Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

CHAPTER 7. EVOLUTION

NOTES

Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.

Evolutionary Biology is the study of evolutionary history of life forms.

ORIGIN OF LIFE

➢ Big Bang Theory states that universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a singular huge explosion.
➢ The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
➢ There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, CH4, CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass
covered the surface.
➢ The UV rays from the sun broke up water into H2 and O2.
➢ Oxygen combined with NH3 & CH4 to form water, CO2 etc.
➢ The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
➢ Life appeared almost four billion years ago.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE
1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis): It states that, life came out of decaying and rotting matter
like straw, mud etc.
Louis Pasteur disproved this theory. He demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life. He showed
that life did not come from killed yeast in a closed pre-sterilized flask. But in an opened flask, life (microbes)
appeared.
2. Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that, life originates from
pre-existing life. But it does not explain origin of first life.
3. Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia): It states that, the units of life (spores) were transferred to different
planets including earth.
4. Theory of special creation: It states that, living things were created by some supernatural power (God).
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that, the first form of life was
originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic
acids etc. i.e. “Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since”.
Urey-Miller experiment

➢ Harold Urey & Stanley Miller experimentally proved theory of chemical evolution. They created a
condition like that of primitive earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere with
CH4, NH3, H2O, H2 etc).
➢ They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As
a result, some amino acids are formed.
➢ In similar experiments, others observed formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

First non-cellular forms of life originated 3 billion years ago. They were self-replicating metabolic
capsule containing RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.

EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION

1. Paleontological evidences
Paleontology is the study of fossils.
Fossils are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust). They are written documents of evolution.
Significance of fossils:
➢ To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history). E.g. Horse evolution.
➢ To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
➢ To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs.
➢ To study about geological period by analysing fossils in different sedimentary rock layers. The study
showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans.
2. Morphological & Anatomical evidences
Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different forms of animals have some common structural
features. This can be explained as follows:
a. Homologous organs
➢ Homologous organs are the organs having fundamentally similar structure and origin but different
functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
➢ Homology in animals: E.g. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot. These
forelimbs have different functions but similar anatomical structures such as bones (e.g. humerus, radius,
ulna, carpals, metacarpals & phalanges). Homology is also seen in heart, brain etc.
➢ Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
➢ The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution. It is the evolution by which related
species become less similar to survive and adapt in different environmental condition.
➢ Homology indicates common ancestry.
b. Analogous organs
➢ These are the organs having similar function but different structure & origin. This phenomenon is
called Analogy.
➢ Analogy in Animals:
• Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
• Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic brain).
• Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
• Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from endoderm).
➢ Analogy in Plants: Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
➢ Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution. It is the evolution by which unrelated
species become more similar to survive and adapt in similar environmental condition.
3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)
➢ Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a
geographical area starting from a point. It is a type of divergent evolution. E.g.
• Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands.
• Australian marsupials (Marsupial radiation).
• Placental mammals in Australia.

➢ When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, it results
in convergent evolution.
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.
Placental Australian
mammals Marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater)

Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf
4. Biochemical evidences
➢ Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules & metabolism. It indicates common
ancestry.
5. Embryological evidences
➢ Proposed by Ernst Haeckel.
➢ He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent in adult.
➢ E.g. all vertebrate embryos (including human) develop vestigial gill slits just behind the head. But it is
functional only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
➢ However, Karl Ernst von Baer rejected this proposal. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult
stages of other animals.
6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection
Natural selection is the process in which organisms with better favourable & heritable variation are survived and
reproduced. Some evidences are given below:
➢ Industrial melanism: In England, before industrialization (1850s), there were more white-winged moths
(Biston betularia) on trees than dark winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria). After
industrialization (1920), more dark-winged moths and less white winged moths were developed.
Reason:
Before industrialization: There was white lichens covered the trees. In that background, white winged moths
survived but dark winged moths were picked out by predators.
After industrialization: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No growth of lichens.
So white winged moths did not survive because the predators identified them easily. Dark winged moth
survived because of suitable dark background.
➢ Development of resistant varieties in organisms against herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc.
These are the examples for natural selection by anthropogenic action (evolution due to human activities).

THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters)

It is proposed by Lamarck. It states that evolution of life forms occurred by the inheritance of acquired
characters.
Acquired characters are developed by use & disuse of organs.
• Evolution by use of organs: E.g. Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous elongation to forage leaves
on trees. This acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations.
• Evolution by disuse: E.g. Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
This theory was eliminated out because it is proved that the characters are inherited only through genes.
Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)
➢ Proposed by Charles Darwin.
➢ It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
➢ Alfred Wallace (a naturalist worked in Malay Archepelago) had also come to similar conclusions.
➢ Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.
➢ Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts:
• Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous life forms.
• Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony A growing on a given medium. If the medium
composition is changed, only a part of the population can survive under new condition. This variant
population (B) outgrows the others and appears as new species, i.e. B is better than A under new
condition. Thus, nature selects for fitness.
➢ Natural selection is based on the following facts:
• Heritable minor variations: It is either beneficial or harmful to the organisms.

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

• Overproduction: Population size grows exponentially due to maximum reproduction (E.g. bacterial
population).
• Limited natural resources: Resources are not increased in accordance with the population size.
• Struggle for existence: It is the competition among organisms for resources so that population size is
limited.
• Survival of the fittest: In struggle for existence, organisms with beneficial variations can utilize
resources better. Hence, they survive and reproduce. This is called Survival of the fittest. It leads to a
change in population characteristics and new forms appear.
➢ Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of evolution or speciation.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
➢ Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation Theory of evolution.
➢ He conducted experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana
➢ (evening primrose) and believed that evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
➢ Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. It results in gradual evolution.
➢ Mutational variation is sudden, random & directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation (single step, large
mutation).
➢ Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution.

HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

➢ It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation in
the absence of disturbing factors.
➢ The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called genetic
equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
➢ Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
➢ E.g. Consider, in a diploid, p & q are the frequencies of alleles A & a respectively.
Frequency of AA = p2
Frequency of aa = q2
Frequency of Aa = 2pq
Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]
➢ Change of frequency of alleles in a population disturbs Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This change is due to
evolution.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
a. Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene frequencies change in both
populations. Gene flow occurs if migration happens multiple times.
b. Genetic drift: The gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change in frequency
is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species. The original drifted
population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.
c. Mutation: It results in formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
d. Genetic recombination: Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over resulting in genetic
variation.
e. Natural selection: It is 3 types.
• Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value and variation is
reduced.
• Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme (value other than mean character value) are more
favoured.
• Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes (peripheral character value at both ends of the
distribution curve) are more favoured.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

The geological time scale includes 4 eras: Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic.
1. Proterozoic era: 2500 - 541 million years ago (mya)
• 2000 mya: First cellular forms of life appeared.
• Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light reaction in photosynthesis.
• Single celled organisms became multicellular organisms.
2. Palaeozoic era (540 - 252 mya)
• It has 6 periods: Cambrian (540 - 490 mya), Ordovician (490 - 443 mya), Silurian (425
mya), Devonian (405 mya), Carboniferous (360 mya) & Permian (285 mya).
• 500 mya: Invertebrates were formed.
• 450 mya: First land organisms (plants) appeared.
• 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
• 350 mya: Jawless fishes were evolved.
➢ Lobefins (stout & strong finned fishes) could move on land and go back to water. They evolved to first
amphibians (ancestors of modern day frogs & salamanders).
➢ In 1938, a lobe-fin called coelacanth fish was caught in South Africa which was thought to be extinct.
• 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants were existed.
• Amphibians evolved to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs (do not dry up in sun).
• Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
3. Mesozoic era (252 - 66 mya)
• Age of reptiles and gymnosperms.
• It has 3 periods: Triassic (230 mya), Jurassic (208 mya) & Cretaceous (144 mya).
• 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g.
Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were dinosaurs (Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Brachiosaurus etc.)
T. rex was the largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).
• Toothed birds were emerged.
4. Cenozoic era (66 - 0 mya)
• Age of Mammals & Angiosperms.
• It has 2 periods: Tertiary (66 mya) & Quaternary (2 mya - Age of man).
• 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of
them evolved into birds.

