SUBJECT:

CLASS:
S.S.2

TERM: THIRD
©Deeper Life High School. 2023

SCHEME OF WORK

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 WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT
(a) Meaning and computations of mean, median,
1 STATISTICS 1 mode or ungrouped data.
(b) Determination of the mean, median and the mode
of grouped frequency data.
(c) Comparison of mean, mode and median.
(d) Rate and mixtures.
(a) Definitions of: (i) Range, (ii) Variance, (iii)
2 Standard deviation.
STATISTICS 2 (b) Calculation of range, variance and standard
deviation.
(c) Practical application in capital market reports; (i)
Home (ii) Health studies (iii) Population studies.
(a) Histograms of grouped data (Revision).
(b) Need for grouping.
3 STATISTICS 3 (c) Calculation of; (i) class boundaries (ii) class
interval (iii) class mark.
(d) Frequency polygon.
(e) Cumulative Frequency graph: (i) Calculation of
cumulative frequencies. (ii) Drawing of cumulative
frequency curve graph (Ogive).
(f) Using graph of cumulative frequencies to
estimate; (i) Median (ii) Quartiles (iii) Percentiles.
(iv) Other relevant estimates.
(g) Application of ogive to everyday life.
(a) Vectors as directed line segment.
(b) Cartesian components of a vector.
4 VECTORS (c) Magnitude of a vector, Equal vectors, Addition
and subtraction of vectors, zero vectors, parallel
vectors, multiplication of a vector by a scalar.
(a) Rotation of points and shapes on the Cartesian
5 TRANSFORMATION plane.
GEOMETRY (b) Translation of points and shapes on the Cartesian
plane.
(c) Reflection of points and shapes on the Cartesian
plane.
(d) Enlargement of points and shapes on the Cartesian
plane.
(a) Types of function (one-to-one, one-to-many,
FUNCTIONS AND many-to-one, many-to-many).
6 RELATIONS (b) Function as a mapping.
(c) Determination of the rule of a given
mapping/function.
7 MID TERM BREAK

(a) Definitions and examples of: (i) Experimental

8 PROBABILITY 1 outcomes, (ii) Random experiment. (iii) Sample
space. (iv) Sample points. (v) Event space. (vi)
Probability.
(b) Practical example of each term.
(c) Theoretical Probability.
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 (d) Equiprobable sample space; Definition,
Unbiasedness.
(e) Simple probable on equiprobable sample space.
(a) Addition and multiplication rules of probability:
(i) Mutually exclusive events and addition (“or”) rule.
9 (ii) Complimentary events and probability rule. (iii)
PROBABILITY 2 Independent events and multiplication (“and”) rules.
(b) Solving simple problems on mutually exclusive,
Independent and complimentary events.
(c) Experiment with or without replacement.
(d) Practical application of probability in; health,
finance, population, etc.
10 REVISION
11 EXAMINATION
12
13

WEEK: 1

TOPIC: STATISTICS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define and compute mean, median and mode of ungrouped data.
2. Determine the mean, median and the mode of grouped frequency data.
3. Compare mean, mode and median of statistical data
4. Solve questions on rate and mixtures.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can solve for the average of a given statistical data.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: Meaning and computation of mean of ungrouped data

The mean, median and the mode are called measures of central tendency or measures of location. The mean is also known
as the average, the median is the middle number while the mode is the most frequent element or data.
THE ARITHMETIC MEAN:
The arithmetic mean is the sum of the ungroup of items divided by the number of it. The mean of an ungrouped data
can be calculated by using the formula;
∑𝑥
𝑥̅ = , (when 𝑛 is small) (where the symbol∑ 𝑥 is called sigma meaning summation of all the given data)
𝑛
∑ 𝑓𝑥
Also, Mean, 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓
(when 𝑛 is large)
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = Sum of the product of scores and their corresponding frequencies
∑ 𝑓 = Sum of the frequencies
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Example 1:
Find the arithmetic mean of the numbers 42, 50, 59, 38, 41, 86 and 56
Solution: Add all the numbers and divide by 7
42 + 50 + 59 + 38 + 41 + 86 + 56
𝑥̅ =
7
378
=
7
∴ 𝑥̅ = 54
Example 2:
The table below gives the frequency distribution of marks obtained by some students in a scholarship examination.
Scores(x) 15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Frequency 1 4 12 24 18 8 3
Calculate, correct to 3 significant figures the mean mark of the distribution (WAEC)
Solution:
Scores(𝒙) Frequency 𝒇𝒙
15 1 15
25 4 100
35 12 420
45 24 1080
55 18 990
65 8 520
75 3 225

∑ 𝑓 = 70 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 3350

∑ 𝑓𝑥
Since Mean; 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓
3350
𝑥̅ =
70
𝑥̅ = 47.857143
𝑥̅ = 47.9 (3s.f)
∑ 𝑓𝑥 (1×15)+(4×25)+(12×35)+(24×45)+(18×55)+(8×65)+(3×75)
Method 2: mean; 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓
= 1+4+12+24+18+8+3
15 + 100 + 420 + 1080 + 990 + 520 + 225
=
1 + 4 + 12 + 24 + 18 + 8 + 3
3350
=
70
= 47.8571
= 47.9 (3s.f)
Example 3:
The table below shows the scores of some students in a quiz
Scores 1 2 3 4 5 6
frequency 1 4 5 𝑥 2 2

If the mean score is 3.5, calculate the value of 𝑥.

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Solution:

𝑥 𝑓 𝑓𝑥

1 1 1

2 4 8

3 5 15

4 𝑥 4𝑥

5 2 10

6 2 12 ∑ 𝑓𝑥
Since, mean; 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓
But, 𝑥̅ = 3.5 ∑ 𝑓 = 14 + 𝑥 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 46 + 4𝑥
46+4𝑥
⇒3.5 = 14+𝑥
On cross multiplying
3.5(14 + 𝑥) = 46 + 4𝑥
7
(14 + 𝑥) = 46 + 4𝑥
2
7(14 + 𝑥) = 2(46 + 4𝑥)
98 + 7𝑥 = 72 + 8𝑥
98 − 72 = 8𝑥 − 7𝑥
6=𝑥
∴𝑥=6
Example 4:
The table below shows the mark distribution of an English language test in which the mean mark is 3. Find the value of𝑦.

Mark (x) 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency(f) y 3 y+3 3 4 –y

Solution:
∑ 𝑓𝑥
Mean; 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓

𝑥 𝑓 𝑓𝑥
1 Y y
2 3 6
3 y+3 3y + 9
4 3 12
5 4 –y 20 –5y

∑ 𝑓 = 𝑦 + 13 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 47 − 𝑦
But, mean; 𝑥̅ = 3
47−𝑦
So we have that, 3 = 13+𝑦
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 On cross multiplying
3(13 + 𝑦) = 47 − 𝑦
39 + 3𝑦 = 47 − 𝑦
3𝑦 + 𝑦 = 47 − 39
4𝑦 = 8 ∴ 𝑦 = 2
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
The table below shows the frequency distribution of marks obtained by a group of students in a test. If the mean is 5,
calculate the value of x.
Marks 3 4 5 6 7 8
frequency 5 x –1 X 9 4 1

SUB-TOPIC 2:
Meaning and computation of median of ungrouped data
CONTENT:

The median is the value of the middle item when the items are arranged in order of magnitude either ascending or
descending order.
Example 1;
Find the median of the following set of numbers; 16, 13, 10, 23, 36, 9, 8, 48, 24
Solution: Arrange in (either ascending or descending order)
8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 23, 24, 36, 48
The middle number is 16
∴ 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 16
Median from frequency distribution (i.e when 𝑛 is large)
𝑁+1
Median = ( ) 𝑡ℎ, when N is odd
2
𝑁 𝑁
( )𝑡ℎ+( +1)𝑡ℎ
2 2
Median = 2
, when N is even
Example 2:
The table below shows the distribution of marked scored by some students in a maths test
Marks % 22 24 36 42 45 48 56 60
Frequency 11 2 7 13 10 3 9 5
Solution:
To find the median, a cumulative frequency table is needed.
Marks %(x) Frequency Cumulative frequency
22 11 11
24 2 13
36 7 20
42 13 33
45 10 43
48 3 46
56 9 55
60 5 60

From the table, there are 60 members as indicated by the cumulative frequency.

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 𝑁 𝑁
( )𝑡ℎ+( +1)𝑡ℎ
2 2
Since 60 is even, Median = 2
60 60
( )𝑡ℎ+( +1)𝑡ℎ
2 2
= 2
30𝑡ℎ+31𝑠𝑡
=
2
The 30 member is 42% and the 31st member is 42%
th

42% + 42% 84
∴ 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = = = 42%
2 2

Example 3:
Calculate the median age from the following data
Age(yrs) 10 12 13 14 16 17 18 19
No of 7 15 11 7 12 9 4 6
students
Solution:

Ages (yrs) No of students Cumulative frequency

10 7 7
12 15 22
13 11 33
14 7 40
16 12 52
17 9 61
18 4 65
19 6 71
Since 71 is odd,
𝑁+1
Median = ( 2
) 𝑡ℎ member
71+1
= ( 2 ) 𝑡ℎ
72
= 2 𝑡ℎ
= 36th member
The 36th member falls within the cumulative frequency of up to 40 and this is under 14 years.
∴ 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 14𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Calculate the median of the distribution below;

Marks (x) 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (f) 13 18 34 60 10
SUB TOPIC 3:
CONTENT: Meaning and computation of mode of ungrouped data
The mode of a given data is the item which occurs most often in the distribution
Example 1;
The record of the marks scored by a number of students in an oral test in economics is as follows;
10, 10, 5, 9, 15, 10, 20, 10, 9, 5, 9, 10, 25, 9, 5, 25. Find the modal mark
Solution:

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 Marks 5 9 10 15 20 25
Frequency 3 4 5 1 1 2

Fromthe table above, the highest frequency is 5 and this corresponds to a mark of 10
∴the mode is 10
Example 2;
For a class of 30 students, the scores on a maths test out of 20 marks were as follows
8 10 14 4 6 12 10 10 16 18
10 8 4 6 14 18 16 14 14 14
6 8 10 10 4 6 12 14 14 4
Solution:
Marks Frequency
4 4
6 4
8 3
10 6
12 2
14 7
16 2
18 2

The highest frequency is 7; ∴ modal score = 14

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
Find the mode of the following distributions
Age (years) 13 14 15 16 17 18
Frequency 3 10 15 21 5 5

1. Which of the following is not a measure of central tendency?

(a) Mode
(b) Range
(c) Mean
(d) Median
2. The table below shows the distribution of test scores in a class

Scores (x) no of pupils

1 1

2 1

3 5

4 3

5 𝑘2 + 1
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 6 0

7 6

8 2

9 3

10 4

If the mean score of the test is 6, find the (a) values of k (b) median score

SUB-TOPIC4 :
MEAN. MEDIAN AND MODE OF GROUPED DATA

CONTENT:
Mean Of Grouped Data
Mean for grouped data can be calculated in two ways;
(i) Mean for problems without assumed mean
∑ 𝑓𝑥
𝑥̅ =
∑𝑓
where𝑥 is the class mark or class midpoint
(ii) Mean of problems with assumed mean
∑ 𝑓𝑑
𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + ∑𝑓
, where 𝐴 = assumed mean; 𝑑 = deviation from mean (𝑥 − 𝐴)
Example;
The weights to the nearest kilogram of a group of 50 students in a college of technology are given below:
65 70 60 46 51 55 59 63 68 53 47 53 72 58 67 62 64 70 57 56 73 56 48 51 58
63 65 62 49 64 53 59 63 50 48 72 67 56 61 64 66 52 49 62 71 58 53 69 63 59
(a) Prepare a grouped frequency table with class intervals 45–49, 50–54, 55–59 etc
(b) Without the method of assumed, calculate the mean of the grouped data correct to one decimal place.
(c) Using an assumed mean of 62, calculate the mean of the grouped data, correct to one decimal place. (WAEC)
Solution:
(a) Class interval frequency
45 – 49 6
50 – 54 9
55 – 59 10
60 – 64 12
65 – 69 7
70 – 74 6

∑ 𝑓𝑥
(b) Mean; 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓

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 Class interval Class mark(x) frequency (f) fx
45 – 49 47 6 282
50 – 54 52 9 468
55 – 59 57 10 570
60 – 64 62 12 744
65 – 69 67 7 469
70 – 74 72 6 432
∑ 𝑓 = 50 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 2965

∑ 𝑓𝑥 2965
𝑥̅ = =
∑𝑓 50
= 59.3 (1 𝑑. 𝑝)
∑ 𝑓𝑑
(c) 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + ∑𝑓
, where 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝐴
but A = 62, Class interval Class mark(x) frequency (f) 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝐴𝑓𝑑
45 – 49 47 6 -15 -90
50 – 54 52 9 -10 -90
55 – 59 57 10 -5 -50
60 – 64 62 12 0 0
65 – 69 67 7 5 35
70 – 74 72 6 10 60
∑ 𝑓 = 50 ∑ 𝑓𝑑 = −135
∑ 𝑓𝑑 −135
.𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + ∑𝑓
= 62 + ( 50
)
= 62 − 2.7
= 59.3 (1𝑑. 𝑝)
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
The table below gives the masses in kg of 35 students in a particular school. (NECO)
45 43 54 52 57 59 65 50 61 50 48 53 61 66 47 52 48 40
44 60 68 51 47 51 41 50 62 70 58 42 51 49 55 71 60
(a) Using the above given data, construct a group frequency table with class interval 40 – 44, 45 – 49, 50 – 54 etc
(b) From the data above, calculate the mean of the distributions
(c) Using assumed mean of 52, calculate correct to two decimal places the mean of the distribution
The median of a grouped data
The median formula for grouped data is given as;
𝑛
− 𝐶𝑓𝑏
Median = 𝐿1 + [2 𝑓𝑚
]𝐶
Where; 𝐿1 = lower class boundary of the median class
n = total frequency
𝐶𝑓𝑏 = cumulative frequency before the median class
𝑓𝑚 = frequency of the median class
𝐶 = size of the median class

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Example 1;
The table below shows the marks obtained by forty pupils in a mathematics test
Marks 0–9 10 – 19 20 –29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59
No of pupils 4 5 6 12 8 5
Calculate the median of the distribution.

