Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,

Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA

Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 3500300 Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

A
Hands on Lab Guide
On

Database Management System Lab (4IT4-22)

Programme: B.Tech.
Semester: IV
Session: 2021-22

Name: Anjali Pandey

Designation: Assistant Professor
Branch: IT
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 3500300 Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Lab Manual

Database Management System Lab

4IT4-22
Session 2021-22

Author/Owner Reviewed By Approved By

Name Anjali Pandey

Designation Assistant Professor

Signature

Page | 1
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 3500300 Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Instructions
Before Entering the Lab

• All the students are supposed to prepare the theory regarding the next program
• Students are supposed to bring the practical file and lab copy
• Previous program should be written in the practical file
• Algorithm of the current program should be written in lab copy
• Any student not following these instructions will be denied entry in the lab

While working in the Lab

• Adhere to experimental schedule as instructed by the lab in-charge
• Get the previously executed program signed by the instructor
• Get the output of current program checked by the instructor in lab copy
• Each student should work on his assigned computer at each turn of the lab
• Take responsibility of valuable accessories
• Concentrate on the assigned practical and don’t play games
• If anyone is caught red-handed carrying any equipment of the lab, then he/she will
have to face serious consequences

Marking/Assessment System
Total Marks – 100

Internal Assessment Marks Distribution

Midterm Exam Viva Lab Performance File Work Attendance Total

30 6 12 6 6 60

External Assessment Marks Distribution

Lab Performance External Viva Total

20 20 40

Page | 2
 Table of Contents
S.No. Content Page Remarks
Number
1 Course Objective

2 Lab Ethics & Instructions

3 Syllabus

4 Data Definition, Table Creation,

Lab-Assignment – 1 Constraints
5 Insert, Select Commands, Update
Lab-Assignment – 2 and Delete Commands.
6
Lab-Assignment – 3 Nested Queries and Join Queries
7
Lab-Assignment – 4 Views
8 Control structures, Procedures
Lab-Assignment – 5 and Functions
9
Lab-Assignment – 6 Front end tools
10
Lab-Assignment – 7 Forms
11
Lab-Assignment – 8 Triggers
12
Lab-Assignment –9 Menu Design(Beyond Syllabus)
13
Lab-Assignment – 10 Reports(Beyond Syllabus)
14
Post-Requisition Assignments
15
Viva-Voce Questions and Answers
16
Text /References
 RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA
Syllabus
II Year-IV Semester: B.Tech. Information Technology

4IT4-22: Database Management System Lab

Credit: 1.5 Max. Marks: 100(IA:60, ETE:40)
0L+0T+3P
List of Experiments:

1. Design a Database and create required tables. For e.g. Bank, College Database
2. Apply the constraints like Primary Key, Foreign key, NOT NULL to the tables.
3. Write a SQL statement for implementing ALTER,UPDATE and DELETE.
4. Write the queries to implement the joins.
5. Write the query for implementing the following functions: MAX (), MIN (), AVG ()
and COUNT ().
6. Write the query to implement the concept of Integrity constrains.
7. Write the query to create the views.
8. Perform the queries for triggers.
9. Perform the following operation for demonstrating the insertion , updation and
deletion
10. Using the referential integrity constraints.
11. Write the query for creating the users and their role.

Data Base Designing Project:

For better understanding students (group of 3-4 students) should design data base
for any data base project, understand the requirement and design methodology of
project by its own.

Some example of data base design project like:

College management system, Inventory management system and Hospital

management system.

Syllabus of 2nd Year B. Tech. (IT) for students admitted in Session 2021-22 onwards. Page 10
 INDEX

S.NO LIST OF EXPERIMENTS PAGE NO

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE, TABLE CREATION,
1 CONSTRAINTS
DATA MANIPULATION AND DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE
2 (INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE AND DELETE)

3 NESTED QUERIES AND JOINS

4 VIEWS

5 CONTROL STRUCTURES, FUNCTION AND

PROCEDURE

6 FRONT END TOOLS

7 FORMS

8 TRIGGERS

9 MENU DESIGN

10 REPORTS

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Ex No 1 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE, TABLE CREATION, CONSTRAINTS
AIM:
To execute the Data Definition Language (DDL) commands and creating the table with constraints
using RDBMS.

Data Definition Language

DDL(Data Definition Language) statements are used to create, delete, or change the objects of a database.
Typically a database administrator is responsible for using DDL statements or production databases in a
large database system. The commands used are:
● Create - It is used to create a table.
● Alter - This command is used to add a new column, modify the existing column definition and to
include or drop integrity constraint.
● Drop - It will delete the table structure provided the table should be empty.
● Truncate - If there is no further use of records stored in a table and the structure has to be retained,
then the records alone can be deleted.
● Desc - This is used to view the structure of the table.

Table Creation
Rules:
● Reserved words cannot be used.
● Underscore, numerals, letters are allowed but not blank space.
● Maximum length for the table name is 30 characters.
● 2 different tables should not have same name.
● We should specify a unique column name.
● We should specify proper data type along with width.
● We can include “not null” condition when needed. By default it is ‘null’.

Syntax
create table <table name>
{
fieldname-1 datatype constraints if any,
fieldname-2 datatype constraints if any,
…….
fieldname-n datatype constraints if any,
};
create table <table name> as
(
select(att-list) from <existing table name>
);

ALTER TABLE - syntax

alter table <table name> add/modify
(
fieldname-1 datatype,
fieldname-2 datatype,
…..
fieldname-n datatype
);

alter table drop column column name;

Tab l e a l t ered.
DESCRIBING TABLE
Desc <tablename>;
CHANGING NAME OF AN OBJECT

To change the name of a table, view, sequence, or synonym, execute the rename statement.
Syntax: rename old name to new name;

TRUNCATE: - The truncate table statement

● Removes all rows from a table
● Release the storage space used by that table
● We cannot rollback row removal when using truncate.
Syntax:truncate table <table name>;

DROP TABLE
1. All data and structure in the table is deleted
2. Any pending transactions are committed.
3. All indexes are dropped.
4. We can not rollback the drop table statement.
Syntax:drop table <table name>;

Tab l e dropped.
SET UNUSED OPTION:

Used to mark one or more columns as unused.

alter table table name set unused(column name )

(or)
alter table table name set ununsed column column name

REFERENCING ANOTHER USER TABLE

Table belonging to other users are not in the user’s schema, we should use the owner’s name as
prefix to those tables.

Select * from user name .table name

QUERYING THE DATA DICTIONARY

● To see the names of tables owned by the user
Select table_name from user_tables;
● To view distinct object types owned by the user
Select Distinct object_type from user_objects;

● To view tables, views, synonyms and sequences owned by the user;

Select * from user_catalog;
Constraints:
The three types of constraints are Domain Integrity Constraints, Entity Integrity Constraints, and
Referential Integrity Constraints
Integrity Constraints are used to enforce rules that the columns in a table have to conform with. It is a
mechanism used by Oracle to prevent invalid data entry into the table.
1. Domain Integrity Constraints
a. Not Null Constraint – The enforcement of Not Null Constraints in a table ensures that the
table contain values.
b. Check Constraint – Allow only a particular range of values
2. Entity Integrity Constraints
a. Unique Constraints – The unique constraint designates a Column or a group of columns as
unique key. This allows only unique value to be stored in the column. Rejects duplication.
b. Primary Key Constraints – Primary key similar to unique key. avoids duplication , relation
between two tables , does not allow not null values.

3. Referential Integrity Constraints

Enforces relationship between tables. It designates a column or group of columns as a foreign key

Sample Output
CONSTRAINTS

NOT NULL, UNIQUE AND CHECK CONSTRINTS

SQL> create table vendor_master(vencode varchar(5) unique,

venname varchar(7) not null);

Table created.

SQL> desc vendor_master;

Name Null? Type

VENCODE VARCHAR2(5)
VENNAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(7)

SQL> alter table vendor_master add(productprice number(10)

check(productprice<10000));

Table altered.

SQL> insert into vendor_master values('v001','Sony TV',9100);

1 row created.

UNIQUE CONSTRAINT VIOLATION

SQL> insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',

&productprice);
Enter value for vencode: v001
Enter value for venname: Philips
Enter value for productprice: 6000
old 1: insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
new 1: insert into vendor_master values('v001','Philips',6000)
insert into vendor_master values('v001','Philips',6000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (USER06.SYS_C002807) violated
SQL> ed
Wrote file afiedt.buf
1* insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
SQL> /
Enter value for vencode: v002
Enter value for venname: Sony TV
Enter value for productprice: 6000
old 1: insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
new 1: insert into vendor_master values('v002','Sony TV',6000)

1 row created.

NULL CONSTRAINT VIOLATION

SQL> /
Enter value for vencode: v003
Enter value for venname:
Enter value for productprice: 9000
old 1: insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
new 1: insert into vendor_master values('v003','',9000)
insert into vendor_master values('v003','',9000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("USER06"."VENDOR_MASTER".
"VENNAME")

SQL> /
Enter value for vencode: v003
Enter value for venname: Philips
Enter value for productprice: 8000
old 1: insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
new 1: insert into vendor_master values('v003','Philips',8000)

1 row created.