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

• First mammals were shrew-like. Their fossils are small sized.

• In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. Due
to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna.
• Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of competition from any other
mammals.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

➢ 15 mya: Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus.

Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzee.
Dryopithecus: ape-like.
Ramapithecus: man-like.
➢ 3-4 mya: Man-like primates walked up right in eastern
Africa. Height up to 4 feet. This belief is based on fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia &
Tanzania.
➢ 2 mya: Australopithecus. Lived in East African grass lands. Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.
Homo habilis: First human-like being (hominid).
Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat.
➢ 1.5 mya: Homo erectus (Java man). Large brain (900 cc). Ate meat.
➢ 1 lakh - 40,000 yrs ago: Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man).
Brain capacity: 1400 cc. Lived in East & Central Asia. Used hides to protect their body. Buried their
dead.
➢ 75,000 - 10,000 yrs ago (ice age): Homo sapiens (Modern man).
Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. E.g. Cave paintings at Bhimbetka rock shelter
in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
Agriculture & settlements: 10,000 years ago.
Sequence of Human evolution:
Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Homo erectus → Homo
neanderthalensis → Homo sapiens

NCERT SOLUTIONS

Question 1: Explain antibiotic resistance observed in bacteria in light of Darwinian selection theory.
ANSWER: Darwinian selection theory states that individuals with favourable variations are better adapted than
individuals with less favourable variation. It means that nature selects the individuals with useful variation as
these individuals are better evolved to survive in the existing environment. An example of such selection is
antibiotic resistance in bacteria. When bacterial population was grown on an agar plate containing antibiotic
penicillin, the colonies that were sensitive to penicillin died, whereas one or few bacterial colonies that were
resistant to penicillin survived. This is because these bacteria had undergone chance mutation, which resulted
in the evolution of a gene that made them resistant to penicillin drug. Hence, the resistant bacteria multiplied
quickly as compared to non-resistant (sensitive) bacteria, thereby increasing their number. Hence, the advantage
of an individual over other helps in the struggle for existence.

Question 2: Find out from newspapers and popular science articles any new fossil discoveries or
controversies about evolution.
ANSWER: Fossils of dinosaurs have revealed the evolution of reptiles in Jurassic period. As a result of this,
evolution of other animals such as birds and mammals has also been discovered. However, two unusual fossils
recently unearthed in China have ignited a controversy over the evolution of birds.Confuciusornis is one such
genus of primitive birds that were crow sized and lived during the Creataceous period in China.

Question 3: Attempt giving a clear definition of the term species

ANSWER: Species can be defined as a group of organisms, which have the capability to interbreed in order to
produce fertile offspring.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

Question 4: Try to trace the various components of human evolution (hint: brain size and function,
skeletal structure, dietary preference, etc.)
ANSWER: The various components of human evolution are as follows.
(i) Brain capacity
(ii) Posture
(iii) Food / dietary preference and other important features
Name Brain Posture Food Features
capacity
1. Dryopithecus --- Knuckle walker, Soft fruit and Canines large, arms and legs are of
africans walked similar to leaves equal size
gorillas and
chimpanzees (was
more ape-like)
2. Ramapithecus --- Semi-erect (more Seeds, nuts Canines were small while molars
man-like) were large.
3. Australopithecus 450 cm3 Full erect posture, Herbivorous Hunted with stone weapons, lived at
africanus height (1.05 m) (ate fruits) trees, canines and incisors were
small
4. Homo habilis 735cm3 Fully erect posture, Carnivorous Canines were small. They were first
height (1.5 m) tool makers.
5. Homo erectus 800-1100 Fully erect posture, Omnivorous They used stone and bone tools for
cm3 height(1.5-1.8 m ) hunting games.
6. Homo 1300- Fully erect posture, Omnivorous Cave dwellers, used hides to protect
neanderthalnsis 1600 cm3 height (1.5-1.66 m) their bodies, and buried their dead
7. Homo sapiens 1650 cm3 Fully erect posture Omnivorous They had strong jaw with teeth close
fossilis with height (1.8 m) together. They were cave dwellers,
made paintings and carvings in the
caves. They developed a culture and
were called first modern men.
8. Homo sapiens 1200- Fully erect posture, Omnivorous They are the living modern men,
sapiens 1600 cm3 height (1.5-1.8 m ) with high intelligence. They
developed art, culture, language,
speech, etc. They cultivated crops
and domesticated animals.

