 3
0.25 0 0.25 0

14
Relations between stress and strain (generalized Hooke’s law)
Q Q

𝜎ST = W 𝐶STno 𝜀no 𝜀ST = W 𝑆STno 𝜎no

n,oXO n,oXO

C: tensor of elastic constants (stiffness)

S: tensor of elastic constants (compliance)
Both are 4th rank tensors, 34=81 elements
𝑆BBBB 𝑆BB;; 𝑆BB<< 𝑆BB;< 𝑆BB<B 𝑆BBB; 𝑆BB<; 𝑆BBB< 𝑆BB;B
𝜀BB 𝑆;;BB 𝜎BB
𝜀;; 𝜎;;
𝜀<< 𝑆<<BB 𝜎<<
𝜀;< 𝑆;<BB 𝜎;<
𝜀<B = 𝑆<BBB 𝜎<B
𝜀B; 𝑆B;BB 𝜎B;
𝜀<; 𝜎<;
𝜀B< 𝑆<;BB 𝜎B<
𝜀;B 𝑆B<BB 𝜎;B
𝑆;BBB

15
Relations between stress and strain (generalized Hooke’s law)
𝜎ST = 𝜎TS 𝜀ST = 𝜀TS 36 elements
𝑆BBBB 𝑆BB;; 𝑆BB<< 𝑆BB;< 𝑆BBB< 𝑆BBB;
𝜀BB 𝜎BB
𝜀;; 𝑆;;BB 𝑆;;;; 𝑆;;<< 𝑆;;;< 𝑆;;B< 𝑆;;B; 𝜎;;
𝜀<< 𝑆<<BB 𝑆<<;; 𝑆<<<< 𝑆<<;< 𝑆<<B< 𝑆<<B; 𝜎<<
𝜀;< = 𝜎;<
𝑆;<BB 𝑆;<;; 𝑆;<<< 𝑆;<;< 𝑆;<B< 𝑆;<B;
𝜀B< 𝜎B<
𝑆B<BB 𝑆B<;; 𝑆B<<< 𝑆B<;< 𝑆B<B< 𝑆B<B;
𝜀B; 𝜎B;
𝑆B;BB 𝑆B;;; 𝑆B;<< 𝑆B;;< 𝑆B;B< 𝑆B;B;

Stiffness and compliance matrices are symmetric about the main diagonal

𝑆OO 𝑆OM 𝑆OQ 𝑆Oq 𝑆Or 𝑆Os 21 elements

𝑆OM 𝑆MM 𝑆MQ 𝑆Mq 𝑆Mr 𝑆Ms
𝑆OQ 𝑆MQ 𝑆QQ 𝑆Qq 𝑆Qr 𝑆Qs
𝑆Oq 𝑆Mq 𝑆Qq 𝑆qq 𝑆qr 𝑆qs
𝑆Or 𝑆Mr 𝑆Qr 𝑆qr 𝑆rr 𝑆rs
𝑆Os 𝑆Ms 𝑆Qs 𝑆qs 𝑆rs 𝑆ss

16
Relations between stress and strain (generalized Hooke’s law)
Further decrease due to the crystal symmetry

17
Relations between stress and strain (generalized Hooke’s law)
Elastic compliances for materials with cubic crystal symmetry

For isotropic materials:

𝐸
𝐺= Only 2 independent constants
2(1 + 𝜐)

18
Relations between stress and strain (generalized Hooke’s law)

𝜎B 𝜎; 𝜎<
𝜀BG = 𝜀BGG = −𝜐 𝜀BGGG = −𝜐
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

w` wa wb
𝜀B = 𝜀BG + 𝜀BGG + 𝜀BGGG = x
−𝜐 x
−𝜐 x

19
Flow curve
Hooke's law is valid only for very small strains
Plasticity theory is used to model materials that undergo permanent deformation
Stress-strain behaviour is usually assessed using the standard tensile test.

After exceeding a yield stress sy, i.e. the end of the elastic regime, the stress first
increases with strain (strain hardening), but passes through a maximum UTS (ultimate
tensile strength) at a strain eu (uniform strain) and decreases until the strain to fracture ef
is attained.

s0.2

0.2%

20
Flow curve , tensile test
L0

A0

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝜎 = 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴1
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ Δ𝑙
𝜀 = 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙1
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 st=F/A
𝜎yz_{ = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝑙
𝜀yz_{ = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑙1
s=F/A0

𝐹 𝐹. 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙1 + Δ𝑙
𝜎yz_{ = = = 𝜎. = 𝜎. = 𝜎(1 + 𝜀)
𝐴 𝐴1 . 𝑙1 𝑙1 𝑙1
𝑙 𝑙1 + Δ𝑙
𝜀yz_{ = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝜀)
𝑙1 𝑙1
21
Physical Hardening and Geometrical Softening
The increase of force dF which is necessary to deform a tensile specimen by det is

𝐹 = 𝜎y . 𝐴

𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝜎y 𝑑𝐴
=𝐴 + 𝜎y
𝑑𝜀y 𝑑𝜀y 𝑑𝜀y

The stability of plastic deformation is determined by physical hardening (slope of

the flow curve) dst/det > 0 and geometrical softening (reduction of cross section)
dA/det < 0

If the hardening coefficient dst/det is large, deformation proceeds in a stable

mode.
The hardening coefficient typically decreases with increasing strain, and so there is
a critical strain, the uniform strain, where physical hardening and geometrical
softening balance.

After this strain, if the cross section is locally reduced, the physical hardening
cannot compensate the geometrical softening anymore, and necking of the cross
section will proceed at this location.
22
Criteria for Necking (Considère’s construction)
The uniform strain is difficult to read from the engineering stress-strain curve.
It is easy to find, however, if the true stress is plotted Versus the engineering
strain.
At UTS, dF=0; therefore

𝑑𝐹 = 0 = 𝐴𝑑𝜎y + 𝜎y 𝑑𝐴

Constant volume during plastic deformation: A0.L0=A.l è A.dl+l.dA=0 è A/dA=-l/dl

𝑑𝜎y 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑙1 𝑑𝜀
=− = = =
𝜎y 𝐴 𝑙 𝑙1 𝑙 1+𝜀

𝑑𝜎y 𝜎y
=
𝑑𝜀 1+𝜀

23
Continuous yielding vs discontinuous yielding vs
Some materials in particular plain carbon steels show a different behavior at transition
from the elastic to the plastic regime, namely a discontinuous stress behavior.
The load at which the sudden drop occurs is called the upper yield point. The
constant load is called the lower yield point, and the elongation which occurs at
constant load is called the yield-point elongation (Lüders strain).

Cottrell's concept:
Interstitial carbon and nitrogen atoms can form “atmospheres” around dislocations.
These atmospheres strongly pin the dislocations, making it difficult to move them
initially (upper yield point). However, once the dislocations break away from the
pinning solute atoms and become mobile, it is relatively easy to continue their
movement (lower yield point).

24
Strain aging
Strain aging is a type of behaviour, usually associated with the yield point
phenomenon, in which the strength of a metal is increased and the ductility is
decreased on heating at a relatively low temperature after cold working.

Strain aging treatment restores the upper yield point behaviour.

Aged at 300ºF
Re-tested immediately 25
Recall: Concepts of crystal geometry
Atoms in a metal crystal are arranged in a regular, repeated three-dimensional pattern.
The atom arrangement of metals is most simply portrayed by a crystal lattice in which
the atoms are visualized as points located at particular locations in a geometrical
arrangement.
Since all the cells of this lattice are identical, one of them is chosen as a unit cell, which
is the simplest repeating cell in a crystal.

Schematic representation of (a) a point lattice, and (b) a unit cell

26
 Recall: Concepts of crystal geometry

Seven crystal systems and restriction on lattice parameters for each system

27
Recall: Concepts of crystal geometry
Atomic packing Factor= fraction of the volume occupied by the atoms

4
𝑛× 𝜋𝑟 Q
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3
𝑉

4𝑟 4𝑟 2 𝑐
𝑎= 𝑎= 𝑎 = 2𝑟 𝑐=4 𝑟 = 1.633
3 2 3 𝑎

APF= 0.68 0.74 0.74

28
Recall: Lattice directions and planes
Miller indices (introduced in 1839 by the British mineralogist and crystallographer William Hallowes Miller).

When studying crystallographic related objects it is often necessary to describe

particular lattice planes or directions.
Conventionally, three integers or indices are used to specify directions and planes.
A lattice direction can be described as a vector between two lattice points.

29
Recall: Lattice directions and planes
If the crystallographic plane intersects with the three axes, then the length of the
planar intercept for each axis is determined in terms of the lattice parameters.
Two points need to be taken into account:
• if the plane passes through the origin of the coordinate system, either another
parallel plane must be considered or the origin must be moved.
• if a plane is parallel to an axis, then the length of the planar intercept for that
axis is infinity.
The inverses of the planar intercepts
for all axes are taken and changed to
the set of smallest integers by multip-
lication/division by a common factor.

30
Recall: Linear and Planar packing density of atoms

{111}

{110}

31
Recall: Stacking sequence of atomic planes
Lattice structures are described by stacking of identical planes of atoms one over the other
in a definite manner.

fcc

hcp

32
Plastic Deformation

If a material deforms plastically, it changes its

shape and the atoms of a crystal have to change
their positions.
a) Deformation by changing the crystal structure
b) Deformation by slip (without crystal structure
change

X-ray diffraction investigations show that the crystal structure does not change during
plastic deformation, therefore external change of shape is possible only if complete blocks
of a crystal are translated parallel to crystallographic planes by integer multiples of the
atomic spacing in those planes.

33
Plastic Deformation (slip lines)

• Such slip causes steps on the surface, so-called glide steps, which can indeed be
observed on the surface of the tested sample.
• Microscopic investigations of deformed polycrystals reveal different orientations of slip
lines in differently oriented crystallites, but within a crystallite the slip lines are parallel
or consist of groups of parallel slip lines.

34
Theoretical shear stress
The shear stress that is required to displace two crystal blocks along a crystallographic
plane by one atomic spacing b:
from an analysis due to Frenkel:

for small x, we can write:

Hooke’s law:

therefore

35
Theoretical shear stress
Theoretical and experimental yield strength in various metals

The experimental yield strength observed in metals and alloys are smaller by
orders of magnitude than the theoretical shear stress.

36