CHECK CONSTRAINT VIOLATION

SQL> /
Enter value for vencode: v004
Enter value for venname: Akai
Enter value for productprice: 12000
old 1: insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
new 1: insert into vendor_master values('v004','Akai',12000)
insert into vendor_master values('v004','Akai',12000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (USER06.SYS_C002809) violated

SQL> /
Enter value for vencode: v005
Enter value for venname: Aiwa
Enter value for productprice: 8500
old 1: insert into vendor_master values('&vencode','&venname',
&productprice)
new 1: insert into vendor_master values('v005','Aiwa',8500)
1 row created.
PRIMARY AND FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINTS
SQL> create table order_master(orderno varchar(5) constraint order_prim
primary key,odate date,
vencode varchar(5),o_status char(1) not null,deldate date);

Table created.

SQL> desc order_master;

Name Null? Type

ORDERNO NOT NULL VARCHAR2(5)

ODATE DATE
VENCODE VARCHAR2(5)
O_STATUS NOT NULL CHAR(1)
DELDATE DATE

SQL> create table order_detail(orderno varchar2(5) ,itemcode varchar(3),

qtyorder number(3),
foreign key(orderno) references order_master on delete cascade on
update cascade);

Table created.

SQL> desc order_detail;

Name Null? Type

ORDERNO VARCHAR2(5)
ITEMCODE VARCHAR2(3)
QTYORDER NUMBER(3)

SQL> insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',

'&o_status','&deldate');
Enter value for oredrno: o001
Enter value for odate: 12-aug-2009
Enter value for vencode: v001
Enter value for o_status: p
Enter value for deldate: 12-sep-2009
old 1: insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',
'&o_status','&deldate')
new 1: insert into order_master values('o001','12-aug-2009','v001','p',
'12-sep-2009')

1 row created.

PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT VIOLATION

SQL> /
Enter value for oredrno: o001
Enter value for odate: 11-nov-2008
Enter value for vencode: v002
Enter value for o_status: p
Enter value for deldate: 14-feb-2010
old 1: insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',
'&o_status','&deldate')
new 1: insert into order_master values('o001','11-nov-2008','v002','p',
'14-feb-2010')
insert into order_master values('o001','11-nov-2008','v002','p',
'14-feb-2010')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (USER06.ORDER_PRIM) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for oredrno: o002
Enter value for odate: 13-jan-2007
Enter value for vencode: v002
Enter value for o_status: p
Enter value for deldate: 16-oct-2009
old 1: insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',
'&o_status','&deldate')
new 1: insert into order_master values('o002','13-jan-2007','v002','p',
'16-oct-2009')

1 row created.

SQL> select * from order_master;

ORDER ODATE VENCO O DELDATE

-
o001 11-NOV-08 voo2 p 14-FEB-10
o002 13-JAN-07 v002 p 16-OCT-09

FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT VIOLATION

SQL> insert into order_detail values('&orderno','&itemcode',&qtyorder);

Enter value for orderno: o003
Enter value for itemcode: i01
Enter value for qtyorder: 25
old 1: insert into order_detail values('&orderno','&itemcode',&qtyorder)
new 1: insert into order_detail values('o003','i01',25)
insert into order_detail values('o003','i01',25)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (USER06.SYS_C002814) violated - parent key
not
found

SQL> /
Enter value for orderno: o001
Enter value for itemcode: i01
Enter value for qtyorder: 25
old 1: insert into order_detail values('&orderno','&itemcode',&qtyorder)
new 1: insert into order_detail values('o001','i01',25)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from order_detail;

ORDER ITE QTYORDER

o001 i01 25

SQL>delete from order_master where orderno='o001'

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (USER06.SYS_C002814) violated - child
record found

USING on delete cascade with foreign key constraint

SQL> drop table order_master;

Table dropped.

SQL> drop table order_detail;

Table dropped.

SQL> create table order_master(orderno varchar(5) constraint order_prim

primary key, odate date,
vencode varchar(5),o_status char(1) not null,deldate date);

SQL>create table order_detail(orderno varchar2(5) ,itemcode varchar(3),

qtyorder number(3),
foreign key(orderno) references order_master on delete cascade);

Table created.

SQL> insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',

'&o_status','&deldate');

Enter value for oredrno: o001

Enter value for odate: 12-jan-2007
Enter value for vencode: voo1
Enter value for o_status: p
Enter value for deldate: 13-jun-2008
old 1: insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',
'&o_status','&deldate')
new 1: insert into order_master values('o001','12-jan-2007','voo1','p',
'13-jun-2008')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for oredrno: o002
Enter value for odate: 24-sep-2008
Enter value for vencode: voo2
Enter value for o_status: p
Enter value for deldate: 16-jan-2010
old 1: insert into order_master values('&oredrno','&odate','&vencode',
'&o_status','&deldate')
new 1: insert into order_master values('o002','24-sep-2008','voo2','p',
'16-jan-2010')

1 row created.
 SQL> select * from order_master;