Question 5: Find out through internet and popular science articles whether animals other than man have
self-consciousness.
ANSWER: There are many animals other than humans, which have self consciousness. An example of an
animal being self conscious is dolphins. They are highly intelligent. They have a sense of self and they also
recognize others among themselves and others. They communicate with each other by whistles, tail-slapping,
and other body movements. Not only dolphins, there are certain other animals such as crow, parrot, chimpanzee,
gorilla, orangutan, etc., which exhibit self-consciousness.

Question 6: List 10 modern-day animals and using the internet resources link it to a corresponding
ancient fossil. Name both.
ANSWER: The modern day animals and their ancient fossils are listed in the following table.
Animal Fossil
1. Man Ramapithecus
2. Horse Eohippus
3. Dog Leptocyon
4. Camel Protylopus
5. Elephant Moerithers
6. Whale Protocetus
7. Fish Arandaspis
8. Tetrapods Icthyostega
9. Bat Archaeonycteris
10. Giraffe Palaeotragus

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 7: Evolution

Question 7: Practise drawing various animals and plants.

ANSWER: Ask your teachers and parents to suggest the names of plants and animals and practice drawing
them. You can also take help from your book to find the names of plants and animals.

Question 8: Describe one example of adaptive radiation.

ANSWER: Adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process that produces new species from a single, rapidly
diversifying lineage. This process occurs due to natural selection. An example of adaptive radiation is Darwin
finches, found in Galapagos Island. A large variety of finches is present in Galapagos Island that arose from a
single species, which reached this land accidentally. As a result, many new species have evolved, diverged, and
adapted to occupy new habitats. These finches have developed different eating habits and different types of
beaks to suit their feeding habits. The insectivorous, blood sucking, and other species of finches with varied
dietary habits have evolved from a single seed eating finch ancestor.

Question 9: Can we call human evolution as adaptive radiation?

ANSWER: No, human evolution cannot be called adaptive radiation. This is because adaptive radiation is an
evolutionary process that produces new species from a single, rapidly diversifying lineage, which is not the case
with human evolution. Human evolution is a gradual process that took place slowly in time. It represents an
example of anagenesis.

Question 10: Using various resources such as your school library or the internet and discussions with
your teacher, trace the evolutionary stages of any one animal say horse.
ANSWER: The evolution of horse started with Eohippus during Eocene period. It involved the following
evolutionary stages.
(i) Gradual increase in body size
(ii) Elongation of head and neck region
(iii) Increase in the length of limbs and feet
(iv) Gradual reduction of lateral digits
(v) Enlargement of third functional toe
(vi) Strengthening of the back
(vii) Development of brain and sensory organs
(viii) Increase in the complexity of teeth for feeding on grass
The evolution of horse is represented as

(i) Eohippus : It had a short head and neck. It had four functional toes and a splint of 1 and 5 on each hind limb
and a splint of 1 and 3 in each forelimb. The molars were short crowned that were adapted for grinding the plant
diet.
(ii) Mesohippus: It was slightly taller than Eohippus. It had three toes in each foot.
(iii) Merychippus: It had the size of approximately 100 cm. Although it still had three toes in each foot, but it
could run on one toe. The side toe did not touch the ground. The molars were adapted for chewing the grass.
(iv) Pliohippus: It resembled the modern horse and was around 108 cm tall. It had a single functional toe with
splint of 2nd and 4th in each limb.
(v) Equus: Pliohippus gave rise to Equus or the modern horse with one toe in each foot. They have incisors for
cutting grass and molars for grinding food.
__________________________
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone