This is my book

What is this?

This is my book
Whose book is this?

This book is mine

Whose is this book?

The cat ate the mouse.

2 1
1) What did the cat eat?
2) What ate the mouse?

Hardworking students help their friends.

1 2
1) Who helps their friends?
2) Who do hardworking students help?
2) Whom do hardworking students help?

Lions don’t like humans?

1 2
1) What doesn’t like humans?
2) Who don’t lions like?
2) Whom don’t lions like?
2) Who do lions not like?

Naughty children torture animals.

1 2
1) Who tortures animals?
2) What do naughty children torture?

The children are eating cornflakes.

1 2
1)Who is eating cornflakes?
2)What are the children eating?

Lazy students don’t like teachers.

1 2
1) Who doesn’t like teachers?
2) Who don’t lazy students like?
2) Whom don’t lazy students like?

They have lunch at school at 1 p.m

1 2 3 4
1) Who has lunch at school at 1 p.m?
2) What do they have at school at 1 p.m?
3) Where do they have lunch at 1 p.m?
4) When do they have lunch at school?

They are fine.

1 2
1)Who is fine?
2)How are they?

They are my parents.

1 2
1) Who are my parents?
2) Who are they?

1
He drives very carefully?
1 2
1) Who drives very carefully?
2) How does he drive?

HOW+ADJECTIVE (OR ADVERB)

She is 20 years old.

How old is she?

It takes 30 minutes to go from Artvin to Iskebe on foot.

How long does it take to go from Artvin to Iskebe on foot?

It takes 30 minutes to go from Artvin to Iskebe on foot.

How many minutes does it take to go from Artvin to Iskebe on foot?

It is 3 kilometers from Artvin to Iskebe.

How far is it from Artvin to Iskebe?

It is 3 kilometers from Artvin to Iskebe.

How many kilometers is it from Artvin to Iskebe?

He brushes his teeth twice a day.

How often does he brush his teeth?

He brushes his teeth three times a day.

How often does he brush his teeth?

He brushes his teeth three times a day.

How many times a day does he brush his teeth?

How much + uncountable noun

How many + plural noun

There is a lot of milk in the fridge.

How much milk is there in the fridge?

There are 7 students in 10 YD

How many students are there in 10 YD?

There is only one factory in Artvin

How many factories are there in Artvin?

How + adjective What + noun

How old are you? What age are you?

What is your age?
How deep is the pool? What depth is the pool?
What is the depth the pool?
How wide is the road? What width is the road?
What is the width of the road?
How + adverb
How often do you brush your teeth?

2
SORU ZAMİRLERİ-SORU SIFATLARI

There are 3 books on the table.

Which book is yours?
Which is yours?

What nationality is she?

What is her nationality?

What is your job?

What is your occupation?
What do you do?

HAVE GOT/HAS GOT vs. HAVE

She has got a child.

helping main
verb verb

Has she got a child?

She hasn’t got a child

(Main verb “Have”)

She has a child.
Does she have a child?
She doesn’t have a child.

(Semi-modal “Have”)
She has a child.
Has she a child?
She hasn’t a child.

FINE-GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY

How are you?

I am fine(adjective)

He had to pay a fine(noun)

The judge fined him.(verb)

How are you doing?

I am doing fine (adverb)

THERE IS/THERE ARE

Two boys and a girl are in the garden.

A girl and two boys are in the garden.

There is a girl and two boys in the garden

There are two boys and a girl in the garden.

3
 CLAUSE
∕ \
Main clause Subordinate clause

Because I was tired, I slept early.

subordinate clause main clause

Before you came, we had dinner.

subordinate clause main clause

We had dinner before you came.

main clause subordinate clause

NOT: Main clause + subordinate clause

Subordinate clause + comma + main clause

Before the film, I finished my homework.

Before: preposition
Before the film: prepositional phrase

Before the film started, I finished my homework.

Before: conjunction
Before the film started: subordinate clause

Conjunctions vs. Transitions (sentence connectors)

Because I was tired, I slept early.

Because: conjunction
Because I was tired: subordinate clause (adverbial clause)

I slept early because I was tired.

subordinate clause

I was tired. So I slept early.

transition

Incorrect. “I slept early. So I was tired.”

After I come home, I cooked dinner.

After: conjunction
After I came home: subordinate clause

I came home. Then , I cooked dinner.

transition

Obligation and Necessity

The light is red. You must stop.
You must brush your teeth.
Students have to wear uniforms.

Prohibition:
You mustn’t smoke here.(You can’t smoke here)

Lack of obligation or necessity:

We don’t have to wear uniforms at weekends.
We needn’t wear uniforms at weekends.
Mustn’t ≠ don’t have to

4
Substitute Words:
My sister is hardworking but my brother isn’t so. (hardworking)

I think that he is clever.

I don’t think so (that he is clever)

THE SIMPLE PAST:

I went to school yesterday.

I didn’t go to school yesterday.
Did you go to school yesterday?
I did my homework. (“did” in this sentence is the main verb, not helping verb)

You weren’t at the party.

Weren’t you at the party?
Were you not at the party?

Didn’t you come to the party?

Did you not come to the party?

BE USED TO ≠ USED TO

I am used to cold weather.

Be used to something: Bir şeye alışkın olmak

I am used to living in cold weather

Be used to doing something: Bir şeyi yapmaya alışkın olmak

Get/Become used to something or doing something: Bir şeye alışmak (eylem)

I was used to cold weather.

noun phrase

I was used to living in cold weather.

Subject + used to(geçmişteki alışkanlıklar ve genel durumlar)

I used to be very slim when I was at high-school.

I didn’t use to be fat.
Did you use to be slim?
I used to play chess everyday at university.

I used to live in Erzurum. (I don’t live in Erzurum anymore)

There used to be a cinema at our school in Ladik. (There isn’t one now)

5
AS + ADJECTIVE +AS
THE SAME + NOUN +AS

Ahmet is 12 years old.Murat is 12 years old.

Ahmet is as old as Murat.
Ahmet is the same age as Murat.

Betül is 15 years old. Büşra is 16 years old.

Betül isn’t as old as Büşra.
Betül isn’t so old as Büşra.
Betül isn’t the same age as Büşra.

Melek is nearly as tall as Emine.

Zeynep isn’t nearly as tall as Ufuk.
I don’t have money as much as Yücel Hoca.
I don’t have as much money as Yücel Hoca

There are hardworking students in our class as many as yours.

There are as many hardworking students in our class as yours.

Adjective and Adverb

I am a fast runner.
adj.

I am fast.
adj.

I can run fast.

adv.

This question is too hard.

adj.

I studied very hard last year.

adv.

This is a very hard job.

adj.

6
 PLANS, INTENTIONS DECISIONS PREDICTIONS

“GOING TO” (daha önce verilmiş olan kararlar “GOING TO” (konuşma anındaki göstergelere
veya niyetler için) bakarak tahmin yürütüyorsak)

A: Where are you going with those flowers?

B: I am going to visit Mehmet in hospital. - There are black clouds in the sky. It is going to rain.

(Galatasaray:2 Kasımpaşa:0, 60th minute of the

match)
- Galatasaray are 2-0 up. They are going to win the
match.

“WILL” (konuşma anında verilen kararlar için) “WILL” (genel kanı üzerinden tahmin yapıyorsak)

A: Ali broke his leg and he is in hospital now. - It is very hot and humid. It will rain today.
B: Really, I will visit him then.
- Galatasaray is a stronger team than Kasımpaşa.
Galatasaray will win the match.(Before the match)

After “I am sure”, “definitely” , “certainly” “I think” etc,

we use generally use “will”

“PRESENT CONTINUOUS” (randevulaşma, bilet Present continuous tense tahminlerde kullanılmaz.

alma gibi kesinleşmiş gelecek zaman planları için –
fixed arrangements )
- I am visiting my uncle on Sunday. I bought the
ticket.
- Murat and I are watching the match at the café
tomorrow night.
- I am seeing my dentist on Monday.

EXPRESSING PURPOSE-REASON

I am going to the canteen to buy some water. (Amaç)

I am going to the canteen for buying some water. (Amaç) (Kulağını tersten gösteriyor)
I am going to the canteen for some water. (Amaç)
I am going to the canteen because I am thirsty (Reason)
I am going to the canteen because I want to buy some water. (Reason)
I am thirsty. So, I am going to the canteen. (Sonuç)

- Why did you stop at the cafe?

- To drink coffee.
- For drinking coffee.
- For some coffee.
- In order to drink some coffee.
- Because I was thirsty. (Reason)

NOT ANY-NEGATIVE
There isn’t anybody in the class.
There is nobody in the class.

Anybody can learn a language=Everybody can learn a language.