Solution:
Marks Class boundaries 𝑓 𝐶𝑓
0–9 0 – 9.5 4 4
10 – 19 9.5 – 19.5 5 9
20 – 29 19.5 – 29.5 6 15
30 – 39 29.5 – 39.5 12 27
40 – 49 39.5 – 49.5 8 35
50 – 59 49.5 – 59.5 5 40

𝑛
− 𝐶𝑓𝑏
Median = 𝐿1 + [2 𝑓𝑚
]𝐶
𝑛 40
2
= ( 2 ) 𝑡ℎ = 20th member
We find the class interval where the median lies, with the aid of the cumulative frequency 20 lies in the 𝑐𝑓 after 15. i.e
class interval 30 – 39
𝐿1 = 29.5, 𝐶𝑓𝑏 = 15, 𝐶 = 10 (𝑖. 𝑒 30 − 20), 𝑓𝑚 = 12
40
−15
Median = 29.5 + [ 2 ] 10
12
20−15
= 29.5 + [ ] 10
12
5
= 29.5 + [12] 10
= 29.5 + (0.147 x 10)
= 29.5 + 4.17
= 33.67
Therefore, median mark = 33.67
Class Activity:
1. The frequency distribution shows the marks of 100 students in a mathematics test.
Marks No of students
1 – 10 2
11 – 20 4
21 – 30 9
31 – 40 13
41 – 50 18
51 – 60 32
61 – 70 13
71 – 80 5
81 – 90 3
91 – 100 1

Calculate the median mark. (WAEC)

2. The table below shows the weight distribution of 40 men in a games village.
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Weight(kg) 110 – 118 119 – 127 128 – 136 137 – 145 146 – 154 155 – 163 164 – 172

frequency 9 3 4 5 2 5 12

Calculate the median of the distributions

The mode of grouped data
Mode formula for grouped data is given as;
∆1 𝑓
𝑥
Mode = 𝐿1 + [∆ ]𝐶 𝑂𝑅 𝐿1 + [𝑓 +𝑓 ]𝐶
1 +∆2 𝑥 𝑦
Where, 𝐿1 =Lower class boundary of the modal class
∆1 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑥 = Difference between the modal frequency and the frequency of the next lower class i.e class before it
∆2 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑦 = Difference between the modal frequency and the frequency of the next highest class i.e class after it
𝐶 = Size of the modal class
Example 1:
The table below shows the weekly profit in naira from a mini – market
Weekly profit 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60

frequency 6 6 12 11 10 5

What is the modal weekly profit?

Solution:

Weekly profit Class boundaries Frequency

1 – 10 0.5 – 10.5 6
11 – 20 10.5 – 20.5 6
21 – 30 20.5 – 30.5 12
31 – 40 30.5 – 40.5 11
41 – 50 40.5 – 50.5 10
51 – 60 50.5 – 60.5 5

The modal class is 21 – 30 (i.e class with the highest frequency)

∆1
Mode = 𝐿1 + [ ]𝐶 , 𝐿1 = 20.5, ∆1 = 12 − 6 = 6, ∆2 = 12 − 11 = 1, 𝐶 = 10
∆1 +∆2
6
Mode = 20.5 + [6+1] 10
6
= 20.5 + [7] 10
= 20.5 + 0.8571 × 10
= 20.5 + 8.571
= 29.07
∴ Modal profit is #29.07
Example 2:
The frequency distribution of the weights of 100 participants in a women conference held in Jupiter is shown below.
Weight(kg) 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 – 79 80 – 89 90 – 99 100 – 109
No of women 9 2 22 30 17 4 16

Calculate the modal weight of the women

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Solution:

Weights (kg) Class boundaries No. of women (f)

40 – 49 39.5 – 49.5 9
50 – 59 49.5 – 59.5 2
60 – 69 59.5 – 69.5 22
70 – 79 69.5 – 79.5 30
80 – 89 79.5 – 89.5 17
90 – 99 89.5 – 99.5 4
1 00 – 109 99.5 – 109.5 16

Modal class = 70 – 79; 𝐿1 = 69.5, 𝑓𝑥 = 30 − 22 = 8, 𝑓𝑦 = 30 − 17 = 13, 𝐶 = 79.5 − 69.5 = 10

𝑓𝑥
Mode = 𝐿1 + [ ]𝐶
𝑓𝑥 +𝑓𝑦
8
= 69.5 + [8+13] × 10
8
= 69.5 + [21] × 10
= 69.5 + 0.381 x 10
= 69.5 + 3.81
= 73.31
∴ Modal weight = 73.3kg (3s.f)
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
The table below shows the age distributions of the members of a club.
Age (years) 10 – 14 15 – 19 20 – 24 25 – 29 30 – 34 35 – 39
frequency 7 18 25 17 9 4
Calculate the modal age. (WAEC)

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Find the median of the data 3,4,5,9,3,6,6,4,8,2
A. 4.0 B. 4.1 C. 4.2 D. 4.3 E. 4.5

2. The table below shows the frequency distribution of the number of male inhabitants in each of 30 houses of a
town.
No. males 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency 2 5 4 3 5 5 6
Use the table to answer question 3 - 5.

3. Find the mean of the distribution

A. 3.5 B. 4.0 C. 4.3 D. 5.0 E. 5.7

4. Find the mode of the distribution

A. 40 B. 9 C. 7 D. 5 E. 2

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5. Find the median of the distribution
A. 9 B. 6.5 C. 5 D. 4.5 E. 4

6. The mean of 30 observations recorded in an experiment is 5. if the observed largest value of 34 is deleted, find the
mean of the remaining observations.
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3.9 D. 3.4 E. 3.0

The table below shows the frequency distribution of a number of chairs in each of 40 rooms of various houses.
No. Chairs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency 2 7 5 4 9 7 6

Use the table to answer question 8 - 10.

8. Find the mean of the distribution

A. 3.5 B. 4.0 C. 4.4 D. 5.0 E. 5.7 (SSCE)

9. Find the mode of the distribution

A. 40 B. 9 C. 7 D. 5 E. 2 (SSCE)

10. Find the median of the distribution

A. 9 B. 6.5 C. 5 D. 4.5 E. 4

ESSAY
1. If 8kg of coffee costing #2000 a kg is mixed with 12kg of another kind of coffee costing #2200 a kg, what is the
cost of the mixture per kg?
2. Three kinds of tea at #1,160, #1,460 and #1,540 per kg are in the ratio 2:3:5. What is the mixture worth per kg.
3. Four ingredients costing #320 per kg, #240 per kg, #160 per kg and #80 per kg are mixed so that their masses are
in ratio 4:1:2:3. Calculate the average cost per kg of the mixture.
4. A trader mixes three bags of sugar costing #900/bag with seven sacks of sugar which cost #700/bag. If she sells
the mixture at #950/bag, calculate her percentage profit.
5. A trader bought three kinds of nuts at #100 per kg, #84 per kg and #60 per kg respectively. He mixed them in the
ratio 3:5:4 respectively and sold the mixed nuts to make a profit of 25%. At what price per kg did sell them?
6. The marks scored by 30 students in a particular subject are as follows;
39 31 50 18 51 63 10 34 42 89 73 11 33 31 41
25 76 13 26 23 29 30 51 91 37 64 19 86 9 20
(a) Prepare a frequency table, using class intervals 1 – 20, 21 – 40 e.t.c
(b) Calculate the mean mark
(c) Calculate the modal score.
7. The table below shows the monthly profit in #100,000 of naira of a super market
Monthly 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 70
profit in
#100,000
frequency 5 11 9 10 7 8

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 (a) What is the modal monthly?
(b) Estimate the mean and the median profit

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: NSPIRATIONAL QUOTE

WEEK 2:

TOPIC: : STATISTICS 2

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define: (i) Range, (ii) Variance, (iii) Standard deviation.
2. Calculate range, variance and standard deviation.
3. Solve questions on practical application in capital market reports; (i) Home (ii) Health studies (iii) Population studies

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can calculate mean, mode and median of both groued and ungrouped data.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
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CONTENT: DEFINITION AND CALCULATION OF RANGE
Measures of Dispersion
The measure of dispersion (also called measure of variation) is concerned with the degree of spread of the numerical value
of a distribution.
Range: This is the difference between the maximum and minimum values in the data.
Examples 1:
Find the range of the data 6, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 16, 21 and 32
Solution: The maximum item is 32
The minimum item is 6
∴ Range = 32 – 6 = 26
Example 2:
Find the range of the distributions below 65,62,62,61,61,60,60,59,58,52
Solution: Range = 65 – 52 = 13
Deviation from the mean:
If the mean of a distribution is subtracted from any value in the distribution, the result is called the DEVIATION of the
value from the mean.
Consider the table below (set of examination marks)
65 62 62 61 61
60 60 59 58 52

65 + 62 + 62+ 61+61+ 60+60+59+58+52

The mean = 10
600
=
10
= 60
Deviation from the mean = 𝑋 − 𝑋̅ = 65 − 60 = +5
= 62 – 60 = +2
= 62 – 60 = +2
= 61 – 60 = +1
= 61 – 60 = +1
= 60 – 60 = 0 e.t.c
The deviations of the scores from the mean are +5, +2, +2, +1, +1, 0, 0, -1, -2, -8
The sum of these deviations = 0

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
(1) Calculate the range of the following distributions
(a) 72, 78, 72, 90, 72, 83, 79.
(b) 3.9, 4.0, 4.2, 3.9, 3.8, 4.0
(2) Calculate the mean deviation of (1a) and (1b) above

SUB-TOPIC 2:
CONTENT: DEFINITION AND CALCULATION OF VARIANCE
The variance is the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviation of the observations from the true mean. It is also called
the mean squared deviation.
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
The formula for variance is (a) 𝑛
for an ordinary distribution (ungrouped)
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 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
(b) ∑𝑓
, for a frequency distribution table (grouped)
Example 1:
Calculate the variance of the following distributions of the ages of 50 pupils in a secondary school
Age (years) 10 12 13 14 15 16

Number of pupils 18 4 6 12 6 4

Age (x) Freq (f) 𝑓𝑥 |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |2 𝑓|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |2

10 18 180 2.6 6.76 121.68

12 4 48 0.6 0.36 1.44

13 6 78 0.4 0.16 0.96

14 12 168 1.4 1.96 23.52

15 6 90 2.4 5.76 34.56

16 4 64 3.4 11.56 46.24

50 628 228.4
∑ 𝑓𝑥
Mean 𝑋̅ = ∑𝑓
628
=
50
= 12.56
= 12.6
∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Variance = ∑𝑓
228.4
= 50
= 4.568
= 4.6 approximately
Example 2:
Calculate the variance of the distribution below.
90, 80, 72, 68, 64, 56, 52, 48, 36, 34
Solution:
∑𝑥
Mean 𝑥̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 =
𝑛
= 60
𝑥 𝑥−𝑚 =𝑑 𝑑2
90 +30 900
80 +20 400
72 +12 144
68 +8 64

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 64 +4 16
56 -6 16
52 -8 64
48 -12 144
36 -24 576
34 -26 676
Total =
3000
∑ 𝑑2
Variance = 𝑛
3000
=
10
= 300

PRACTICE EXECISE
Calculate the mean and variance of the ages of 12 students aged 16, 17, 18, 16.5, 17, 18, 19, 17, 17, 18, 17.5 and 16
Definition and Calculation of standard deviation
Standard deviation (S.D) is the square root of variance.
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
The formula for S.D are: (a) √ 𝑛
and (b) √ ∑𝑓
Example 1:
Find the variance and standard deviation of the set of numbers 2,5,6,3 and 4
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Solution: Variance = 𝑛
But mean = 4

𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
2 -2 4
5 1 1
6 2 4
3 -1 1
4 0 0
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 10
10
Variance = 5 = 2
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Standard deviation, S.D =√ 𝑛
= √2
= 1.414
Example 2:
Calculate the standard deviation of the distribution
Age (years) 10 12 13 14 15 16
Frequency 18 4 6 12 6 4
Solution:
Reference to example 2 n page 3 and 4

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 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Standard Deviation = √ ∑𝑓

228.4
= √ 50

= √4.568
= 2.14

PRACTICE EXERCISE
Compute (i) the variance (ii) the standard deviation of the data.
1. In a college, the number of absentees recorded over a period of 30days was a shown in the frequency distribution
table.
Number of 0–4 5–9 10 – 14 15 – 19 20 – 24
absentees
Number of 1 5 10 9 5
days

2. The table shows the distribution of ages of workers in a company

Age (in 17 – 21 22 – 26 27 – 31 32 – 36 37 – 41 42 – 46 47 – 51 52 – 56
yrs)
Frequency 12 24 30 37 45 25 10 7

SUB-TOPIC 3:
CONTENT: PRACTICAL APPLICATION IN CAPITAL MARKET REPORT

EXAMPLE:
Two groups of eight students in a class were given a test in English. Group A had the following marks; 60, 70, 50, 48, 68,
72, 80 and 56
Group B had the following marks: 50, 90, 40, 58, 90, 82, 60 and 44.
(a) Calculate the mean, range, variance and standard deviation of each group.
(b) Which group had less variation in its marks?
Solution:

(a) Group A
𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |2

60 -3 3 9

70 7 7 49

50 -13 13 169

48 -15 15 225

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 68 +5 5 25

72 +9 9 81

80 +17 17 289

56 -7 7 49

896

60+70+50+48+68+72+80+56
Mean 𝑋̅ = 8
504
= 8
= 63

Range = 70 50 = 20

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Variance (v) = 𝑛
896
=
8
= 112
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
S.D = √ 𝑛

896
= √ 8

= √112
= 10.5830
= 10.58 (2 d.p)
GROUP B:
𝑥 |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |2
50 14.25 203.0625
90 25.75 663.0625
40 24.25 588.0625
58 6.25 39.0625
90 25.75 663.0625
82 17.75 315.0625
60 4.25 18.0625
44 20.25 410.0625
2899.5

Mean = 64.25
Mean = 64.25
Variance = 362.43
S.D = 19.04 (2 d.p)
(b) Group A

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PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. The rainfall in millimetres from June to November in two towns is given below
June July Aug Sept Oct Nov
Town A 1.8 2.7 1.4 2.4 2.8 1.5
Town B 3.4 3.6 2.2 2.5 2.8 1.2
(a) Compare the means and standard deviations of rainfall in towns A and B
(b) In which town is rainfall less widely spread during the period?

2. Compute the (i) Variance

(ii) Standard deviations
(iii) Range of the following distributions
Score 95 85 80 75 70 65 55 40
frequency 1 1 1 4 1 3 1 3

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion?
A. Mode B. Mean deviation C. Range D. Interquartile range
E. Standard deviation (SSCE)

2. The cumulative frequency curve may be used to find the;

A. variance B. standard deviation C. mode D. median E. mean (SSCE)

3. What percentage of observation lies outside interquartile range of any distribution?

A 12½% B 25% C 50% D 62½% E75% (SSCE)

4. 100 S
Cumulative Frequency

P R
50

0 Q T Weight
The graph is the cumulative frequency curve for the weight distribution of 100 workers in a factory. Which of the
points P, Q, R, S and T indicates the median weight?
A. T B. S C. R D. Q E. P (SSCE)

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5. The following numbers represent a set of scores for a class of 32 students, where the maximum score possible was
12.
6, 5, 9, 4, 4, 8, 7, 5, 6, 3, 2, 5, 4, 6, 9, 10,
4, 3, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 7, 4, 2, 1, 8, 7, 7, 6, 11,
What percentage of the class, scored above 6?
A. 34% B. 35% C. 37% D. 38% E. 50% (SSCE)

6. Calculate the standard deviation of the following marks;

2, 3, 6, 2, 5, 0, 4, 2

A. 1.5 B. 1.7 C. 1.8 D 1.9 (SSCE)

7. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion?

A. range B. mean deviations C. mean D. standard deviation (SSCE)

8. Find the mean deviation of 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

A. 1.2 B. 1.5 C. 2 D. 8 (SSCE)
9. Which of the following is not a measure of central tendency?
A. mean B. mode C. range D. median (SSCE)

10. Find the mean deviation of these numbers; 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19.
A. 2.5 B. 2.7 C. 2.6 D. 2.8

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Range, Deviation, Standard deviation, Mean
deviation, Variance.
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE:

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WEEK: 3

TOPIC: STATISTIC 3
LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Construct histograms of grouped data and use the histogram to estimate median of a given set of data.
2. Draw a cumulative frequency graph and use the graph to estimate (i) Median (ii) Quartiles (iii) Percentiles.(iv)
Other relevant estimates.
3. Apply ogive to everyday life.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can draw bar charts using given data.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: HISTOGRAM
Let the record below be the mass of some people (in kg)
66 48 71 61 39 68 33 60 52 44

33 49 81 58 59 71 42 88 68 91

80 66 70 26 96 63 76 46 51 61

54 32 50 59 41 55 38 56 86 62

50 69 23 84 77 33 71 42 69 93

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Should bar chart be drawn for the different masses above, there would be too many bars, so the data may be grouped into
class intervals and then a frequency distribution table prepared. Appropriate class intervals are : 21 – 30, 31 – 40, 41 – 50,
…
Each data belongs to one of the class intervals. Each data is first represented by a stroke in the tally column. Every fifth
stroke is used to cross the first four counted. The number of tally in each class interval gives the frequency
Class interval Tally Frequency
21 – 30 // 2
31 – 40 //// / 6
41 – 50 //// //// 9
51 – 60 //// //// 9
The modal 61 – 70 //// //// / 11 class is the one with the highest frequency.
71 – 80 //// / 6
Calculation of 81 – 90 //// 4 (i) class boundaries (ii) class interval (iii) class
mark 91 – 100 /// 3
Grouped data can be represented using a kind of rectangles called
histogram. The width of these rectangles is determined by the class interval while the height is proportional to the
frequency in that interval. To close up the gaps between the class intervals, the class interval at both ends to have a
common boundary in-between two intervals. From the last frequency table above we get this table.

Class intervals FrequencyClass

boundaries
21 – 30 2 20.5 – 30.5
31 – 40 6 30.5 – 40.5
41 – 50 9 40.5 – 50.5
51 – 60 9 50.5 – 60.5
61 – 70 11 60.5 – 70.5
71 – 80 6 70.5 – 80.5
81 -90 4 80.5 – 90.5
91 – 100 3 90.5 – 100.5
To get a common boundary between two class interval, the upper class limit of a class is added to the lower class limit
of the next class and divide the sum by 2.
20+21 41
e.g 2
= 2 = 20.5
30+31 61
= = 30.5 e.t.c
2 2
The upper class boundary of a class is the lower class boundary of the next class. This gives a continuous horizontal axis.
Another thing to consider is the class mark or class centre. This may be used in finding the mean. For any class
interval, the class center is the average of the upper and lower limits of that particular class interval.
21+30 51
Class center of interval 21 – 30 is = = 25.5
2 2
31+40 71
Class mark for class interval 31 – 40 is 2 = 2
= 35.5
The class mid-values (class centre) are used in plotting frequency polygon

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. Prepare a frequency table, using class intervals 1 - 20, 21 – 40, … for the scores by 30 students.
26 23 29 30 91 51

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 37 64 86 9 20 19

39 31 50 18 51 63

33 13 31 25 41 76

10 34 42 89 73 11

2. The marks scored by fifty students in an examination paper are given below:
43 27 31 43 22 31 47 34 18 15

30 45 48 55 39 25 31 12 18 21

26 19 38 10 44 43 51 33 59 54

41 35 37 41 46 33 51 37 48 58

17 19 23 26 29 38 57 36 35 44

a) Prepare a frequency table, using class intervals 10 – 19, 20 – 29, 30 – 39, e.t.c
b) What is the modal class?
c) Draw the histogram of the distribution.

SUB-TOPIC 2:
CONTENT: CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPH
The Cumulative frequency of a given class or group is the sum of the frequency of all the classes below and including the
class itself.
Cumulative frequency curve or Ogive is a statistical graph gotten by plotting the upper class boundaries against
cumulative frequencies. It is used to determine among the others: Median, Percentiles (100 divisions), Deciles (10
divisions), Quartiles (4 divisions)
The cumulative frequencies are placed along the y – axis, while the scores or class boundaries are placed along the x-axis
Calculation of cumulative frequencies and Drawing of cumulative frequency curve graph (Ogive)
Example 1;
The table below shows the frequency distributions of the lengths (in cm) of fifty planks cut by a machine in the wood –
processing factory of kara sawmill (Nigeria)
Class interval 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80 81 – 90 91 – 100

Frequency 2 6 9 9 11 6 4 3
(a) Prepare a cumulative frequency table for the distribution
(b) Draw the cumulative frequency curve (Ogive) for the distribution
Scale: 2cm to represent 10 units on the frequency axis
2cm to represent 10 units on the length axis
Solution:
The cumulative frequency table is given below as;
Class interval Class boundaries Frequency Cumulative frequency
21 – 30 20.5 – 30.5 2 2
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 31 – 40 30.5 – 40.5 6 6+2=8
41 – 50 40.5 – 50.5 9 9 + 8 = 17
51 – 60 50.5 – 60.5 9 9 + 17 = 26
61 – 70 60.5 – 70.5 11 11 + 26 = 37
71 – 80 70.5 – 80.5 6 6 + 37 = 43
81 – 90 80.5 – 90.5 4 4 + 43 = 47
91 – 100 90.5 – 100.5 3 3 + 47 = 50

To plot the graph, it is advisable to use a suitable scale. The graph should be drawn big, because the bigger the graph the
more accurate the answers that would be obtained from the graph.
Cumulative frequency curve

50

45

40

35
cummulative frequency

30

25

20

15

10

0
20.5 30.5 40.5 50.5 60.5 70.5 80.5 90.5 100.5
length ( in cm)

Using graph of cumulative frequencies to estimate median, quartiles, percentiles etc

To estimate median and quartiles from the Ogive or cumulative frequency curve, we take the following steps;

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STEP 1: Compute to find their position on the cumulative frequency (CF) axis using the following formulae,
1
(a) For lower quartile or first quartile (𝑄1 ) we use 4 𝑁
1
(b) For median quartile or second quartile (𝑄2 ), we use 2 𝑁
3
(c) For upper quartile or third quartile (𝑄3 ), we use 4 𝑁 (Total frequency or last CF)

Cumulative frequency
3
𝑁
4
1
𝑁
2
1
𝑁
4

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
Upper class boundaries

STEP 2: Locate the point on the cumulative frequency axis and draw a horizontal line from this point to intersect the
Ogive.
STEP 3: At the point it intersect the Ogive, draw a line parallel to the cumulative frequency axis to intersect the horizontal
axis.
STEP 4: Read the value of the desired quartile at the point of intersection of the vertical line and the horizontal axis.
Inter-quartile range = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1
𝑄3 −𝑄1
Semi inter-quartile range 2
Percentile
This is the division of the cumulative frequency into 100 points. For instance;
75
75% = 100 × 𝑁
20
20% = 100 × 𝑁
Then, we trace the required values to the graph (curve) then to the class boundaries to get the required answer.
Example 1:
The frequency distribution of the weight of 100 participants in a high jump competition is as shown below:
(a) Construct the cumulative frequency table
(b) Draw the cumulative frequency curve
(c) From the curve, estimate:

Weight (kg) 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 –79

No of 10 18 22 25 16 9
participants
(i) The median
(ii) The lower quartile
(iii) The upper quartile
(iv) The inter-quartile range
(v) The semi inter-quartile range
(vi) 65 percentile

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 (vii) 4thdecile
(viii) The probability that a participant chosen at random weighs at least 60kg
Solution:
Class interval Class boundary Frequency Cumulative Frequency
20 – 29 19.5 – 29.5 10 10
30 – 39 29.5 – 39.5 18 28
40 – 49 39.5 – 49.5 22 50
50 – 59 49.5 – 59.5 25 75
60 – 69 59.5 – 69.5 16 91
70 – 79 69.5 – 79.5 9 100

(b)
100
90
80
cummulative frequency

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Weight (in kg)
19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5

1
(c i.) From the curve, median is half way up the distribution. This is obtained by using 2
𝑁, where N is the total
𝑁 100
frequency. Median = 2
= 2

𝑄2 = 50𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Median is at point 𝑄2 on the graph, i.e median = 49.5kg
1 100
ii. Lower quartile is one-quarter of the way up the distribution; lower quartile = 4 𝑁 = 4
= 25
th
∴ 𝑄1 = 25 position
Lower quartile is at point 𝑄1 on the graph. i.e lower quartile = 37.5kg
iii. Upper quartile is three-quarters way up the distribution;
3
Upper quartile = 4
𝑁
3
= × 100
4
300
= 4
𝑄3 = 75th position
Upper quartile is at the point 𝑄3 on the graph. i.e Upper quartile = 59.5kg
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iv. Inter-quartile range (IQR) = Upper quartile – Lower quartile
= 𝑄3 − 𝑄1
= 59.5kg – 37.5kg
= 22kg
Inter−quartile range (IQR)
v. Semi inter-quartile range (SIQR) = 2
𝑄 −𝑄
= 32 1
∴ SIQR = 11kg
65
vi. 65 percentile = 100 × 𝑁
65
= 100
× 100
th
∴ 𝑃65 = 65 position
65 percentile is at point p on the graph = 54.5kg
th 4
vii. 4 deciles = × 𝑁
10
4
= 10 × 100
∴ 𝐷4 = 40th position
4thdeciles is at point d on the graph i.e 44.5kg
25 1
viii. Probability of at least 60kg = 100 = 4

SUB-TOPIC 3:
CONTENT: Application of Ogive to everyday life
Example 1;
The table below shows the frequency distribution of the marks of 800 candidates in an examination
Marks Frequency
0–9 10
10 – 19 40
20 – 29 80
30 – 39 140
40 – 49 170
50 – 59 130
60 – 69 100
70 – 79 70
80 – 89 40
90 – 99 20

(ai.) Construct a cumulative frequency table

ii. Draw the Ogive
iii. Use your Ogive to determine the 50th percentile
(b.) The candidates that scored less than 25% are to be withdrawn from the institution, while those that scored more than
75% are to be awarded scholarship. Estimate the number of candidates that will be retained, but will not enjoy the award
(c.) If 300 candidates are to be admitted out of the 800 candidates for a particular course in the institution, what will be
the cut of mark for the admission?
(d.) if a candidate is picked from the population, what is the probability that the candidate scored above 40%?
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Solution: (ai.)

Marks (%) Class Boundary Frequency Cumulative frequency

0–9 – 0.5 – 9.5 10 10
10 – 19 9.5 – 19.5 40 50
20 – 29 19.5 – 29.5 80 130
30 – 39 29.5 – 39.5 140 270
40 – 49 39.5 – 49.5 170 440
50 – 59 49.5 – 59.5 130 570
60 – 69 59.5 – 69.5 100 670
70 – 79 69.5 – 79.5 70 740
80 – 89 79.5 – 89.5 40 780
90 – 99 89.5 – 99.5 20 800

900
cummulative frequency

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-0.5 9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5 89.5 99.5
Marks (in %)

50
iii. 50th percentile = 100 × 800
= 400 position
50th percentile is at the point 𝑄2 on the graph = 47.5%
(b.) To get the number of candidate that scored less than 25%, we would read from the mark axis at the point of 25% to
the frequency axis for the number of candidates.
From the graph, this is at the point number 80. Therefore 80 candidates are to be withdrawn from the institution.
Those that scored more than 75% would also be read from the mark axis to the frequency axis. From the graph,
this is 720;
Number of candidates = 800 – 720
= 80 candidates
.: 80 candidates are to be awarded scholarship, the number of candidates that will be retained without award = 800 – (80
+ 80)
= 800 – 160 = 640 candidates
(c.) If 300 candidates are to be registered for the course, then the 300 candidates would be obtained from the top of the
frequency axis. This is read from the point C on the graph
i.e 800 – 300 = 500 position
∴ The cut-off mark from the graph is 55.5%
(d.) Reading from the mark axis at 40.5%, we get the value 290 from the graph
∴ Those that scored 40% and below = 290 candidates
Those that scored above 40% = 800 – 290 = 510 candidates
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 510 51
Therefore, probability that the candidate scored above 40% = 800 = 80

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. In the test conducted in a particular school, the students are graded according to the marks scored as given in the
table below; this is the scores of 2000 candidates
Marks (%) 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80 81 – 90
Pupil’s no 68 184 294 402 480 310 164 98
(a) Prepare a cumulative frequency table and draw the cumulative frequency curve for the distribution.
(b) Use your curve to estimate the; (i) cut off mark if 300 candidates are to be offered admission (ii) probability
that a candidate picked at random scored at least 45%
2. The table below shows the marks scored by a group of students in a test
Marks 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80 81 – 90 91 -
100
Frequency 4 6 9 12 20 15 7 5 0 2

(a) Construct the cumulative frequency table

(b) Draw the ogive
(c) From your ogive, find the: (i) Median (ii) Lower quartile
(d) A student was picked at random from the group, what is the probability that the students (using o-give) (i)
Obtain a distinction grade of 75% and above (ii) failed the test if the pass mark is 40%.

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
1. Find the mean deviation of these numbers; 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19.
A. 2.5 B. 2.7 C. 2.6 D. 2.8 (SSCE)
Mass (kg) 65 66 67 68 69 70
No of students 4 5 11 8 7 5
Use the above table to answer question 12

2. The percentage of the students with mass less than 69kg is

A. 56% B. 62.5% C. 68% D. 70% E. 87.5% (SSCE)

3. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion?

A. Mode B. Median C. Mean D. Standard deviation

4. The following numbers represent a set of scores for a class of 32 students, where the maximum score possible was
12.
6, 5, 9, 4, 4, 8, 7, 5, 6, 3, 2, 5, 4, 6, 9, 10,
4, 3, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 7, 4, 2, 1, 8, 7, 7, 6, 11

What percentage of the class, scored below 4, correct to 1 decimal point?

A. 21.8% B. 35.7% C. 21.9% D. 38.6% E. 50.4%

5. Find the median of the following numbers 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 3, 2, 2, 5, 10, 2, 3, 4, 2

A. 1.2 B. 1.5 C. 2 D. 4.5
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6. Find the mode of the following numbers 2, 4, 3, 10, 5, 2, 2, 3, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
A. 10 B. 3 C. 2 D. 8

The data below shows the frequency distribution of marks scored by a group of students in a class test. Use the
information to answer questions 17-19
Marks 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 2 4 5 3 1
7. How many students took the test?
A. 13 B. 14 C. 15 D. 18 E. 20 (SSCE)

8. What is the modal score?

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 E. 6 (SSCE)

9. Find the mean mark.

A. 1 B. 1.3 C. 2 D. 3 E. 3.8 (SSCE)

10. The cumulative frequency curve may be used to find

A. variance B. standard deviation C. mode D. median E. mean
(SSCE)
THEORY QUESTIONS
1. The table below shows the frequency distribution of the marks of 800 candidates in an examination.
Marks (%) 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-
99
Frequency 10 40 80 140 170 130 100 70 40 20
i. Construct a cumulative frequency table.
ii. Draw the Ogive
iii. Use your Ogive to determine the 50th percentile. (SSCE)

2. The weights to the nearest kilogram of a group of 50 students in a college of Technology are given below;

65, 70, 60, 46, 51, 55, 59, 63, 68, 53

47, 53, 72, 53, 67, 62, 64, 70, 57, 56

73, 56, 48, 51, 58, 63, 65, 62, 49, 64

53, 59, 63, 50, 48, 72, 67, 56, 61, 64

66, 52, 49, 62, 71, 58, 53, 69, 63, 59

Using an assumed mean of 62 or otherwise, calculate the standard deviation of the grouped data, correct to one
decimal place. (SSCE 1990)

3. The table below shows the distribution of the waiting times for some customers in a certain petrol station.
Waiting time (in min) Number of customers
1.5 – 1.9 3

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 2.0 – 2.4 10
2.5 – 2.9 18
3.0 – 3.4 10
3.5 – 3.9 7
4.0 – 4.4 2
i. Write down the class boundaries of the distribution
ii. Construct a cumulative frequency curve for the data
iii. Using your graph, estimate the interquartile range of the distribution (SSCE)

4. The table below shows the weekly profit in naira from mini-market.
Weekly profit (N) 1 – 10 11 - 10 21 – 30 31 - 40 41 – 50 51 – 60
Frequency 6 6 12 11 10 5
a. Draw the cumulative frequency graph of the data.
b. From your graph, estimate the
i. Median
ii. 80th percent. (SSCE)
5. The table below shows the frequency distribution of the marks scored by 50 students in an examination.
Marks (%) 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99
Frequency 2 3 4 6 13 10 5 3 2 2
Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the distribution of the marks scored by 50 students in an examination;
Upper quartile; ii. Pass mark if 60% of the students passed.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Cumulative frequency, Ogive, Histogram
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE:

WEEK: 4

TOPIC: VECTORS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the endof the lesson, students should be able to solve questions on:
1. Vectors as directed line segment.
2. Cartesian components of a vector.
3. Magnitude of a vector, Equal vectors, Addition and subtraction of vectors, zero vectors, parallel vectors,
multiplication of a vector by a scalar.

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ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can plot points on a Cartesian plane.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: Vectors as directed line segment
A vector is any quantity which has direction as well as magnitude or size. Displacement, velocity, force, acceleration are
all examples of vectors.
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠B 5

4 a
A
1
3
4
2

𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
1 2 3 4 5
Since the points are on a Cartesian plane, AB can also be written as a column matrix, or column vector:
4
AB = a = ( ) , Direction is important. BA is in the opposite direction to AB, although they are both parallel and have the
2
4 −4
same size: 𝐵𝐴 = −𝐴𝐵 = − ( ) = ( )
2 −2
A displacement vector is a movement in a certain direction without turning.
The vector ‘a’ is called the position vector of AB
𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence if a point has coordinates (x , y), its position vector is (𝑦). The figure shows the position vectors 𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶, 𝑂𝐷

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 5 A

x
D

-5 0 5

C
-5

In the figure above, the position vectors are as follows:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3 5 −3 −1
𝑂𝐴 = ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝐶 = ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = ( )
5 −2 −4 3

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
Draw line segments to represent the following vectors.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4) , 𝐶𝐷
1. 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−6) , 𝐸𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 2 ) , 𝐺𝐻
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3)
1 2 −5 −2
5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) , 𝑀𝑁 −2 −7
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) , 𝑃𝑄
2. 𝐾𝐿
0 4 −8
The component of a vector in the Cartesian plane is denoted by 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗, given the component 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗, the ‘a’ is the i-
component of the x-axis while the ‘b’ is the j-component of the y-axis.

SUB-TOPIC 2:
CONTENT: Magnitude of a vector;
𝑥 2 2
If = (𝑦) , then |𝑎| = √𝑥 + 𝑦 , where |𝑎| is the magnitude of a. Notice that the magnitude of a vector is always given as
a positive number of units.
Class Activity:
Find the magnitudes or modulus of the following vectors;
4
(a) ( )
−3
−5
(b) ( )
−12
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 −15
(c) ( )
8
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (11) + (−2) , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 |𝐴𝐵
(d) 𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
5 7
7 −6
(e) 𝑝 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 = ( ) , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 |𝑝 − 𝑞|
−3 2

Equal vectors and parallel vectors;

Two or more vectors are equal and parallel if they have the same magnitude and direction. B

C
In the figure above, 𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐶𝐷 . 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 / ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ / 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵/=/𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, i.e they are
parallel.

Addition and subtraction of vectors;

Vectors are said to be added or subtracted component wise. A vector can be added or subtracted from another if they have
equal number of components.
Examples:
4 −2
1. Given the vectors 𝑢 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = ( ), find (i) u + v (ii) u – v (iii) v – u
−5 −3
Solution:
4 −2 2
(i) u+v=( )+( )=( )
−5 −3 −8
4 −2 6
(ii) u–v=( )−( ) = ( )
−5 −3 −2
−2 4 −6
(iii) v–u=( )−( ) = ( )
−3 −5 2
2. Given that A = (3,4) and B = (7,-24), find (i) the addition of A and B (ii) subtract B from A (iii) subtract A from
B.

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
6 −1 −4 0
1. If 𝑥 = ( ) , 𝑦 = ( ) , 𝑧 = ( ) , 𝑤 = ( ), find;
3 5 2 −3
(a) x – y
(b) x – y + z
(c) z – x – w
(d) w – y + x
(e) (x + y) – (z – w)
3 6
2. Draw OP = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 OQ = ( )
−5 7
(a) Use your drawing to find PQ
(b) Use any method to find OQ – OP

SUB-TOPIC 3:
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CONTENT: Multiplication of a vector by a scalar.
If any vector is multiplied by a scalar, say 3, the result is a vector 3 times as big as the initial vector. Also, if multiplied by
1
a scalar, say , the result is a vector half its initial size. Note: A scalar is simply a numerical multiplier.
2
Examples:
2 6 1
Given the following vectors; AB = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 CD= ( ), find (i) 2AB (ii) −3BA (iii) − 3 𝐶𝐷
−1 9
Solution:
2 2×2 4
(i) 2AB = 2 ( ) = ( )=( )
−1 2 × −1 −2
(ii) Note that BA = −AB,
−2 −3 × −2 6
−3BA = −3 ( ) = ( )=( )
1 −3 × 1 −3
1
1 6 − ×6 −2
(iii) −3( ) = ( 31 ) = ( ). (note that the entries of a vector can also be in fractional form or decimal)
9 −3 × 9 −3

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
3 4
1. Given that 𝑎 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = ( ), express each of the following as column vectors,
5 −6
(i) 2a + 3b
(ii) – 2b – 5a
1
(iii) − 2 𝑏 + 4𝑎
1
(iv) − 3 (𝑎 + 3𝑏)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , −𝑄𝑃
2. What is the resultant of the vectors 𝑅𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ?

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE:

Question 1: What is the geometric representation of a vector in a two-dimensional space? A) Point B) Line C) Plane D)
Arrow

Question 2: Which of the following operations is NOT valid for vectors? A) Vector addition B) Vector subtraction C)
Vector multiplication D) Scalar multiplication

Question 3: The magnitude of a vector represents: A) Its direction B) Its length C) Its coordinates D) Its angle with the x-
axis

Question 4: Which of the following statements about the cross product of two vectors is true? A) The cross product is
commutative. B) The cross product is distributive over vector addition. C) The cross product is only defined in two
dimensions. D) The result of the cross product is a scalar.

Question 5: If two vectors are orthogonal to each other, what can be said about their dot product? A) The dot product is
zero. B) The dot product is negative. C) The dot product is positive. D) The dot product is undefined.

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Question 6: Which of the following is true about the sum of two unit vectors? A) The sum is always a unit vector. B) The
sum is never a unit vector. C) The sum can be a unit vector under specific conditions. D) The sum is always a scalar.

Question 7: In a three-dimensional space, how many independent components does a vector have? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4

Question 8: What is the result of the dot product of a vector with itself? A) 0 B) 1 C) The vector itself D) Undefined

Question 9: Which vector operation results in a scalar quantity? A) Vector addition B) Vector subtraction C) Dot product
D) Cross product

Question 10: If two vectors are parallel, what can be said about the angle between them? A) The angle is acute. B) The
angle is obtuse. C) The angle is right (90 degrees). D) The angle is zero.

ESSAY
3 −1 −3
1. If 𝐵𝐶 = ( ) , 𝐶𝐷 = ( ) , 𝐷𝐴 = ( ) , 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
1 −2 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2. What is the sum of 𝑃𝑄 , −𝑃𝑆, −𝑅𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ?
3. If PQ = u and PR = v, find PM where M is the mid-point of QR.
7 4
4. A vector 𝑏 is such that ( ) + 𝑏 = ( ) , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑏
2 −5
5. The coordinates of the vertices of a parallelogram QRST are Q(1,6), R(2,2), S(5,4) and T(x,y).
(a) Find the vectors QR and TS and hence determine the values of x and y.
Calculate the magnitudes of RS and QT.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Vecto, Resultant, Magnitude, vertices, coordinate, scalar.
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE:

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WEEK: 5

TOPIC: TRANSFORMATION GEOMETRY

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Translate points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.
2. Reflect points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.
3. Rotate points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.
4. Enlarge points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can plot points on the Cartesian plane

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: Translation of points and shapes on the Cartesian plane
When the position or dimensions (or both) of a shape changes, we say it is transformed. The image is the figure which
results after transformation of the shape. If the image has the same dimension as the original shape, the transformation is
called a congruency. (Two shapes are congruent if their corresponding dimensions are congruent). A transformation is a
mapping between two shapes.

Translation of points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.

A Translation is a movement in a straight line. Under a translation every point in a line or plane shape moves the same
𝑥
distance in the same direction by a fixed translation or displacement vector. Note: (𝑦) = (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑥 𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
In general, if the position vector of a point (𝑦) is given by the translation ( ), the position vector of its image is (𝑦 + 𝑏).
𝑏
𝑥 𝑥+𝑎 𝑥 𝑥+𝑎
We write (𝑦) → (𝑦 + 𝑏) and say (𝑦) maps to (𝑦 + 𝑏)

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Every point in the shape moves the same distance in the same direction.
Examples:
1. A translation maps (5, -4) on to (3, -6).
(a) What is the displacement vector?
(b) What is the image of (-2, 7) under this translation?
Solution:
𝑎
(a) Let the displacement vector be ( ),
𝑏
Point + displacement = image
5 𝑎 3
( )+( ) = ( )
−4 𝑏 −6
𝑎 3 5
( ) = ( )−( )
𝑏 −6 −4
𝑎 −2
( )=( )
𝑏 −2
−2 −2 −4
(b) ( ) + ( ) = ( ),
7 −2 5
−4
Hence, Image under this translation is ( )
5

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2.

3.

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 4.

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
6
1. What is the image of P(-2, -5) under the translation ( ) ?
2
2. The vertices of triangle ABC are represented by the coordinates A(-2,-1), B(2,0), C(2,-2). Draw this
4
triangle on graph paper and show its image under the translation ( ).
3
3.
SUB-TOPIC 2:
CONTENT: Reflection of points and shapes on the Cartesian plane
A reflection is the image you see when you look in a mirror. The line of the mirror is a line of symmetry between the
object shape and its image. In a Cartesian plane, there are infinitely many lines of reflection. The following describes
some of the important ones.

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Reflection in the x-axis:
The point P(4,2) is reflected in the x-axis. Its image P’(4,-2) is the same distance from the x-axis as the point P. if the
𝑥 𝑥
position vector of a point is (𝑦), the position vector of its image under reflection in the x-axis is (−𝑦). This gives the
𝑥 𝑥
mapping (𝑦) → (−𝑦)
Reflection in the y-axis:
If a point is reflected in the y-axis, its image P’(-2,1) is the same distance from the y-axis. If the position vector of a point
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
is (𝑦), the position vector of its image under reflection in the y-axis is( 𝑦 ). This gives the mapping (𝑦) → ( 𝑦 )
Reflection in the line y = x:
𝑥 𝑦
The image of the vector P(2,5) is P’(5,2) after reflection in the line y = x, this mapping is equivalent to (𝑦) → ( )
𝑥
Reflection in the line y = -x:

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 𝑥 −𝑦
The image of P(1,3) is P’(-3,-1) after reflection in the line y = -x. This mapping is equivalent to (𝑦) → ( )
−𝑥
Example:
1. If a point P has the coordinates (5,-2), find its reflection in the;
(a) x-axis
(b) y-axis
(c) line y = x
(d) line y = -x
Solution:
Let the image of P be P’ after reflection.
5 5
(a) In the x-axis, ( ) → ( ), the coordinate of P’, the image of P, are (5,2)
−2 2
5 −5
(b) In the y-axis, ( ) → ( ), the coordinate of P’, the image of P, are (-5, -2)
−2 −2
5 −2
(c) In the line y = x, ( ) → ( ), the coordinate of P’, the image of P are (-2,5)
−2 5
5 2
(d) In the line y = -x, ( ) → ( ), the coordinate of P’, the image of P are (2, -5)
−2 −5

2.

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3.

4.

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 5.

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. State the coordinate of the image of point A(3,2) after reflection in the;
(a) x-axis
(b) y-axis
(c) line y = x
(d) line y = -x
2. The coordinates of triangle ABC are A(1,6), B(4,6), C(2,5). Find the coordinate of the image of triangle ABC after
reflection in (a) the line y = x (b) the line y = -x

SUB-TOPIC 3:
CONTENT: Rotation of points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.
𝑥
If a point P, whose position vector is (𝑦), is rotated through 𝜃° in the anticlockwise sense about the origin, by
construction, the position vector of the image P’ is;
−𝑦
(a) ( ) for 𝜃 = 90°
𝑥
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 −𝑥
(b) (−𝑦) for 𝜃 = 180°
𝑦
(c) ( ) for 𝜃 = 270°
−𝑥
If the rotation is clockwise, the position vector of the image, P’ is;
𝑦
(a) ( ) for 𝜃 = 90°
−𝑥
−𝑥
(b) (−𝑦) for 𝜃 = 180°
−𝑦
(c) ( ) for 𝜃 = 270°
𝑥

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Examples:
1. If the point P(2,4) is rotated anticlockwise through 900 about the origin, determine the coordinates of the image.
Solution:
𝑥 −𝑦
Under rotation through 900 anticlockwise; (𝑦) → ( ),
𝑥
2 −4
Therefore,( ) → ( ), the coordinate of the image are (−4,2)
4 2
2. The point T(−3,2) is rotated anticlockwise through a half turn (that is 1800) about the origin. Determine the
coordinates of the image.
Solution:
𝑥 −𝑥
Under rotation through 1800 anticlockwise; (𝑦) → (−𝑦),
−3 −3 3
Therefore, ( ) → − ( ) → ( ), the coordinate of the image are (3, −2)
2 2 −2

3.

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 4.

5.

PRACTICE EXERCISE:

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 1. Determine the coordinates of the image of the point P(-4,3) if it is rotated anticlockwise through 900 about the
origin.
2. The point B(6, -2) is rotated through a half turn about the origin. Find R(B), the image of B under rotation if
(a) the rotation is clockwise
(b) the rotation is anticlockwise

SUB-TOPIC 4:
CONTENT: Enlargement of points and shapes on the Cartesian plane.
An enlargement is a transformation in which a shape is made bigger or smaller according to a given scale factor and a
centre of enlargement which does not change.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. T is a translation which moves the origin to the point (3,2). R is a anticlockwise rotation of 900about the origin. A
is the point (2,-5), B is (-1,4) and C is (-4,4). Find the coordinates of the image of:
(a) A after translation T
(b) B after rotation R
(c) C if it is first translated by T and then rotated by R.
2. A’(5,5), B’(-5,10), C’(0,20) are the images of A(2,2), B(-2,4), C(0,8) after a transformation F.
(a) Using a scale of 1cm to 2units, draw the triangles ABC and A’B’C’ on the same Cartesian plane.
(b) Describe fully the transformation F
(c) Find the coordinates of the image of triangle ABC after rotation 2700 clockwise about the point (3,2).

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVES

Question 1: In a 90-degree clockwise rotation of a shape, the image will appear: A) Upside down. B) Mirrored. C) Turned
to the right. D) Unchanged.

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Question 2: If a shape is rotated 180 degrees counterclockwise, what will be the orientation of the image compared to the
original shape? A) It will be flipped horizontally. B) It will be flipped vertically. C) It will be unchanged. D) It will be
rotated 180 degrees clockwise.

Question 3: A rotation of 270 degrees counterclockwise is the same as a rotation of: A) 90 degrees clockwise. B) 90
degrees counterclockwise. C) 180 degrees clockwise. D) 180 degrees counterclockwise.

Question 4: The point around which a shape is rotated is called the: A) Center of dilation. B) Vertex. C) Origin. D) Center
of rotation.

Question 5: If a shape is translated to the right, what will happen to the coordinates of its points? A) The x-coordinates
will increase. B) The x-coordinates will decrease. C) The y-coordinates will increase. D) The y-coordinates will decrease.

Question 6: In a translation, the shape is moved: A) Along a line segment. B) Around a point. C) Along a curve. D)
Parallel to a line segment.

Question 7: If a point is translated 3 units to the left and 2 units up, what are the coordinates of its image? A) (−3, 2) B) (3,
−2) C) (3, 2) D) (−3, −2)

Question 8: Which of the following transformations changes the location of a shape without changing its size or
orientation? A) Reflection B) Dilation C) Rotation D) Translation

Question 9: What is the result of applying a reflection twice along parallel lines? A) A rotation B) A translation C) A
dilation D) The original figure

Question 10: If a shape is dilated with a scale factor between 0 and 1, what happens to its size? A) It stays the same. B) It
becomes larger. C) It becomes smaller. D) It becomes a different shape.

ESSAY
1. Triangle A(0,2), B(1,0), C(2,1) is first enlarged about point (1,-2) with scale factor 2. It is then reflected in the line
x = -1. Find the vertices of its final image.
2. Quadrilateral Q is rotated through 1800 about the point (0,2). The result is then enlarged by a scale factor of -2
with the origin as centre. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the final image of Q.
3. (a) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on each axis, draw x and y-axes for −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4 ≤ 𝑦 ≤
12.Draw a triangle with vertices (-1,1), (-1,10), (-4,7) and label it F.
(b) A transformation R maps triangle F on to the triangle R(F) which has vertices (0,-2), (9,-2), (6,1). Draw
triangle R(F) and fully describe the transformation R.
(c) M is a reflection in the line y = x. Find by drawing, the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle M(F).
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Translation, Rotation, Reflection, Enlargement, centre of
rotation, Origin.
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE:

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WEEK: 6

TOPIC: FUNCTIONS AND RELATION

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define a Cartesian product of sets
2. Apply the concept of function and relation to solving related questions
3. Solve questions on the algebra of real functions
4. Relate function and mapping.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can list the elements of a set.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT:
Cartesian products of sets
Definition : Given two non-empty sets A and B, the set of all ordered pairs (x, y), where x ∈ A and y ∈ B is called
Cartesian product of A and B; symbolically, we write A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B} If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5},
then A × B = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5)} and B × A = {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)}
(i) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first elements are equal and the second elements
are also equal, i.e. (x, y) = (u, v) if and only if x = u, y = v.
(ii) If n(A) = p and n (B) = q, then n (A × B) = p × q.
(iii) A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered triplet.

Relations: A Relation R from a non-empty set A to a non empty set B is a subset of the Cartesian product set A × B.
The subset is derived by describing a relationship between the first element and the second element of the ordered
pairs in A × B.
The set of all first elements in a relation R, is called the domain of the relation R, and the set of all second elements
called images, is called the range of R. For example, the set R = {(1, 2), (– 2, 3), ( 1 2 , 3)} is a relation; the domain of
R = {1, – 2, 1 2 } and the range of R = {2, 3}.
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS:
(i) A relation may be represented either by the Roster form or by the set builder form, or by an arrow diagram
which is a visual representation of a relation.
(ii) (ii) If n (A) = p, n (B) = q; then the n (A × B) = pq and the total number of possible relations from the set A to
set B = 2pq.

A relation f from a set A to a set B is said to be function if every element of set A has one and only one image in set B.
In other words, a function f is a relation such that no two pairs in the relation has the same first element. The notation
f : X →Y means that f is a function from X to Y. X is called the domain of f and Y is called the co-domain of f. Given
an element x ∈ X, there is a unique element y in Y that is related to x. The unique element y to which f relates x is

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 denoted by f (x) and is called f of x, or the value of f at x, or the image of x under f. The set of all values of f(x) taken
together is called the range of f or image of X under f. Symbolically. range of f = { y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x in X}
Definition : A function which has either R or one of its subsets as its range, is called a real valued function. Further, if
its domain is also either R or a subset of R, it is called a real function.
Some specific types of functions
(i) Identity function: The function f : R → R defined by y = f (x) = x for each x ∈ R is called the identity
function. Domain of f = R Range of f = R
(ii) Constant function: The function f : R → R defined by y = f (x) = C, x ∈ R, where C is a constant ∈ R, is a
constant function. Domain of f = R Range of f = {C}
(iii) Polynomial function: A real valued function f : R → R defined by y = f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ...+ an x n , where n
∈ N, and a0 , a1 , a2 ...an ∈ R, for each x ∈ R, is called Polynomial functions.
(iv) Rational function: These are the real functions of the type ( ) ( ) f x g x , where f (x) and g (x) are polynomial
functions of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0. Example f : R – {– 2} → R defined by f (x) = 1 2 x x + +
, ∀ x ∈ R – {– 2 }is a rational function.
(v) The Modulus function: The real function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x = , 0 , 0 x x x x ≥ − < ∀ x ∈ R is
called the modulus function. Domain of f = R Range of f = R+ ∪ {0}
(vi) Signum function: The real function f : R → R defined by | | 1, if 0 , 0 ( ) 0, if 0 0, 0 1, if 0 x x x f x x x x x
> ≠== = = − < is called the signum function. Domain of f = R, Range of f = {1, 0, –
1} (vii) Greatest integer function: The real function f : R → R defined by f (x) = [x], x ∈R assumes the value
of the greatest integer less than or equal to x, is called the greatest integer function. Thus f (x) = [x] = – 1 for
– 1 ≤ x < 0 f (x) = [x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1 [x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2 [x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3.

PRACTISE EXERCISE
1. In each of the following cases, find a and b. (i) (2a + b, a – b) = (8, 3) (ii) , – 2 4 a a b = (0, 6 + b)
2. Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, S = {(x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ A}. Find the ordered pairs which satisfy the conditions given below:
(i) x + y = 5 (ii) x + y < 5 (iii) x + y > 8.
SUB-TOPIC 2:
CONTENT: Algebra of real functions
(i) Addition of two real functions

Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real functions, where X ∈ R. Then we define ( f + g) : X → R by ( f + g) (x)
= f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X.

(ii) Subtraction of a real function from another

Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊆ R. Then, we define (f – g) : X → R by (f – g) (x)
= f (x) – g (x), for all x ∈ X.

(iii) Multiplication by a Scalar

Let f : X → R be a real function and α be any scalar belonging to R. Then the product αf is function from X to R
defined by (α f ) (x) = α f (x), x ∈ X.

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 (iv) Multiplication of two real functions

Let f : X → R and g : x → R be any two real functions, where X ⊆ R. Then product of these two functions i.e. f g : X
→ R is defined by ( f g ) (x) = f (x) g (x) ∀ x ∈ X.

(v) Quotient of two real function

Let f and g be two real functions defined from X → R. The quotient of f by g denoted by f g is a function defined
from X → R as ( ) ( ) ( ) f f x x g g x = , provided g (x) ≠ 0, x ∈ X.

Example 1 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 7, 9}. Determine (i) A × B (ii) B × A (iii) Is A × B = B × A ? (iv) Is n (A ×
B) = n (B × A) ?

Solution

Since A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 7, 9}. Therefore, (i) A × B = {(1, 5), (1, 7), (1, 9), (2, 5), (2, 7), (2, 9), (3, 5), (3, 7),
(3, 9), (4, 5), (4, 7), (4, 9)} (ii) B × A = {(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (7, 1), (7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 4), (9, 1), (9, 2), (9, 3), (9,
4)} (iii) No, A × B ≠ B × A. Since A × B and B × A do not have exactly the same ordered pairs. (iv) n (A × B) = n (A)
× n (B) = 4 × 3 = 12 n (B × A) = n (B) × n (A) = 4 × 3 = 12 Hence n (A × B) = n (B × A)

Example 2 Find x and y if: (i) (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2) (ii) (x – y, x + y) = (6, 10) Solution (i) Since (4x + 3, y) = (3x
+ 5, – 2), so 4x + 3 = 3x + 5 or x = 2 and y = – 2 (ii) x – y = 6 x + y = 10 ∴ 2x = 16 or x = 8 8 – y = 6 ∴ y = 2

Example 3 If A = {2, 4, 6, 9} and B = {4, 6, 18, 27, 54}, a ∈ A, b ∈ B, find the set of ordered pairs such that 'a' is
factor of 'b' and a < b. Solution Since A = {2, 4, 6, 9} B = {4, 6, 18, 27, 54}, we have to find a set of ordered pairs (a,
b) such that a is factor of b and a < b. Since 2 is a factor of 4 and 2 < 4. So (2, 4) is one such ordered pair. Similarly,
(2, 6), (2, 18), (2, 54) are other such ordered pairs. Thus the required set of ordered pairs is {(2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 18), (2,
54), (6, 18), (6, 54,), (9, 18), (9, 27), (9, 54)}.

Example 4 Find the domain and range of the relation R given by R = {(x, y) : y = 6 x x + ; where x, y ∈ N and x < 6}.
Solution When x = 1, y = 7 ∈ N, so (1, 7) ∈ R. Again for, x = 2 . y = 6 2 2 + = 2 + 3 = 5 ∈ N, so (2, 5) ∈ R. Again for
x = 3, y = 3 + 6 3 = 3 + 2 = 5 ∈ N, (3, 5) ∈ R. Similarly for x = 4 y = 4 + 6 4 ∉ N and for x = 5 , y = 5 + 6 5 ∉ N Thus
R = {(1, 7), (2, 5), (3, 5)}, where Domain of R = {1, 2, 3} Range of R = {7, 5}

Example 5 Is the following relation a function? Justify your answer (i) R1 = {(2, 3), ( 1 2 , 0), (2, 7), (– 4, 6)} (ii) R2
= {(x, |x |) | x is a real number} Solution Since (2, 3) and (2, 7) ∈ R1 ⇒ R1 (2) = 3 and R1 (2) = 7 So R1 (2) does not
have a unique image. Thus R1 is not a function. (iii) R2 = {(x, |x |) / x ∈R} For every x ∈ R there will be unique
image as |x | ∈ R. Therefore R2 is a function.

Example 6 Find the domain for which the functions f (x) = 2x 2 – 1 and g (x) = 1 – 3x are equal. Solution For f (x) = g
(x) ⇒ 2x 2 – 1 = 1 – 3x ⇒ 2x 2 + 3x – 2 = 0 ⇒ 2x 2 + 4x – x – 2 = 0 ⇒ 2x (x + 2) – 1 (x + 2) = 0 ⇒ (2x – 1) (x + 2) =
0 Thus domain for which the function f (x) = g (x) is 1 ,– 2

Example 7 Find the domain of each of the following functions. (i) 2 ( ) 3 2 x f x x x = + + (ii) f (x) = [x] + x 18/04/18
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 25 Solution (i) f is a rational function of the form ( ) ( ) g x h x , where g (x) = x
and h (x) = x 2 + 3x + 2. Now h (x) ≠ 0 ⇒ x 2 + 3x + 2 ≠ 0 ⇒ (x + 1) (x + 2) ≠ 0 and hence domain of the given
function is R – {– 1, – 2}. (ii) f (x) = [x] + x,i.e., f (x) = h (x) + g (x) where h (x) = [x] and g (x) = x The domain of h
= R and the domain of g = R. Therefore Domain of f = R

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 Example 8 Find the range of the following functions given by (i) 4 4 x x − − (ii) 2 16 – x Solution (i) f (x) = 4 4 x x −
− = 4 1, 4 4 ( 4) 1, 4 Thus the range of 4 4 x x − − = {1, –1}. (ii) The domain of f, where f(x) = 2 16− x is given by [–
4, 4]. For the range, let y = 2 16− x then y 2 = 16 – x 2 or x 2 = 16 – y 2 Since x ∈ [– 4, 4] Thus range of f = [0, 4]

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. Let A = {–1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3}. Determine (i) A × B (ii) B × A (iii) B × B (iv) A × A
2. If P = {x : x < 3, x ∈ N}, Q = {x : x ≤ 2, x ∈ W}. Find (P ∪ Q) × (P ∩ Q), where W is the set of whole numbers.
3. If A = {x : x ∈ W, x < 2} B = {x : x ∈ N, 1 < x < 5} C = {3, 5} find (i) A × (B ∩ C) (ii) A × (B ∪ C)
SUB-TOPIC 3:
CONTENT: MAPPING AS A FUNCTION
A mapping is simply an association or a relation between two sets
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain has one and only one image in the co – domain. One –to –
one and many – to – one relation are therefore functions.
Note: 1. if there exist at least an element in the domain that does not have an image in the co-domain, then it is not a
mapping.
2. If an element in the domain has 2 or more images in co-domain, then it is not a mapping.
Thus, for a relation to be a mapping; it must be that:
*Every element of the domain has an image in the co-domain
*The image of every element of the domain is unique
Note: All functions are relation but not all relations are functions
Squared Is the square root of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
-2
1
1
-1
4
2 0
0
9
3 1
1
16
4 4
2

One – to – one 3 Many – to – one

5
3
One – to – many 6
5
Many – to – many relation is not a function
9 since some elements of the domain have more than one image.
Examples:
10
1. Let the function 𝑓: 𝑤 → 𝑅 be defined by 𝑓: 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2, where 𝑊 = {−1,0,2,5,11} and R the set of real numbers.
Find the range of 𝑓.
Solution:
𝑓: 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
Taking the value of the domain 𝑊 = {−1,0,2,5,11} one by one
𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 − (−1) − 2 = 0
𝑓(0) = (0)2 − (0) − 2 = −2
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 𝑓(2) = (2)2 − (2) − 2 = 0
𝑓(5) = (5)2 − (5) − 2 = 18
𝑓(11) = (11)2 − (11) − 2 = 108
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡 = {0, −2, 0, 18, 108}
2. Find the domain of 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 + 6, if the range of 𝑓 is {6,7,10,15}
Here we are to reverse the process,
When range = 6:
𝑥 2 + 6 = 6, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
𝑥=0
When range = 7:
𝑥 2 + 6 = 7, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
𝑥 = −1, 1
When range = 10:
𝑥 2 + 6 = 10, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
𝑥 = −2, 2
When range = 15:
𝑥 2 + 6 = 15, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
𝑥 = −3, 3
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = {−3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, }

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. If the domain of 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 − 2is {−2, −1,0,1}, find its range.
2. Find the domain of 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 + 1 if the range is {1, 2, 5, 10}

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
1. Given R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ W, x 2 + y 2 = 25}. Find the domain and Range of R.
2. If R1 = {(x, y) | y = 2x + 7, where x ∈ R and – 5 ≤ x ≤ 5} is a relation. Then find the domain and Range of R1 .
3. If R2 = {(x, y) | x and y are integers and x 2 + y 2 = 64} is a relation. Then find R2 .
4. If R3 = {(x, x ) | x is a real number} is a relation. Then find domain and range of R3 .
5. Is the given relation a function? Give reasons for your answer. (i) h = {(4, 6), (3, 9), (– 11, 6), (3, 11)} (ii) f = {(x, x) | x
is a real number} (iii) g = 1 n n , | is a positive integer n (iv) s = {(n, n 2 ) | n is a positive integer} (v) t = {(x, 3) | x is a
real number.
𝑥
6. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥, where𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, the set of real numbers.

7. Given that P = (x : x is a factor of 6) is the domain of g(x) = x2 + 3x – 5, find the range of g(x)
8. Which of the following functions is/are one – to – one?
𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 , 𝑔: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 + 1 , ℎ: 𝑥 → √𝑥

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 9. Two functions f and g are defined by f : x → 3𝑥 − 1 and g : x → 2𝑥 3 , evaluate fg(-2)
10. The functions f and g are defined on the set R of real numbers by f:x→
2𝑥 2 − 3 and g : x→ 4 − 𝑥 , Find fog.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Domain, Range, Image, Real numbers, Function,
Relation.
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE:

WEEK: 7

TOPIC: MID TERM BREAK

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR:

SUB-TOPIC 1:

CONTENT:

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

SUB-TOPIC 2:

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CONTENT:

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

SUB-TOPIC 3:

CONTENT:

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay question)

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

(Each topic should be enriched with worked examples, images, past WAEC SSCE/NECO SSCE / BECE JSCE questions.)

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

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WEEK: 8

TOPIC: PROBABILITY 1

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define the following concepts: (i) Experimental outcomes (ii) Random experiment. (iii) Sample space. (iv)
Sample points. (v) Event space. (vi) Probability.
2. Apply the properties of probabilities to solving relevant questions
3. Solve questions on theoretical probability.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can solve basic questions on probability.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: SAMPLE SPACE:
Any result of an experiment in probability is usually called an outcome. If we cannot predict before hand, the outcome of
an experiment, the experiment is called a random experiment.
The set of all possible outcomes of any random experiment will be called a sample space and it will denoted by S.
The number of outcomes in S or the number of elements in the sample space will be denoted n(S).

EVENT SPACE:A subset of the sample space which may be a collection of outcomes of a random experiment is called
an event space. We shall denote an event space by E, and the number of outcomes or elements in E by N(E).

𝑛(𝐸)
The probability of an event E denoted Pr(E) is defined as Pr(E) = 𝑛(𝑆)
Since the empty set θ is a subset of the sample space, n(θ) = 0
𝑛(θ) 𝑛(S)
Pr(θ) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 0 or Pro. (S) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 1

Example 1:
In a single throw of a fair coin, find the probability that:
i) a head appears
ii) a tail appears

solution
Let S be the sample space, then
S = {𝐻, 𝑇}
n(S) = 2
Let E1 be the event that a head appears,
E1 = {𝐻}
n(E1) = 1
𝑛(E1) 1
Prob(E1) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 2
Let E2 be the event that a tail appears, then E2
E2 = {𝑇}
n(E2) = 1
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 1
Prob.(E1) = 2
Example 2: In a single throw of two fair coins, find the probability that:
a) two heads appears
b) two tails appears
c) one head and one tail appears
Solution:
Let S be the sample space then,
S = [HH, TT, HT, TH ]

n(S) = 4
a) Let E1 be the event that two heads appears, then
E1= {𝐻𝐻}, n(E1) = 1
𝑛(E1) 1
Prob(E1) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 4
b) Let E2 be the event that two tails appears, then
E2 = {𝑇𝑇}n(E2) = 1

𝑛(E2) 1
Prob(E2) = 𝑛(𝑆)
=4
c) Let E3 be the event that one head and one tail appear, then

E3= {𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝑇}, n(E3) = 2

𝑛(E3) 2 1
Prob(E2) = = =
𝑛(𝑆) 4 2

SUB-TOPIC 2:

CONTENT: PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY

The following are some fundamental properties of probability for finite sample space.
1). For every event E, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 . That is all probabilities lie between 0 and 1.
2). P(S) = 1, Where S is the sample space. That is the probability of a sure event i
Example 1:
A bag containing 3 blue balls, 2 black balls and 5 red balls. A ball was selected, what is the probability that it is (a) Red b)
Blue c) not black

Solution: sample space = total number of balls

=3+2+5
= 10
n(S) = 10
a) Let R be the event of red balls
n(R) = 5
P(R) = n(R) / n(S) = 5/10 = ½
b) Let B be the event of blue balls
n(B) = 3
P(B) = n(B)/n(S) = 3/10
c) Let E be the event of black balls → not black balls will be Ḗ

P(Ḗ) = 1 – P(E)
n(E) = 2
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 P(E) = n(E)/n(S) = 2/10 = ½
1 4
P(Ḗ) = 1 – 5 = 5
Example 2: The probability that John and Dara pass a mathematics examination is 0.4 and 0.8 respectively. What is the
probability that
i) Both pass ii) none pass
iii) Only one pass iv) at least one pass.

Solution
Let E1 be the event that john passed
Let E2 be the event that Dara passed
Since E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive
P(E1) = 0.4 P(E2) = 0.8
P(Ḗ) = 1- 0.4 P(Ḗ) = 1- 0.8
P(Ḗ) = 0.6 P(Ḗ) = 0.2

1) Prob. (both passed) = P(E1) × P(E2)

= P E1 𝚗E2
= 0.4 × 0.8
= 0.32
2) Prob. (none passed) → both failed

P(Ḗ1) 𝚗 P(Ḗ2) = P(Ḗ1) × P(Ḗ2)

= 0.6 × 0.2
= 0.12
3) Prob. That only one passed
Only one passed could mean P (E1𝚗 Ḗ2) or P (Ḗ1𝚗 Ḗ2)
P (E1𝚗 Ḗ2) = 0.4 × 0.2 = 0.08
P (Ḗ1𝚗 E2) = 0.6 × 0.8 = 0.48
P (E1𝚗 Ḗ2) U P (Ḗ1𝚗 E2) = 0.08 + 0.48
= 0.56

4) Prob. That at least one passed

P (E1𝚗 Ḗ2) U P (Ḗ1𝚗 E2) 𝚗 E2) U P (E1 𝚗E2)
= 0.08 + 0.48 + 0.32
= 0.88
Example 3:
A bag contains 3 black, 5 white and 7 yellow balls. If a ball is picked, what is the probability that it is either black or
yellow?
Solution: sample space S = total number of balls
= 3 + 5 + 7 = 15
Let B represent black balls, n (B) = 3
𝑛(𝐵) 3 1
Prob. (B) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 15 = 5

Let Y represent yellow balls, n (Y) = 7

𝑛(𝑌) 7
Prob. (Y) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 15
1 7
Prob. (B or Y) = P (B) + P (Y) = 5
+ 15

10
= 15

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 2
= 3
Example 4: in example 3 above, if the two balls are picked at random one after the other without replacement, find
the probability that they are both white.
Solution:
Let the two events, picking the first white ball be E1 and the second white ball be E2
5 1
P (E1) = 15 = 3

5−1 4 2
P (E2/E1) = 15−1 = 14 = 7

P (E1𝚗 E2) = P(E1) × P (E2/E1) and E and E are dependent.

1 2 2
= 3 × 7 = 21

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. A bag contains 15 clips that differ in colours, 5 are White, 4 are Pink, and 6 are Blue. If a clip is selected from
the bag at random, what is the probability that it is

(a) white
(b) blue
(c) white or pink
(d) Not white?

2. A Crate contains 24 bottles of soft drinks, 7 are Fanta, 8 are Coke, 6 are Sprite and 3 are Soda. If one bottle of soft
drink is taken from the crate, what is the probability of picking a
(i) Fanta
(ii) Coke
(iii) Sprite or a Soda
(iv) Neither Coke nor soda?
3. The data below shows the number of workers employed in the various sections of a construction company in
Lagos
Carpenters 24 Labourers 27
Plumbers 12 Plasterers 15
Painters 9 Messengers 3
Bricklayers 18
(i) If one of the workers is absent on a certain day, what is the probability that he is a bricklayer?
(ii) If a worker is retrenched, what is the probability that he is a plumber or plasterer? (WAEC)
(4) If two fair coins are thrown once, what is the probability of having
(i) A head and a tail
(ii) At least one head
(iii) Two tails
(5) If three fair coins are thrown once, what is the probability of having?
(i) At least two heads
(ii) A head and two tails
(iii) The three showing the same face.
(6) Anumber is picked at random from the set 25 to 40 inclusive. What is the Probability that it is a
(i) Prime number
(ii) Number divisible by 3.
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 (iii) Perfect square.

SUB-TOPIC 3:

CONTENT: Theoretical probability

Experimental probability is based on numerical data of past experiences to predict the future. But prediction cannot be
taken to be perfectly accurate, therefore, the determining probability has been further clarified with the introduction of the
theoretical concept.
Theoretical probability in its new cases, bases its result and occurrence on exact values that are dependent on the
physical nature of the situation under consideration. For instance, if the probability of an event happening is p, the p lies
between 0 and 1, i.e0 ≤ 𝑝 ≤ 1, but the probability that an event is not happening is 1 – p, then it follows that the sum of
an event happening and event not happening is always equal to one, (1). That is, p + (1 – p) = p + 1 – p = p – p + 1 = 1.
Probability can also be denoted in set language: if probability of an event happening is Pr(R), then
𝑛(𝑅)
Pr(R) = 𝑛(𝑈) , where R is the required outcome and U is the number of possible outcomes or universal set.

Equiprobable sample space

Equiprobable events are those events whose chances of occurring are the same, e.g if a coin is tossed once, the chance for
each of a head and a tail is the same which is ½, likewise, when a fair die is thrown once, each of the numbers 1,2,3,4,5
and 6 on the die has equal chances, or has equiprobable at one out of 6, i.e 1/6 to show up.
Experimental probability bases its result on the actual experiment carried out, and the outcome will therefore, be
based on the number of attempts made. Experimental probability uses past numerical records of occurrences in order to
arrive at the future occurrences of an event.

OUTCOME TABLES
For some probability problems, all possible outcomes can be obtained by the use of outcome tables, which gives a
picture of what the possible outcomes of an experiment should be.
Example :
If two dice are thrown simultaneously, find probability of obtaining
(i) a total of 10
(ii) at least a total of 9
(iii) at least one three.
Solution
The outcome table is given below as follows
1st die

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6

2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6

2nddie3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,43,5 3,6

4 4,1 4,2 4, 3 4,4 4,5 4,6

5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6

6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6

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 From the table above, there are 36 possible outcomes
(i) Number of required outcome = 3 i.e. {(4,6), (5,5), (6,4) }
Pr {a total of 10 } = 3
36
= 1/12
(ii) Number of required outcome = 10
i.e. { (3,6). (4,5) (5,4), (6,3), (4,6), (5,5), (6,4), (5,6), (6,5), (6,6) }
Pr {at least a total of 9 } = 10
36
= 5/18

(iii) Number of required outcome = 11

i.e. { (1,3), (2,3), (3,3), 4,3), (5,3), (6,3), 3,1), (3,2), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6) }
 Pr {at least one three} = 11
36
Example :
The Probability that two hunters P and Q hit their target are 2/3 and ¾ respectively. The two hunters aim at a
target together.
(a) What is the probability that they both miss the target?
(b) If the target is hit, what is the probability that (i) Only hunter P hits it.
(ii) Only one of them hits it.
(iii)Both hunters hit the target?
SSCE, NOV. 1993, №7 (WAEC)
Solution
Let P be the event that P hits target
P/ be the event that P misses target
Q be the event that Q hits target
Q/be the event that Q misses target.
The outcome of P and Q are independent
Pr(P) = 2/3
Pr(P/) = 1 – 2/3
= 1/3

Pr(Q) = ¾
Pr(Q/) = 1 – ¾
= ¼

(a) Pr{that both miss}

= Pr(P/) * Pr(Q/)
= 1/3 x ¼ = 1/12

(b) (i) If only hunter P hits target, it means that hunter Q misses target
Pr{ only hunter P hits target }
= Pr(P) * Pr(Q/)
= 2/3 x ¼ = 2/12
= 1/6

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(i) Since only one of them hits it, the one is not specified. Hence it is either (P hits and Q misses ) or (P misses and Q
hits)
Pr{only one hits it} = Pr(P) * Pr(Q/) + Pr(P/) * Pr(Q)
= 2 x1 + 1 x 3
3 4 3 4
= 2 +3
12 12
= 5
12

(ii) Pr{both hunter hit target}

= Pr(P) * Pr(Q)
= 2/3 x ¾ = 6/12 = ½
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
(1) In a contest, Ama, Kwaku and Musa are asked to solve a problem. The probabilities that they solve the problem
correctly are respectively 1/5, 2/3, and 2/5.
Calculate the probabilities that:
(i) None of them solves the problem correctly,
(ii) At least one of them solves the problem correctly,
(iii) Only one of them solves the problem correctly. (WAEC)
(2) The probability that a seed from a certain packet of sunflower seeds will germinate when planted is 2/5. If two seeds
are selected at random from this packet. Find the probability that:
(i) The two seeds germinate
(ii) Neither of the two seeds germinates
(iii)Exactly one of the two seeds germinate (WAEC)
(3) Two dice are thrown together. What is the probability of getting
(i) a total score of at least 6,
(ii) a double (i.e. the same number on each die).
(iii) A total score greater than 7
(iv) A double or a total score greater than 7? (WAEC)
(4) (a) A pair of fair dice each numbered 1 to 6 is tossed. Find the Probability of getting a sum of at least 9
(5) A number selected at random from each of the sets {2, 3, 4,} and {1, 3, 5}. What is the probability that the sum
of the two numbers will be less than 7 but greater than 3? (WAEC)
6. If two dies are thrown and the product of the outcome is recorded, what is the probability that it is a
(i) perfect square ii) Number divisible by 4 iii) number divisible by 9?

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. If a number is chosen at randomfrom the set {x:4≤x≤15}, find the probability that it is a multiple of 3 or a
multiple of 4.
1 5 1 11
A. 12 B. 12 C. 2 D. 12 (SSCE)

2.
Number of pets 0 1 2 3 4

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 Number of students 8 4 5 10 3

The table shows the number of pets kept by 30 students in a class. If a student is picked at random from the class, what
is the probability that he/she kept more than one pet?
1 2 3 4
A. 5
B. 3 C. 5 D. 5 (SSCE)

1
3. In an athletics competition, the probability that an athlete wins a 100m race is 8 and the probability that he wins in
1
high jump is 4. What is the propability that he wins only one of the events?
3 3 7 5
A. 32 B. 16 C. 32 D. 16 (SSCE)

4. A box contains black, white and red identical balls. The probability of picking a black ball at random from the box
3 2
is 10
and the probability of picking a white ball is 5. If there are 30 balls in the box, how many of them are red?
A. 3 B. 7 C. 9 D. 12 (SSSCE)

Given the sets A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {2, 3, 5, 9} use the information to answer questions 5 – 7.
5. If a number is selected at random from set B, what is the probability that the number is prime?
3 1 1
A. 1 B. C. D. (SSCE)
4 2 4

6. If a number is picked at random from each of the two sets, what is the probability that their product is odd?
3 1
A. 1 B. C. D. 0 (SSCE)
4 4

7. If a number is picked at random from each of the two sets, what is the probability that their difference is 6 or 7?
1 1 1 1
A. 256 B. 16 C. 12 D. 2 (SSCE)

8. If the probability of an event occurring is x, what is the probability of the event not occurring?
1
A. 1-x B. x-1 C. 0 D. 𝑥 (SSCE)

9. A fair coin is tossed three times. Find the probability if getting two heads and one tail.
1 3 1 1
A. 2 B. 8 C. 4 D. 8 (SSCE)

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 10. A fair die is tossed once. What is the probability of obtaining neither 5 nor 2?
5 2 1 1
A. B. C. D.
6 3 2 6

THEORY QUESTIONS
1. In a class of 40 students, 18 passed Mathematics, 19 passed Accounts, 16 passed Economics, 5 Mathematics and
Accounts only, 9 Accounts only, 2 Accounts and Economics only. If each student offered at least on of the subjects,
calculate the probability that a student selected at random failed in accounts. (SSCE)

2. Two fair dice are thrown. M is the event described by “the sun of the scores is 10” and N is the event described by
“the difference between the scores is 3”.
a. Write out the elements of M and N
b. Find the probability of M or N
c. Are M and N mutually exclusive? Give reasons. (SSCE)
3. The frequency distribution of the weights of 100 participants in a high jump competition is as shown below:
Weight (kg) 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 - 79

No of participants 10 18 22 25 16 9

Calculate the probability that a participant chosen at random weighs at least 60kg. (SSCE)
4. The table shows the number of children per family in a community.

Number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of families 3 5 7 4 3 2

Find the probability that a family has at least 2 children. (SSCE)

5. Out of the 24 apples in a box, 6 are bad. If three apples are taken from the box at random, with replacement, find
the probability that;
a. the first two are good and the third is bad
b. all the three are bad
all the three are good
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Equiprobable, random, mutually exclussive, probability,
independent.
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE

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WEEK: 9

TOPIC: PROBABILITY 2

LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end o the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Add and multiply probability: (i) Mutually exclusive events and addition (“or”) rule. (ii) Complimentary events
and probability rule. (iii) Independent events and multiplication (“and”) rules.
2. Solve simple problems on mutually exclusive, Independent and complimentary events.
3. Solve questions on experiment with or without replacement.
4. Explore practical application of probability in; health, finance, population

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students can solve questions on theoretical probability.

SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: ADDITION LAW OF PROBABILITY SHOWN:

Probability of Event A “OR“Event B i.e. Pr (AB) (for intersecting Sets).

Given any sample space  = {1, 2, 3, …, 8, 9, 10} and Event A = {2, 3, 5, 7 } and Event B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9 }
If a number is picked from the sample space , the probability of picking a number that forms the Set A or B
denoted by A  B is explained as follows
From above, Note that
AB = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9} n (AB) = 7
 Prob. (AB) = 7 ------------------(1)
10

A B

2 3 1
5 6
7 9

Note that A and B are intersecting, hence suppose

Pr(AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) But Pr(A) = 4
10
= n(A) + n(B) Pr(B) = 6
n() n() 10
= 4 + 6
10 10
= 10 = 1 But Pr(AB) =7
10 10
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 from equation (1)
 Pr(AB) Pr(A) + Pr(B)
This is because the Set {3, 5, 7} was counted twice. i.e. in A and in B.
More appropriately therefore
Pr(AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) - Pr(AB)
= 4 +6 - 3
10 10 10

=
4 + 6 - 3
10
= 7 as in Equation (1) above
10
Hence Pr(AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) - Pr(AB)

--- Thus generally if A and B are intersecting Sets, the probability of A or B is

Pr (AB) =Pr (A) + Pr(B) - Pr (AB)

--- Similarly, it can be shown that if A, B and C are

Three intersecting Sets, the probability of A or B or C is:

Pr(ABC) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) + Pr(C) - Pr(AB) – Pr(AC) - Pr(BC) + Pr (ABC)

ADDITION LAW OF PROBABILITY SUMMARIZED

From section 5.2A and section 5.2B, the addition law of probability can be summarized as follows:
(1) If A and B are intersecting sets, the probability of A or B denoted by Pr(A  B) is given as: Pr(AB) =
Pr(A) + Pr(B) – Pr(AB) ---(1)
(2) If A, B and C are intersecting sets, the probability of A or B or C denoted by Pr(A  B  C) is given as: Pr(ABC) =
Pr(A) + Pr(B) + Pr(C) – Pr(AB) - Pr(AC) –
Pr(BC) + Pr(ABC) ----------------- (2)

5.2C APPLICATION OF THE ADDITION LAWS OF PROBABILITY.

The addition laws of probability stated above are used to solve problems that contains the word “OR” or

“EITHER/OR”.

Example 4:

If a number is chosen at random from the integers 10 to 30 inclusive, find the probability that the number is

(i) a multiple of 3 or 5.

(ii) a number divisible by 2 or 3, or 5.

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Solution:

 = {10, 11, 12, 13, …, 28, 29, 30}, n() = 21

Let A be the Set of multiples of 3

Let B be the Set of multiples of 5

A = {12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30} Pr(A) = 7/21

B = {10, 15, 20, 25, 30} Pr(B) = 5/21

AB = {15, 30} Pr(AB) = 2 /21

Pr((AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) – Pr(AB)

Pr(AB} = 7 + 5 – 2

21 21 21
= 7 + 5 - 2
21
= 10
21
(ii) Let A be the Set of numbers divisible by 3
B be the Set of numbers divisible by 5
C be the Set of numbers divisible by2
 = { 10, 11, 12, 13, …, 28, 29, 30} n() = 21
A = {12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30}, Pr(A) = 7/21 B = {10, 15, 20, 25, 30}, Pr(B) = 5 /21
C = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30}, Pr(C) = 11/21
AB = {15, 30}, Pr(AB) = 2/21
AC = {12, 18, 24, 30}, Pr(AC) = 4/21
BC = {10, 20, 30}, Pr(BC) = 3/21
ABC = {30}, Pr(ABC) = 1/21

Pr(ABC) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) + Pr(C) – Pr(AB) – Pr(AC) – Pr(BC)

+ Pr(ABC)
= 7/21 + 5/21 + 11/21 –2/21 – 4/21 – 3/21 + 1/21
= 7 + 5 + 11 – 2 – 4 – 3 + 1
21
= 15
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 21
= 5
7
Example 5:
Find the probability that a number chosen at random from the integer between 10 and 20 inclusive is either a
prime number or a multiple of 3. (WAEC)

Solution:
 = {10 11, 12, … 18, 19, 20} n () = 11
Let A be the Set of prime numbers
B be the Set of multiples of 3
A = {11, 13, 17, 19} , Pr(A) = 4/11
B = {12, 15, 18} , Pr(B) = 3/11
Since n(AB) =0
A B = { } or Pr(AB) = 0
Pr(AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) - Pr(AB)
= 4+ 3 - 0
11 11
= 7
11
Example 6:
Out of the 27 students in a class, 17 offer Chemistry, 12 offer Physics and 2 offer non of the subjects. If a student
is picked from the class, what is the probability that the student offers
(i) The two Subjects.
(ii) Chemistry or Physics
(iii) Physics only.?
Solution:
n() = 27
n(C) = 17
n(P) = 12
Let n(C  P) = x
 = 27
C P

17 – xx 12 – x

To get x i.e. Those that offer the two subjects.

17 – x + x + 12 - x + 2 = 27
31 – x = 27
31 – 27 = x
x = 4
 4 Students offer the two subjects i.e. n(CP) = 4

(i) Prob.(CP) = 4
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 27
(ii) Prob. of Physic or Chemistry,
Pr(CP) is given as
Pr(C  P) =Pr(C) + Pr(P) - Pr(C  P)

= 17 + 12 - 4
27 27 27
= 17 + 12 - 4
27
= 25
27

(iii)Physics only = 12 – x
= 12 – 4
= 8
Prob. (C/ P) = 8 (Prob. of physics only)
27
Example 7:
In a community of 50 people, 26 speak Hausa and 29 speak Yoruba. If 13 speak none of these two languages and
18 people speak both languages. If a person is to be chosen from the community for an award, what is the probability that
the person speaks
(i) Hausa or Yoruba;
(ii) Only one language;
(iii) Yoruba only?
Solution
Let H be Hausa and Y be Yoruba
(i) n() = 50
n(H) = 26
n(Y) = 29
n(H Y) = 18 n(H Y)/ = 13
The probability that the person speak Hausa or Yoruba denoted by Pr(H Y) is
Pr(H Y) = Pr(H) + Pr(Y) – Pr(H Y)
= 26 +29 - 18
50 50 50
= 26 + 29 - 18
50
= 37
50
(ii) Those that speak only one language are shown in the Venn diagram below
= 50

H Y
26 – 18
=8 18 29 – 18=11

13
Hausa only = 8 i.e. n(H  Y/) = 8
Yoruba only = 11 i.e. n(H/ Y) = 11
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Those that speak only one language = 8 + 11
= 19
 Prob. of one language only =Pr(HY/) + Pr(H/Y)
= 8 +11
50 50
= 19
50
(iii) Yoruba only = 11
i.e.n(H/Y) = 11
Pr(H/Y) = 11
50

PRACTICE EXERCISE:
(1) Anumber is chosen at random from the integers 1 to 10. Find the probability that the number is
(i) Prime
(ii) a multiple of 2
(iii) Either a prime or a multiple of 2 (WAEC)

(2) If a number is chosen at random from the matrix

3 7 9
A = 4 2 30
8 15 1

what is the probability that it is

(i) a prime number
(ii) a perfect Cube.
(iii) divisible by 2 or 3,
(iv) a perfect Square or divisible by 3?
(3)A number is chosen at random from the integers 5 to 25 inclusive, find the probability that the number is a multiple
of 5 or 3. (WAEC)

(4) If a number is chosen at random from the integers 1 to 20 inclusive, find the probability that the number is
(i) a prime number,
(ii) divisible by 2 or 3 ,
(iii) divisible by 2 or 3 or 5 .
(5) In a class of 25 students, 7 can play scrabble game, 9 can play draft, 2 can play both games. If 11 can play none of
the two games, find the probability that a student chosen from the class can play
(i) Scrabble or Draft
(ii) Scrabble only
(iii) None of the two games.

SUB-TOPIC 2:

CONTENT: Probability of Event A “0R” Event B i.e. Pr(AB) (For Mutually exclusive events)
Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of A excludes B. e.g. Head and Tail of coin are

mutually exclusive because when a coin is tossed the occurrence of a Head automatically excludes the Tail.

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Recall that Pr(AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) – Pr(AB) ---(1) above

For mutually exclusive events AB =  i.e. n(AB) = 0


A B

 Pr(AB) = Pr(A) + Pr(B)

Similarly, this law can be extended to three or more events, hence

Recall also that: Pr(ABC) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) + Pr(C) – Pr(AB) - Pr(AC) –

Pr(BC) + Pr(ABC) ----------------- (2)above

If A, B and C are mutually exclusive,

The Probability of A or B or C is
Pr(ABC) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) + Pr(C)
This is known as the addition law of Probability for mutually exclusive event.

Class Activity:

(1) Find the Probability that a number chosen at random from the integers between 10 and 20 inclusive is either a
prime or a multiple of 3.

(2) A fair die is tossed once. What is the probability of scoring (a) 3 or 6 (b) 4 or 5 (c) neither 6 nor 1

(3) A bag contains 3 black, 4 yellow and 7 red balls. A ball is picked at random from the bag. What is the probability
that it is

(a) Black or yellow

(b) Black or red
(c) Neither black nor red

Independent and Complementary events:

Probability of Event A “AND” B i. e. Prob. (A  B)

the coin Pr(A) = 3/6

= ½
Pr(B) = ½
Probability of getting both independent events:
Two events are said to be independent if the outcome of one has no effect on the other. e.g. the tossing of a coin
and throwing of a die simultaneously. The outcome of the coin does not affect the outcome of the die.
In the case of independent events, the separate probabilities are multiplied to give the combined probability.

PRODUCT LAW
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 If events A and B are independent, the probability of A and B happening denoted by Pr(A  B), is the product of
their individual probabilities. i.e.
PrA B) = Pr(A) x Pr(B)
In general, If A, B, C, D, … are independent, the probability of A and B and C and D and … happening is the
product of their individual probabilities. I.e.
Pr(A  B C  …) = Pr(A) x Pr(B) x Pr(C) x Pr(D) x …
NB:
The Product law is used to solve problems with the word “AND” or “BOTH/AND”
Example 9:
If a coin is tossed and a die is thrown, what is the probability of getting a head and a Prime number?
Solution
Since the task of getting a head and a Prime number involves two events which have no effect on each other, the
individual probabilities are found and multiplied
A die = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A coin = {H, T}
Let A be the events of getting a Prime number from the die.
 B be the events of getting a head from
Pr(A  B) = Pr(A) x Pr(B)
=½ x ½
= ¼
Pr(A  B) = ¼

Example :
A bag contains 7 identical balls, which differ in colour. 4 are white and 3 are Blue. If two balls are drawn from the
bag one after the other without replacement, what is the probability that
(i) both are white;
(ii)both are blue?

Solution
1st choice
(iii) There is a total of 7 balls in the bag.
4 are white
 Pr {1st is white} = 4/7

For 2nd choice

There are 6 balls left in the bag
3 white are left since one was picked in the first choice
 Pr{2nd is white} = 3/6
 = ½
Pr{both are white} = 4/7 x ½
= 2/ 7

(iv) For 1st choice

There are 7 balls in the bag 3 are blue
Pr{1st is blue} = 3/7

For 2nd choice:

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There are 6 balls left in the bag
2 blue are left in the bag after the first choice
Pr{ 2nd is Blue} = 2/6
= 1/3
Pr{both are Blue} = 3 x 1
7 3
1
= /7
Example :
The Probability that two hunters P and Q hit their target are 2/3 and ¾ respectively. The two hunters aim at a
target together.
(c) What is the probability that they both miss the target?
(d) If the target is hit, what is the probability that (i) Only hunter P hits it.
(ii) Only one of them hits it.
(iii)Both hunters hit the target? (WAEC)
Solution
Let P be the event that P hits target
P/ be the event that P misses target
Q be the event that Q hits target
Q/be the event that Q misses target.
The outcome of P and Q are independent
Pr(P) = 2/3
Pr(P/) = 1 – 2/3
= 1/3

Pr(Q) = ¾
Pr(Q/) = 1 – ¾
= ¼

(b) Pr{that both miss}

= Pr(P/) * Pr(Q/)
= 1/3 x ¼
= 1/12

(b) (i) If only hunter P hits target, it means that hunter Q misses target
Pr{ only hunter P hits target }
= Pr(P) * Pr(Q/)
= 2/3 x ¼
= 2/12
= 1/6
(v) Since only one of them hits it, the one is not specified. Hence it is either (P hits and Q misses ) or (P misses and Q
hits)
Pr{only one hits it} = Pr(P) * Pr(Q/) + Pr(P/) * Pr(Q)
= 2 x1 + 1 x 3
3 4 3 4
= 2 +3
12 12
= 5
12
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(vi) Pr{both hunter hit target}
= Pr(P) * Pr(Q)
= 2/3 x ¾
= 6/12
= ½

Example 12:
The probabilities that three boys pass an examination are 2/3, 5/8 and ¾ respectively. Find the probability that:
(i) All the three boys passed;
(ii) None of the boys passed;
(iii) Only two of the boys passed.
(WAEC)

Solution
Let A be the event that the first boy passed
A/ be the event that the first boy did not pass
B be the event that the 2nd boy passed
B/ be the event that the 2nd boy did not pass
C be the event that the 3rd boy passed.
C/ be the event that the 3rd boy did not pass
Pr(A) = 2/3
Pr(A ) = 1 – 2/3
/

= 1/ 3
5
Pr(B) = /8
Pr(B/) = 1 - 5/8
= 3/ 8
Pr(c) = ¾
Pr(C/) = ¼
(i) Pr{all three passed}
= Pr(A) * Pr(B) * Pr(C)
= 2/3 x 5/8 x ¾
= 5/16
(ii)Pr{none of the boys passed}
= Pr(A/) * Pr(B/) * Pr(C/)
= 1/3 x 3/8 x ¼
= 1/32
(iii)Probability that only two passed. The two are not Specified, hence
Pr{only two passed} = Pr(A)*Pr(B)* Pr(C/) +Pr(A)*Pr(B/)*Pr(C) +Pr(A/)*Pr(B)*Pr(C )
= (2/3 x 5/8 x ¼ ) + ( 2/3 x 3/8 x ¾ ) + ( 1/3 x 5/8 x ¾ )
= 10 + 18 + 15
96 96 96
= 43
96
SUB-TOPIC 3:
CONTENT: OUTCOME TABLES
For some probability problems, all possible outcomes can be obtained by the use of outcome tables, which gives a
picture of what the possible outcomes of an experiment should be.
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Example 13:
If two dice are thrown simultaneously, find probability of obtaining
(iv) a total of 10
(v) at least a total of 9
(vi) at least one three.

Solution
The outcome table is given below as follows
1st die

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6

2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6

2nddie3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6

4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6

5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6

6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6

From the table above, there are 36 possible outcomes

(ii) Number of required outcome = 3 i.e. {(4,6), (5,5), (6,4) }
Pr {a total of 10 } = 3
36
= 1/12

(ii) Number of required outcome = 10

i.e. { (3,6). (4,5) (5,4), (6,3), (4,6), (5,5), (6,4), (5,6), (6,5), (6,6) }
Pr {at least a total of 9 } = 10
36
= 5/18

(iii) Number of required outcome = 11

i.e. { (1,3), (2,3), (3,3), 4,3), (5,3), (6,3), 3,1), (3,2), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6) }
 Pr {at least one three} = 11
36
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
(1)In a contest, Ama, kwaku and Musa are asked to solve a problem. The probabilities that they solve the problem
correctly are respectively 1/5, 2/3, and 2/5.
Calculate the probabilities that:
(iv) None of them solves the problem correctly,
(v) At least one of them solves the problem correctly,
(vi) Only one of them solves the problem correctly. (WAEC)

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(2)The probability that a seed from a certain packet of sunflower seeds will germinate when planted is 2/5. If two seeds are
selected at random from this packet. Find the probability that:
(i) The two seeds germinate
(ii) Neither of the two seeds germinates
(iii)Exactly one of the two seeds germinate (WAEC)
(3)Two dice are thrown together. What is the probability of getting
(i) a total score of at least 6,
(ii) a double (i.e. the same number on each die).
(iii) A total score greater than 7
(iv) A double or a total score greater than 7? (WAEC)
(4)(a) A pair of fair dice each numbered 1 to 6 is tossed. Find the Probability of getting a sum of at least 9
(5)A number selected at random from each of the sets {2, 3, 4,} and {1, 3, 5}. What is the probability that the sum of the
two numbers will be less than 7 but greater than 3? (WAEC)
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Conditional probability helps to link the probability of two or more events. This probability can be calculated
when the conditions surrounding the outcome of each event are stated e.g
- The probability of A given that B has occurred
- The Probabilities of events carried out with or without replacement etc
We shall be considering two methods of generating the outcomes of such events. They are
A) The tree diagram approach
B) mnpossible outcome method.
METHOD 1
THE TREE DIAGRAM
The tree diagram helps us to generate all the possible outcome of an experiment and the corresponding
probabilities of picking one item from a group of items with or without replacement.
In determining probabilities of joint events for events occurring in a natural sequence, such as in example below,
it is sometimes convenient to represent the probabilities in a tree diagram, as illustrated in the solution below, where each
branch of the tree represents a possible outcome at that particular point and the number on each branch represents the
probability of that particular event. The probability of being at the end of a particular branch is simply the product of the
probabilities on the path, which was traveled to get there. However, for more complicated events tree diagrams becomes
impractical

Example
Suppose a bag contains 7 balls out of which 4 are white and 3 are Blue. Represent in a tree diagram the possible
outcomes and the corresponding probabilities of picking two balls from the bag one after the other
(I) WITH REPLACEMENT
(II) WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

Solution
(I) WITH REPLACEMENT
 Let W represent white
B represent Blue..
White Balls = 4
Blue Balls = 3
7 Ball

1st Choice 2nd Choice possible corresponding

Outcomes probabilities

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 4 W WW Pr (WW) = 4 x4 = 16
7 7 7 49
W 3
4 7
7
B WB Pr (WB) =4 x 3 = 12
3 7 7 49
7 4 W BW Pr(BW) = 3x 4 = 12
7 7 7 49
B 3
7
B BB Pr (BB) = 3 x 3 = 9
7 7 49
NOTE THAT
For convenience,
Pr (WW) Pr (W  W) ,Pr (WB) Pr (W B) etc
(ii) WITHOUT REPLACEMENT
If the balls are drawn from the bag WITHOUT REPLACEMENTS, the tree diagram would be as shown below.

1st choice 2nd choice possible corresponding

outcomes probabilities
WW Pr (WW) = 4/7 x 3/6 =2/7
3
/6
W
4 3
/7 /6
B WB Pr (BW) = 4/7 x 3/6 = 2/7
3
/7 W BW Pr (BW) = 3/7 x 4/6 =2/7
4
/6
B
2
/6
B BB Pr (BB) =3/7 x 2/6 = 1/7
NB: The possible outcomes and the corresponding probabilities are recorded in front of the tree diagram.
Example 15:
Suppose the bag contains 12 balls out of which 5 are white, 4 are Blue and 3 are red. Represent on tree diagram
the possible outcomes and the corresponding probabilities of picking two balls from the bag one after the other.
(i) With replacement
(ii) Without replacement.
Solution
(i) WITH REPLACEMENT

Let W be white , B be Blue, R be Red.

White = 5
Blue = 4
Red = 3 …..
12 Balls.
st
1 choice 2nd choice possible corresponding
Outcome Probabilities
W WW Pr (WW) = 5/12x 5/12 = 25/144
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 5
/12
4
W /12 B WB Pr (WB) = 5/12x 4/12 = 20 /144

3
/12
5
/12 R WR Pr (WR) = 5/12x 3/12 = 15/144
W BW Pr (BW) = 4/12x 5/12 = 20/144
5
/12
4 4
/12 B /12 B BBPr (BB) = 4/12 x 4/12 = 16/144
3
/12
R BR Pr (BR) = 4/12x 3/12 = 12/144

3
/12 W R WPr (RW) = 3/12x 5/12 = 15/144
5
/12
4
R /12 B R B PR (RB) = 3/12x 4/12 = 12/144
3 3 3 9
/12 R RR Pr (R,R) = /12x /12 = /144

(ii) WITHOUT REPLACEMENTS

1st choice 2nd choice possible corresponding
Outcome Probabilities

4
/11 W WW Pr (WW) =5/12x 4/11= 20/132
4
/11 B WB Pr (WB) =5/12x4/11= 20/132
W 3/11
R WR Pr (WR) =5/12 x 3/11 = 15/132

5
/12
5
/11 W BW Pr (BW) =4/12x 5/11= 20/132
4
/12 B 3/11 B BBPr (BB) =4/12x 3/11= 12/132
3
/11 R BR Pr (BR) =4/12x 3/11 = 12/132

3
/12
5
/11 W RW Pr (RW) = 3/12 x 5/11 =15/132
4
R /11 B RB PR (RB) = 3/12x 4/11= 12/132
2
/11 R RR Pr (R,R) = /12 x 2/11 = 6/132
3

Comments
This tree diagram approach may not be convenient in an examination situation especially when you have 3
different items, to make a choice of 3 or more items. This invariably will lead to a very large tree diagram with 27
possible outcomes. For this reason, I wish to introduce a new approach to obtaining the possible outcomes of such
experiments and the corresponding probabilities.

PRACTICE EXERCISE:

(1). A Car dealer Sells four brands of Cars, Toyota, Mazda, Nissan and Lexus. If he has 7 Toyota Cars, 4 Mazda, 6
Nissan and 3 Lexus .Two were purchased one after the other, what is the probability that the Cars purchased were
(i) all Toyota Cars,
(ii) all of the same Brand,
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 (iii) at most one is Lexus ?
(2) A Crate contains 7 bottles of Coke, 4 bottles of Fanta and 3 bottles of Sprite. If three bottles are drawn from the Crate
without replacement, what is the Probability that
(i) all are Fanta
(ii) at least 2 are Coke
(iii) all of different brand ?
(3). A bag Contains 5 grapes, 3 Oranges and 2 Mangoes. If three fruits are drawn from the bag one after the other and
replaced what is the Probability that
(i) all are grapes
(ii) one of each fruit is drawn,
(iii) at least two Mangoes?

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJJECTIVE QUESTIONS
3 3
1. The probabilities that John and James pass an examination are 4and 5
respectively. Find the probability of both
boys failling the examination.
1 3 9 11
A. 10 B. 10 C.20 D. 20 (SSCE)

2. There are m boys and 12 girls in a class. What is the probability of selecting at random a girl from the class?
𝑚 12 12 𝑚
A. B. C. D. (SSCE)
12 𝑚 𝑚+12 𝑚+12

3.The table below gives the marks scored bz a group of students in a test

Mark 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency 1 2 7 5 4 3

What is the probability of selecting a student from the group that scored 2 or 3
1 5 7 −6
A. B. C. D. (SSCE)
11 22 22 11

4. A bag contains 3 red and 2 white balls. If 2 balls arepicked at randomfrom the bag, one after the other and with
replacement, find the probability that they are of different colours.
36 16 12 13
A. 625 B. 625 C. 25 D. 25 (SSCE)

5.. Out of 60 members of an association, 15 are Doctors and 9 are Lawyers. If a member is selected at random from
the Association, what is the probability that the member is neither a Doctor nor a Lawyer.
3 9 3 1
A. 5 B. 10 C. 20 D. 4 (SSCE)

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 6. The probabilities of a boy passing English and mathematics tests are 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively. Find the probability of
the boy failling both tests.
A. 1 − (𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑦 B. 1 − (𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑥𝑦 C. 1 − (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑦 D. 1 − (𝑥 − 𝑦) − 𝑥𝑦 (SSCE)

7. A number is selected at random from the set Y= {18, 19, 20, ..., 28, 29}. Find the probability that the number is
prime.
1 1 2 3
A. 4 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 (SSCE)

8. The number of goals scored by a school team in 10 netball matches are as follows:
3, 5, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 11, 11, 12. Find the probability that in a match, the school team will
score at most 8 goals.
7 2 3 1
A. B. C. D. (SSCE)
10 5 5 5

9. A box contains 5 red, 3 green and 4 blue balls. A boy is allowed to take away two balls from the box. Use this
information to answer questions 18 and 19.

10. What is the probability that the two balls are red?
5 5 103 31
A. 33 B. 36 C. 132 D. 36 (SSCE)

11. What is the probability that one is green and the other blue?

2 5 8 7
A. B. C. D. (SSCE)
11 12 12 12

12. If the probability that an event will occur is p and the probability that it will not occur is q, which of the following
is true?
A. p-q = 1 B. q-p = 0 C. p + q =1 D. p + q = 0
ESSAY QUESTIONS:
1. Two fair dice are tossed together once.
a. Draw the sample space for the possible outcomes.
b. Find the probability of getting a total:
i.of 7 or 8
ii.less than 4. (SSCE)

2. Two fair dice are thrown once. Find the probability of getting:
i.the same digit
ii.a total score greater than 5 (SSCE)

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 2 5 3
3.. The probabilities that Ade, Kujo and Fati will an examination are 3 , 8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
respectively. Find the probability
that:
a. none of them
b. the three
c. Ade and Kujo only will pass the examination. (SSCE)

4.
Limes Apples
Good 10 8
Bad 6 6

The table above shows the number of limes and apples of the same size in a bag. If two of the fruits are picked at
random, without replacement, find the probability that:
i.both are good limes
ii.both are bad fruits
iii.one is a good apple and the other a bad lime. (SSCE)

5. A number is selected at random from the sets {2, 3, 4} and {1, 3, 5}. What is the probability that the sum of the two
numbers will be less than 7 but greater than 3.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Probability, mutually exclusive, mutually independent.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE:

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