7
When/While

1. Long action+ short action (Long action esnasında olan short action)

I was watching TV. The lights went out.

While +long action, short action

While I was watching TV, the lights went out.
The lights went out while I was watching TV,

When + long action, short action

When +short action, long action
When I was watching TV, the lights went out.
The lights went out when was watching TV,

When the lights went out, I was watching TV,

I was watching TV when the lights went out.

2. Long action+ long action (Aynı anda devam etmekte olan iki long action)

I was watching TV. Mum was washing the dishes.

While+ long action + long action

While I was watching TV, mum was washing the dishes.
Mum was washing the dishes while I was watching TV.

While mum was washing the dishes, I was watching TV.

I was watching TV while mum was washing the dishes.

3. Short action+ short action (Birbiri ardına olan iki short action)

The film ended. We went home

When + short action, short action

When the film ended, we went home.
We went home when the film ended.

Too/Enough

This box is too heavy.

This box is too heavy to carry.
This box is too heavy for Sinem.
This box is too heavy for Sinem to carry.
This box isn’t too heavy for Ufuk to carry.

This box is light enough.

This box is light enough to carry.
This box light enough for me.
This box is light enough for me to carry.

I cannot run fast enough to win the race.

I don’t have enough money.
I don’t have enough money to buy a Ferrari.

Too + adjective/adverb
Adjective/adverb + Enough
Enough + Noun

This question is too difficult.

This question isn’t easy enough.

8
PASSIVE = BE + V3

They prepare various dishes.

s v o

Present Simple Passive

They prepare various dishes.
Various dishes are prepared.

They grow tea in Rize.

Tea is grown in Rize.

Present Continuous Passive

Ufuk is washing the cars.
The cars are being washed by Ufuk.

Ali is making some tea.

Some tea is being made by Ali.

Past Simple Passive

Someone broke he window.
The window was broken.

I prepared the meal yesterday.

The meal was prepared by me yesterday.

Past Continuous Passive

The men were carrying the sofa.
The sofa was being carried by the men.

The children were doing a project.

A project was being done by the children.

Present Perfect Passive

They have completed the Project.
The Project has been completed.

Aynur has finished washing the dishes.

Washing the dishes has been finished by Aynur.

Past Perfect Passive.

Whey had found the keys when I called them.
The keys had been found when I called them.

Going to Passive.
They are going to organize a big party.
A big party is going to be organized by them.

Future Perfect Passive

I will have finished the project by tomorrow.
The project will have been finished by me by tomorrow.

Passive with modals:

Ali should clean the board.
The board should be cleaned by Ali

9
PASSIVE WITH QUESTIONS

Columbus discovered America

America was discovered by Colombus
- Was America discovered by Colombus?

Graham Bell invented the telephone.

- The telephone was invented by Graham Bell.

The telephone was invented by Graham Bell.

1 2
1. What was invented by Graham Bell?
2. Who was the telephone invented by?
2. Whom was the telephone invented by?
2. By whom was the telephone invented?

Colombus discovered America.

America was discovered by Colombus.
- Who was America discovered by?

Breakfast is served at 8 a.m

1 2

1) What is served at 8 a.m?

2) When is breakfast served?

Passive with two objects

Murat gave me a book.

indirect direct
object object

Murat gave a book to me.

direct indirect
object object

Verb + indirect object + direct object

Verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object

I bought my wife flowers.

I.O D.O
I bought flowers for my wife.
D.O I. O

He gave some letters to me.

He gave me some letters

Passive 1: I was given some letters.

Passive 2: Some letters were given to me.

Preparatory subject

Scientist discovered that Pandas ate bamboo shoots.

Verb Object
That pandas ate bamboo shoots was discovered.
It was discovered that pandas ate bamboo shoots.

10
Passive’in kullanıldığı yerler:

1) Bir işi yapandan ziyade yapılan iş önemli ise

- Tea is grown in Rize.

2) Bir işi yapan bilinmiyorsa veya zaten yapan belli ise

- The window was broken last night. (Kıran bilinmiyor)

- The murderer was arrested yesterday. (Tutuklayanın polis olduğu belli)

3) Bir işi yapanı vurgulamak için

- İstanbul was conquered by Fatih Sultan Mehmet

4)Nesnel bir anlatım sağlamak için

Agent-Instrument (Çift Anlam)

The robber killed the man with a knife

agent theme instrument
The man was killed with a knife by the robber.
theme instrument agent

The robber killed the man with a knife.

agent theme
The man with a knife was killed by the robber.
theme agent

Stative Passive or Passive

The window was broken. (passive eylem de olabilir, stative passive de olabilir)
The window was broken by Ali (passive –eylem)

The bank was closed at 5:30 yesterday (passive eylem de olabilir, stative passive de olabilir.)
The bank got closed at 5:30 yesterday (passive –eylem)

SO AS A REFERRAL

I am happy. So is Ufuk.

I am very hardworking but Hilal isn’t so

I think that Hilal is lazy but Melek doesn’t think so

GERUNDS – INFINITIVES

I am playing chess.→continuous eki

I like playing chess.→isim yapan ek (gerund)
Students wanting to go out persuaded the teacher.→ (active relative clause kısaltmalarında kullanılan
“participle –ing)

I am going to school.→preposition
I want to play chess.→infinitive

11
Present Perfect Simple – Present Perfect Continuous

1) Bir işin ne kadarının tamamlandığını veya kaç defa yapıldığını belirtmek istiyorsak present
perfect simple, ne kadar zamandır süregeldiğini belirtmek istiyorsak present perfect
continuous kullanılır.

I have been walking for 3 hours.

I have walked 3 kilometers so far.
I have been to England four times.

2) Konuşma anındaki bir şeyin nedenini yakın geçmişteki bir şeyle açıklayacaksak present
perfect continuous kullanılır. Eğer ana fiil continuous tenslerde kullanılamıyorsa, neden
belirtmek için present perfect simple kullanılır.

A. Why are your clothes dirty?

B: Because I have been repairing the car.

A: Why are you late?

B: Because my car has broken down.

3) Bir işin yakın zamanda tamamlandığını belirtmek için present perfect simple, halen devam
ettiğini anlatmak için present perfect continuous kullanılır.

I have written a book on birds. (I have completed it.)

I have been writing a book on birds. (I am still working on it)

Not: Fakat “live” , “work”, ”teach” gibi fiillerle, present perfect simple da aynı anlamda kullanılabilir.

I have been living in Artvin for 10 years. (I still live in Artvin)

I have lived in Artvin for 10 years (I still live in Artvin)

4) Continuous tenslerde kullanılamayan fiiller, present perfect continuous tense de

kullanılmazlar.

I have known Ahmet for 8 years.

Not: İstisna olarak “want” ve “wish” vardır. Bu fiiller kullanılabilirler.

12
Past, Present and Future Perfect Tenses

1982 I started primary school.

1984 I started learning English.
1990 I entered high school.
1994 I entered university.
1999 I graduated from university and became a teacher.
2010 Now
2014 I will get married
2015 I will buy a car
2018 I will be working as an English teacher
2040 I will retire

I have been a teacher for 11 years.

I have been teaching English for 11 years.
I have been learning English for 26 years.

By the time I started primary school, I hadn’t started learning English.

When I started learning English, I had started primary school.

In 1992, I was attending high school.

By 1994, I had been a student for 12 years.

By 1994, I had started learning English.
By 1994, I had been learning English for 10 years.
By the time I entered University, I had been learning English for 10 years.

By the time I get married, I won’t have bought a car.

By the time I buy a car, I will have got married.

By 2020, I will have got married.

By 2020, I will have been married for 6 years.

By 2040, I will have been an English teacher for 41 years.

By the time I retire, I will have been an English teacher for 41 years.
By the time I retire, I will have taught English for 41 years.
By the time I retire, I will have been teaching English for 41 years.

13
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (Relative Clauses)

I met a man who owns a factory.

main clause adjective clause

Relative Pronoun’un özne yerine kullanılması:

I met a man .He owns a factory.

I met a man who owns a factory.

I met a man that owns a factory

The man was killed .He stole the money.

The man who stole the money was killed

The man that stole the money was killed

I bought a new car. It was made in Germany

I bought a new car which was made in Germany.

I bought a new car that was made in Germany.

The book is lost. It is about animals.

The book which is about animals is lost.

The book that is about animals is lost.

Relative Pronoun’un nesne yerine kullanılması:

The man is a spy .I saw him at the park yesterday.

The man who I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.

The man whom I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.
The man that I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.

I hate the men. I saw them at the park.

I hate the men who I saw at the park.

I hate the men whom I saw at the park.
I hate the men that I saw at the park

The book is lost. I bought it last week.

The book which I bought last week is lost.

The book that I bought last week is lost.

I lost the tickets. My uncle gave them to me.

I lost the tickets which my uncle gave to me.

I lost the tickets that my uncle gave to me.

14
Relative Pronoun’un preposition’ın nesnesi yerine kullanılması:

Andy telephoned the girl. He was waiting for her.

Andy telephoned the girl who she was waiting for.

Andy telephoned the girl whom she was waiting for.
Andy telephoned the girl that she was waiting for.

Andy telephoned the girl for whom she was waiting.

The team is very big. I am playing for it.

The team which I am playing for is very big.

The team that I am playing for is very big.

The team for which I am playing is very big.

Omission of the relative pronoun.

The man is a spy. I saw him at the park yesterday.

The man who I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.

The man whom I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.
The man that I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.
The man I saw at the park yesterday is a spy.

The book is lost. I bought it last week.

The book which I bought last week is lost.

The book that I bought last week is lost.
The book I bought last week is lost.

Andy telephoned the girl. He was waiting for her.

Andy telephoned the girl for whom he was waiting.

Andy telephoned the girl who he was waiting for.
Andy telephoned the girl that he was waiting for.
Andy telephoned the girl he was waiting for.

The team is very big. I am playing for it.

The team for which I am playing is very big.

The team which I am playing for is very big.
The team that I am playing for is very big.
The team I am playing for is very big.

I lost the tickets. They are expensive.

I lost the tickets which are expensive. (Which atılamaz çünkü relative hale getirilen nesne değil, özne)

Ajda Pekkan killed the cat. It ate the mouse.

Ajda Pekkan killed the cat which ate the mouse.
Incorrect: Ajda Pekkan killed the cat ate the mouse. (Which’I atarsak eylemleri yapanlar karışır)

Ajda Pekkan killed the cat .She hated it very much.

Ajda Pekkan killed the cat which she hated very much.
Ajda Pekkan killed the cat she hated very much.

15
Relative Adjective:

Book →noun
him, we, they, us →pronoun

The man is a spy. He was at the park yesterday.

The man who was at the park yesterday is a spy.
Relative Pronoun (who, whom ,which ,that)

Relative adjective → whose

The boy is angry. His books were stolen.
The boy whose books were stolen is angry.

The student writes well. I read his compositions.

The student whose compositions I read writes well.

I bought a book. Its cover is dirty.

I bought a book whose cover is dirty.

I bought a book. The cover of it is dirty.

I bought a book, the cover of which is dirty.

Quantifiers adjective clauses.

I have made some new friends. All of them are from England.
I have made some new friends, all of whom are from England.

(“I have made some new friends, of whom all are form England” da olabilir ama pek yaygın
kullanılmaz.)

I bough two new puppies. Both of them are very cute.

I bought two new puppies, both of which are very cute.

(“I bought two new puppies, of which, both are very cute.” de olabilir ama pek yaygın kullanılmaz.)

Relative Adverbs

The building is very old. I live in it.

in it: adverbial phrase
it: pronoun

The building which I live in is very old.

The building that I live in is very old.
The building I live in is very old
The building in which I live is very old.

The building where I live is very old.

Artvin is a beautiful city. I was born in Artvin.

Artvin is a beautiful city which I was born in.

Artvin is a beautiful city that I was born in.
Artvin is a beautiful city I was born in.
Artvin is a beautiful city in which I was born.
Artvin is a beautiful city where I was born.

16
Artvin is a beautiful city. It is in the north-east of Turkey.
Artvin is a beautiful city which is in the north-east of Turkey.
Artvin is a beautiful city that is in the north-east of Turkey.
Incorrect: Artvin is a beautiful city where is in the north-east of Turkey.

Artvin, which I was born in, is a beautiful city.

Artvin, where I was born, is a beautiful city.

Incorrect: Artvin, that I was born in, is a beautiful city.

Incorrect: Artvin, I was born in, is a beautiful city.

I will never forget the day. I met you on that day.

on that day: adverbial phrase
that day: noun phrase

I will never forget the day on which I met you.

I will never forget the day when I met you
I will never forget the day that I met you.
I will never forget the day I met you.

Incorrect: I will never forget the day which I met you on.
Incorrect: I will never forget the day that I met you on.

Phrasal Verbs:
I gave up smoking.
phrasal verb

I will put my red dress on for the party.

phrasal verb

Put the book on the table.

verb preposition

Not: Phrasal verbler relative clauselarda bölünemezler.

The table on which I put the book
The table which I put the book on

Smoking, which I gave up

Incorrect: Smoking up which I gave,

Separable Phrasal Verbs

I gave up smoking = I gave smoking up
I put my red dress on= I put on my red dress.

Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

I ran into Cemil yesterday = I ran into him yesterday.

Pronoun use with phrasal verbs.

I gave up smoking = I gave smoking up

I gave it up.
Incorrect: I gave up it.

I ran into Cemil yesterday.

I ran into him yesterday.

Incorrect: I ran him into yesterday.

17
.

CONDITIONALS

Real or Probable Unreal, improbable or hypothetical

1) Real or probable present or future 1) Unreal, improbable or hypothetical(present or

future)

-If you heat ice, it melts. -If I had a car, I could give you o lift.
-If he comes early, he will watch TV. -If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.
-If I can finish the homework, I am going to watch TV. -If he was/were rich, he would buy a car.
-If you have problems, the teacher may help you. -If your friend lied to you, what would you do?
-If you are hungry, eat something. -If I were you, I wouldn’t buy that car.
-If you are free, can you help me -If you studied harder, you would/could pass the test.
-If you can pass your driving test, I will let you drive
my car.
-If it doesn’t’ rain tomorrow, we will go swimming.

2. Real Past 2)Unreal or hypothetical (past)

-If They sent the parcel yesterday, it will arrive -If I had studied harder, I could have passed the exam.
tomorrow. -If he had listened to me, he would have understood
-If you were in Erzurum, why didn’t you visit me? his mistake.
-If I had woken up early, I wouldn’t have missed the
bus.

NOT:

He killed his wife and he was sent to prison.

-If he hadn’t killed his wife, he wouldn’t have been sent to prison.

He killed his wife and he is in prison now.

-If he hadn’t killed his wife, he wouldn’t be in prison now.

He isn’t a responsible student. He didn’t study for his exam last week.
- If he was/were a responsible student, he would have studied for his exam last week.

18
19
 MODALS EXPRESSING DEGREES OF CERTAINTY

FACT POSITIVE DEDUCTION POSSIBILITY NEGATIVE DEDUCTION

TENSE MUST MAY, MIGHT, COULD CAN’T, COULDN’T

Rahmi Koç is rich. He has a Ferrari. It rains a lot at this time of the year He has a Ferrari
He must be rich It may rain tomorrow. He can’t be poor.
It might rain tomorrow. He couldn’t be poor.
It could rain tomorrow.

It may not rain tomorrow

It might not rain tomorrow
Incorrect: It couldn’t rain tomorrow

FACT (PAST) POSITIVE DEDUCTION (PAST) POSSIBILITY (PAST) NEGATIVE DEDUCTION(PAST)

TENSE MUST HAVE+V3 MAY HAVE+V3 CAN’T HAVE+V3

MIGHT HAVE+V3 COULDN’T HAVE+V3
COULD HAVE+V3

Küçük Emrah was poor. Ali got 100 from the exam. Mehmet wasn’t at the meeting. The swimming pool was closed yesterday
but he says he was swimming there.

He must have studied very hard. He might have missed the bus. He can’t have been at the swimming pool.
He could have missed the bus. He couldn’t have been at the swimming pool.
He may have missed the bus

He may not have caught the bus.

He might not have caught the bus.

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 POSITIVE
NEGATIVE NEGATIVE UNLIKELINESS POSITIVE
POSSIBILITY PROBABILTY CERTAINTY
CERTAINTY DEDUCTION IMPROBABILTY DEDUCTION

SHOULD
CAN’T MAY (NOT)
OUGHT TO
COULDN’’T UNLIKELY MIGHT (NOT) MUST
PRESENT NOT+TENSE LIKELY TENSE
MUSTN’T (?) IMPROBABLE COULD
PROBABLE
CAN (?)

CAN’T HAVE MAY HAVE

PAST SHOULD HAVE
NOT+TENSE COULDN’T HAVE MIGHT HAVE MUST HAVE NOT+TENSE
OUGHT TO HAVE
COULD HAVE

* “Mustn’t” is used in American English but it is considered incorrect in British English.

* “Can” is only used for theoretical possibility and have a similar meaning to “sometimes”. In questions about present possibility we can use “can” as well. E.g. “Who can it be now?”
* Probability structures “should” and “ought to” are mostly used for future.

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