ORDER ODATE VENCO O DELDATE

-
o001 12-JAN-07 voo1 p 13-JUN-08
o002 24-SEP-08 voo2 p 16-JAN-10

SQL> insert into order_detail values('&orderno','&itemcode',&qtyorder);

Enter value for orderno: o001
Enter value for itemcode: i01
Enter value for qtyorder: 25
old 1: insert into order_detail values('&orderno','&itemcode',&qtyorder)
new 1: insert into order_detail values('o001','i01',25)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for orderno: o002
Enter value for itemcode: i02
Enter value for qtyorder: 50
old 1: insert into order_detail values('&orderno','&itemcode',&qtyorder)
new 1: insert into order_detail values('o002','i02',50)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from order_detail;
ORDER ITE QTYORDER

o001 i01 25
o002 i02 50

SQL> delete from order_master where orderno='o001';

1 row deleted.

SQL> select * from order_master;

ORDER ODATE VENCO O DELDATE

-
o002 24-SEP-08 voo2 p 16-JAN-10

SQL> select * from order_detail;

ORDER ITE QTYORDER

o002 i02 50

[Note: Deletion of a row in parent is reflected in child table also. ]

RESULT:
Thus the Data Definition Language (DDL) and Data Control Language (DCL) commands in
RDBMS were executed and verified.
EX.NO:2 DATA MANIPULATION AND DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE
(Insert, select, update and delete commands)

AIM:

To execute the Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Data Control Language (DCL) commands in
RDBMS.

Data Manipulation Language

DML commands are the most frequently used SQL commands and is used to query and manipulate the
existing database objects. Some of the commands are
1. Insert
2. Select
3. Update
4. Delete

Syntax :

INSERT: This is used to add one or more rows to a table. The values are separated by commas and
the data types char and date are enclosed in apostrophes. The values must br entered in the same order as
they are defined.

Inserting a single row into a table:

insert into <table name> values(fieldvalue-1,fieldvalue-2,…,fieldvalue-n);

Inserting more than one record using a single insert command:

insert into <table name> values(&fieldname-1,&fieldname-2,…&fieldname-n);

Skipping the fields while inserting:

insert into <tablename(coln names to which datas to b inserted)> values (list of values);
Other way is to give null while passing the values.
insert into <table name>(select(att_list) from <existing table name>);

SELECT: - It is used to retrieve information from the table.it is generally refered to as querying the
table. We can either display all columns in a table or only specify column from the table.
SELECT(att_list) FROM <table name> [WHERE <condition/expression>];
Retrieval of all columns from a table:
Select * from tablename; // This query selects all rows from the table.
Retrieval of specific columns from a table:It retrieves the specified columns from the table.
Syntax: Select column_name1, …..,column_namen from table name;
Elimination of duplicates from the select clause: It prevents retriving the duplicated values .Distinct
keyword is to be used.
Syntax: Select DISTINCT col1, col2 from table name;
Select command with where clause: To select specific rows from a table we include ‘where’ clause in
the select command. It can appear only after the ‘from’ clause.
Syntax: Select column_name1, …..,column_namen from table name where condition;
Select command with order by clause:
Syntax: Select column_name1, …..,column_namen from table name where condition order
by colmnname;
Select command to create a table:
Syntax: create table tablename as select * from existing_tablename;
Select command to insert records:
Syntax: insert into tablename ( select columns from existing_tablename);
UPDATE - It is used to alter the column values in a table. A single column may be updated or more
than one column could be updated.

update <table name> set(fieldname-1 = value, fieldname-2 = value,…,fieldname-n = value)

[WHERE <condition/expression>];

DELETE - After inserting row in a table we can also delete them if required. The delete command
consists of a from clause followed by an optional where clause.

delete from <table name> [where <condition/expression>];

TRANSACTION CONTROL
The DML language statements Insert, Delete, Update are affected i.e., written in the database
unless the user specially says so. The command for this is
SQL> commit;
Commit complete.
This will commit (write to database) the transactions done by the DML.
After inserting, updating or deleting the transactions the user does not want to commit the changes, then
the user can rollback the transaction using the command:
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.
It will rollback the transaction and will not commit the changes to the database.
SQL> savepoint s1;
Savepoint s1 created.
It will save the transactions under the name s1.
DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE:
Data control language provides users with privilege commands.
GRANT - Used to give privilege to user on object
Grant privilege on <object_name> to <user name>;
e.g) grant write on employee to user01;
REVOKE - Used to withdraw the privilege that has been granted to the user.
Revoke privilege on <object_name> from <user name>;
e.g) revoke write on employee from user01;
Sample Output
INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE AND DELETE COMMANDS

SQL> create table person(pid int, lastname varchar2(10),firstname varchar(10),

address varchar2(20),age number);

Table created.

INSERTING A SINGLE ROW INTO A TABLE

SQL> insert into person values(1,'Prettina','Anne','Bangalore',14);

1 row created.

SQL> insert into person values(2,'Benitto','Anish','Trichy',24);

1 row created.

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24

INSERTING MORE THAN ONE ROW USING A SINGLE INSERT COMMAND

SQL> insert into person values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname','&address',&age);

Enter value for pid: 3
Enter value for lastname: Raj
Enter value for firstname: Anita
Enter value for address: Chennai
Enter value for age: 27
old 1: insert into person values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname','&address',&age)
new 1: insert into person values(3,'Raj','Anita','Chennai',27)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pid: 4
Enter value for lastname: kumar
Enter value for firstname: Ashok
Enter value for address: Coimbatore
Enter value for age: 30
old 1: insert into person values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname','&address',&age)
new 1: insert into person values(4,'kumar','Ashok','Coimbatore',30)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
 3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30

SKIPPING THE FIELDS WHILE INSERTING

SQL> insert into person(pid,lastname,firstname) values(5,Hinn,Benny);

insert into person(pid,lastname,firstname) values(5,'Hinn','Benny')

1 row created.

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny

INSERT VALUES USING MEANINGFUL FIELD NAMES

SQL> insert into person values(&personid,'&lastname','&firstname','&personaddress',&age);

Enter value for personid: 6
Enter value for lastname: Prakash
Enter value for firstname: Bhaskar
Enter value for personaddress: Andhra
Enter value for age: 40
old 1: insert into person values(&personid,'&lastname','&firstname','&personaddress',&age)
new 1: insert into person values(6,'Prakash','Bhaskar','Andhra',40)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14

2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny
6 Prakash Bhaskar Andhra 40

6 rows selected.

UPDATE VALUES USING CONDITION

SQL> update person set address='United States'where pid=5;

1 row updated.

UPDATE VALUES USING &

SQL> update person set address ='&address',age=&age where pid=&pid;

Enter value for address: Assam
Enter value for age: 40
Enter value for pid: 6
old 1: update person set address ='&address',age=&age where pid=&pid
new 1: update person set address ='Assam',age=40 where pid=6

1 row updated.

SQL> /
Enter value for address: Britain
Enter value for age: 55
Enter value for pid: 5
old 1: update person set address ='&address',age=&age where pid=&pid
new 1: update person set address ='Britain',age=55 where pid=5

1 row updated.

SELECT COMMAND TO RETRIEVE THE ENTIRE INFORMATION FROM THE TABLE

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40

6 rows selected.

SELECT COMMAND USING 'WHERE' CLAUSE

SQL>select * from person where lastname= 'Kumar' and address='Coimbatore';

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

SELECT COMMAND TO RETRIEVE THE TOP VALUES

SQL> select * from person where rownum<=3;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27

SELECT COMMAND WITH LIKE OPERATOR

SQL> select * from person where address like 'C%';

 PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE
-
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30

SQL> select * from person where address like '%i%';

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
2 Benitto Anish richy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55

SELECT COMMAND USING IN OPERATOR

SQL> select * from person where lastname in('Prettina');

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

-
1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14

SELECT COMMAND USING BETWEEN OPERATOR

SQL> insert into person values(7,'Kumar','Chander','Coimbatore',45);

1 row created.

SQL> select * from person where lastname between 'Kumar' and 'Kumar';

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

6 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30

7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

SELECT COMMAND TO ELIMINATE DUPLICATES

SQL> select DISTINCT lastname from person;

LASTNAME

Benitto
Hinn
Kumar
Prakash
Prettina
Raj
6 rows selected.

SELECT COMMAND WITH ORDER BY CLAUSE

SQL> select pid, firstname,age from person order by age;

 PID FIRSTNAME AGE

1 Anne 14
2 Anish 24
3 Anita 27
4 Ashok 30
6 Bhaskar 40
7 Chander 45
5 Benny 55

7 rows selected.

SELECT COMMAND TO CREATE A TABLE

SQL> create table individual as select * from person;

Table created.

SQL> select * from individual;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14

2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40
7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

7 rows selected.

SELECT COMMAND TO INSERT RECORDS

SQL> insert into individual(select * from person);

7 rows created.

SELECT COMMAND WITH FUNCTIONS

SQL> select count(*) as pid from person;

PID

7
SQL> select count(distinct lastname) as pid from person;

PID

6
SQL> select max(age) from person;

MAX(AGE)
 55

SQL> select min(age) from person;

MIN(AGE)

14

SQL> select sum(age) from person;

SUM(AGE)

235

DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL) COMMANDS

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14

2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40
7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

7 rows selected.

SQL> commit;

Commit complete.

DELETE COMMAND

SQL> delete from person where lastname='Kumar';

2 rows deleted.

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14

2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40

SQL> rollback;

Rollback complete.
SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14

2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40
7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

7 rows selected.

SQL> savepoint s1;

Savepoint created.

SQL> delete from person;

7 rows deleted.

SQL> select * from person;

no rows selected

SQL> rollback to savepoint s1;

Rollback complete.

SQL> select * from person;

PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14

2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40
7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

7 rows selected.

RESULT:

Thus the Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Data Control Language (DCL) commands in
RDBMS were executed and verified.
EX.NO:3 NESTED QUERIES AND JOINS

AIM:
To execute nested queries and join commands in SQL.

NESTED QUERIES :

A subquery is a query within a query. In Oracle, you can create subqueries within your SQL statements.
These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT clause.

JOINS:
Join is a query in which data is returned from two or more tables.

How the join will be performed:

Step 1: Make the Cartesian product of the given tables.
Step 2: Check for the equality on common attributes for the given tables.

Natural join:
It returns the matching rows from the table that are being joined.
Syntax:
>select <attribute> from TN where TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
Inner join:
It returns the matching rows from the table that are being joined.
Syntax:
>select <attribute> from TN1 innerjoin TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
Left outer join:
It returns all the rows from the table1 even when they are unmatched.
Syntax:
5. select <attribute> from TN1 left outer join TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
2. select <attribute> from TN where TN1.attribute(+)=TN2.attribute.
Right outer join:
It returns all the rows from the table2 even when they are unmatched.
Syntax:
4. select <attribute> from TN1 right outer join TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
2. select <attribute> from TN where TN1.attribute=(+)TN2.attribute.
Full join:
It is the combination of both left outer and right outer join.
Syntax:
>select <attribute> from TN1 full join TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.

Sample Output

NESTED QUERIES - Table Creation

SQL> create table emp_det(eno number(3) not null, ename varchar2(25),

address varchar2(30),
basic_sal number(12,2),job_status varchar2(15),dno number(3));

Table created.

SQL> create table pro_det(pno number(3) not null,pname varchar2(30),

no_of_staff number(3));

Table created.
SQL> create table work_in(pno number(3),eno number(3),pjob char(12));

Table created.
SQL> desc emp_det;
Name Null? Type

ENO NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

ENAME VARCHAR2(25)
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(30)
BASIC_SAL NUMBER(12,2)
JOB_STATUS VARCHAR2(15)
DNO NUMBER(3)

SQL> desc pro_det;

Name Null? Type

PNO NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

PNAME VARCHAR2(30)
NO_OF_STAFF NUMBER(3)

SQL> desc work_in;

Name Null? Type

PNO NUMBER(3)
ENO NUMBER(3)
PJOB CHAR(12)

SQL> insert into emp_det values(&eno,'&ename','&address',&basic_sal,

'&job_status',&dno);
Enter value for eno: 1
Enter value for ename: SaravanaKumar
Enter value for address: GandhiNagar
Enter value for basic_sal: 8000
Enter value for job_status: Manager
Enter value for dno: 10
old 1: insert into emp_det values(&eno,'&ename','&address',&basic_sal,
'&job_status',&dno)
new 1: insert into emp_det values(1,'SaravanaKumar','GandhiNagar',
8000,'Manager',10)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for eno: 2
Enter value for ename: Mahendran
Enter value for address: RainbowColony
Enter value for basic_sal: 5000
Enter value for job_status: Supervisor
Enter value for dno: 10
old 1: insert into emp_det values(&eno,'&ename','&address',&basic_sal,
'&job_status',&dno)
new 1: insert into emp_det values(2,'Mahendran','RainbowColony',5000,
'Supervisor',10)

1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for eno: 3
Enter value for ename:Rajkumar
Enter value for address: EastCoastRoad
Enter value for basic_sal: 10000
Enter value for job_status: Professor
Enter value for dno: 2
old 1: insert into emp_det values(&eno,'&ename','&address',&basic_sal,
'&job_status',&dno)
new 1: insert into emp_det values(3,'RajKumar','EastCoastRoad',10000,
'Professor',2)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for eno: 4
Enter value for ename: Shirley
Enter value for address: KKnagar
Enter value for basic_sal: 8000
Enter value for job_status: AsstManager
Enter value for dno: 3
old 1: insert into emp_det values(&eno,'&ename','&address',&basic_sal,
'&job_status',&dno)
new 1: insert into emp_det values(4,'Shirley','KKnagar',8000,
'AsstManager',3)

1 row created.

SQL> alter table emp_det modify(ename varchar2(15), address varchar2(15));

Table altered.

SQL> select * from emp_det;

ENO ENAME ADDRESS BASIC_SAL JOB_STATUS DNO

-
1 SaravanaKumar GandhiNagar 8000 Manager 10
2 Mahendran RainbowColony 5000 Supervisor 10
3 RajKumar EastCoastRoad 10000 Professor 2
4 Shirley KKnagar 8000 AsstManager 3
SQL> insert into pro_det values(&pno,'pname',&no_of_staff);
Enter value for pno: 1
Enter value for no_of_staff: 2
old 1: insert into pro_det values(&pno,'pname',&no_of_staff)
new 1: insert into pro_det values(1,'pname',2)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pno: 2
Enter value for no_of_staff: 3
old 1: insert into pro_det values(&pno,'pname',&no_of_staff)
new 1: insert into pro_det values(2,'pname',3)
 1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pno: 3
Enter value for no_of_staff: 1
old 1: insert into pro_det values(&pno,'pname',&no_of_staff)
new 1: insert into pro_det values(3,'pname',1)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from pro_det;

PNO PNAME NO_OF_STAFF

-
1 pname 2
2 pname 3
3 pname 1

SQL>update pro_det set pname='DBMS' where pno=1;

1 row updated.
SQL> update pro_det set pname='COMPILER' where pno=2;
1 row updated.
SQL>update pro_det set pname='C' where pno=3;
1 row updated.

SQL> select * from Pro_det;

PNO PNAME NO_OF_STAFF

-
1 DBMS 2
2 COMPILER 3
3C 1

SQL> insert into work_in values(&pno,&eno,'&pjob');

Enter value for pno: 1
Enter value for eno: 1
Enter value for pjob: Programmer
old 1: insert into work_in values(&pno,&eno,'&pjob')
new 1: insert into work_in values(1,1,'Programmer')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pno: 2
Enter value for eno: 1
Enter value for pjob: Analyst
old 1: insert into work_in values(&pno,&eno,'&pjob')
new 1: insert into work_in values(2,1,'Analyst')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pno: 1
Enter value for eno: 2
 Enter value for pjob: Analyst
old 1: insert into work_in values(&pno,&eno,'&pjob')
new 1: insert into work_in values(1,2,'Analyst')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pno: 2
Enter value for eno: 2
Enter value for pjob: Programmer
old 1: insert into work_in values(&pno,&eno,'&pjob')
new 1: insert into work_in values(2,2,'Programmer')

1 row created.

SQL> select * from work_in;

PNO ENO PJOB

1 1 Programmer
2 1 Analyst
1 2 Analyst
2 2 Programmer

NESTED QUERIES

(i) SQL> select ename from emp_det where dno not in(select dno from emp_det where ename =
'SaravanaKumar');

ENAME

RajKumar
Shirley

(ii) SQL> select ename, dno from emp_det where dno = (select dno from emp_det where ename =
'RajKumar');

ENAME DNO

RajKumar 2

(iii) SQL> select ename from emp_det where eno in(select eno from work_in where pno = (select pno
from pro_det where pname = 'DBMS')) order by ename;

ENAME

Mahendran
SaravanaKumar

(iv) SQL> select ename, basic_sal from emp_det where dno = 2 and basic_sal>(select max(basic_sal) from
emp_det where dno = 10) order by ename;
ENAME BASIC_SAL

RajKumar 10000
(v) SQL> select pno,pname from pro_det where exists(select pno from work_in where work_in.pno =
pro_det.pno);

PNO PNAME

1 DBMS
2 COMPILER

(vi) SQL>select ename, job_status,basic_sal from emp_det where (dno,basic_sal) in (select dno,basic_sal
from emp_det where ename ='RajKumar');

ENAME JOB_STATUS BASIC_SAL

RajKumar Professor 10000

(vii) SQL>select * from emp_det where basic_sal=(select max(basic_sal) from emp_det);

ENO ENAME ADDRESS BASIC_SAL JOB_STATUS DNO

3 RajKumar EastCoastRoad 10000 Professor 2

(viii) SQL>select max(basic_sal) from emp_det where basic_sal< (select max(basic_sal) from emp_det);

MAX(BASIC_SAL)

8000

(ix) SQL> select * from emp_det where basic_sal < (select avg(basic_sal) from emp_det);

ENO ENAME ADDRESS BASIC_SAL JOB_STATUS DNO

-
2 Mahendran RainbowColony 5000 Supervisor 10

JOINS

SQL> create table emp(name varchar2(20),salary number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into emp values('&name',&salary);

Enter value for name: ashu
Enter value for salary: 10000
old 1: insert into emp values('&name',&salary)
new 1: insert into emp values('ashu',10000)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: asma
Enter value for salary: 1200
old 1: insert into emp values('&name',&salary)
new 1: insert into emp values('asma',1200)

1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for name: asif
Enter value for salary: 2000
old 1: insert into emp values('&name',&salary)
new 1: insert into emp values('asif',2000)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: arif
Enter value for salary: 1000
old 1: insert into emp values('&name',&salary)
new 1: insert into emp values('arif',1000)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: niyas
Enter value for salary: 3000
old 1: insert into emp values('&name',&salary)
new 1: insert into emp values('niyas',3000)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from emp;

NAME SALARY

ashu 10000
asma 1200
asif 2000
arif 1000
niyas 3000

SQL> create table emp1(name varchar2(20),empid number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid);

Enter value for name: fathi
Enter value for empid: 12
old 1: insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid)
new 1: insert into emp1 values('fathi',12)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: sumi
Enter value for empid: 32
old 1: insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid)
new 1: insert into emp1 values('sumi',32)

1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for name: priya
Enter value for empid: 11
old 1: insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid)
new 1: insert into emp1 values('priya',11)

1 row created.

SQL> /

Enter value for name: wahab

Enter value for empid: 10
old 1: insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid)
new 1: insert into emp1 values('wahab',10)

1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for name: sweety
Enter value for empid: 09
old 1: insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid)
new 1: insert into emp1 values('sweety',09)

1 row created.

SQL>/

Enter value for name: asma

Enter value for empid: 1200
old 1: insert into emp1 values('&name',&empid)
new 1: insert into emp1 values('asma',1200)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from emp1;

NAME EMPID

fathi 12
sumi 32
priya 11
wahab 10
sweety 9
asma 1200

6 rows selected.

NATURAL JOIN
************

SQL>select emp.name,salary from emp,emp1 where emp.name=emp1.name

NAME SALARY

asma 1200
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
****************

SQL>select emp.name,salary from emp left outer join emp1 on emp.name=emp1.name

NAME SALARY
-
asma 1200
asif 2000
arif 1000
niyas 3000
ashu 10000

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

*****************
SQL>select emp1.name,empid from emp right outer join emp1 on emp.name=emp1.name

NAME EMPID

asma 1200
sweety 9
sumi 32
wahab 10
fathi 12
priya 11

6 rows selected.

FULL JOIN
***********

SQL>select emp1.name,emp.name,emp1.empid,salary from emp full join emp1 on

emp.name=emp1.name

NAME NAME EMPID SALARY

asma asma 1200 1200

asif 2000
arif 1000
niyas 3000
ashu 10000
sweety 9
sumi 32
wahab 10
fathi 12
priya 11

10 rows selected.
RESULT:

Thus the nested queries and join operations are executed and verifiedin DBMS.
EX.NO:4 VIEWS

AIM:

To study and create View commands

VIEWS:

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.A view contains rows and
columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.

SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more
real tables in the database.

SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

SQL Dropping a View

You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name

Sample Output

TABLE 1 CREATION
***************
`SQL> create table aa(name varchar2(20),book number(10),edition number(20),price number(20),
ISBN number(20));

Table created.

SQL> insert into aa values('&name',&number,&edition,&price,&ISBN);

Enter value for name: bb
Enter value for number: 23
Enter value for edition: 2001
Enter value for price: 12
Enter value for isbn: 23435
 old 1: insert into aa values('&name',&number,&edition,&price,&ISBN)
new 1: insert into aa values('bb',23,2001,12,23435)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: cc
Enter value for number: 55
Enter value for edition: 342
Enter value for price: 76
Enter value for isbn: 687478
old 1: insert into aa values('&name',&number,&edition,&price,&ISBN)
new 1: insert into aa values('cc',55,342,76,687478)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: dd
Enter value for number: 2
Enter value for edition: 1233
Enter value for price: 123
Enter value for isbn: 53616578
old 1: insert into aa values('&name',&number,&edition,&price,&ISBN)
new 1: insert into aa values('dd',2,1233,123,53616578)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: ee
Enter value for number: 21
Enter value for edition: 1111
Enter value for price: 111
Enter value for isbn: 12435798
old 1: insert into aa values('&name',&number,&edition,&price,&ISBN)
new 1: insert into aa values('ee',21,1111,111,12435798)

1 row created.

TABLE 2 CREATION
*****************
SQL> create table qq(name varchar2(20),book number(10),author varchar(20),publisher varchar2(20),
ISBN number(20));

Table created.

SQL> select * from aa;

NAME BOOK EDITION PRICE ISBN

-
bb 23 2001 12 23435
cc 55 342 76 687478
dd 2 1233 123 53616578
ee 21 1111 111 12435798
SQL> insert into qq values('&name','&author',&number,'&publisher',&ISBN);
Enter value for name: bb
Enter value for author: 21
Enter value for number: 23
Enter value for publisher: dfd
Enter value for isbn: 573568
old 1: insert into qq values('&name','&author',&number,'&publisher',&ISBN)
new 1: insert into qq values('bb','21',23,'dfd',573568)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: cc
Enter value for author: 43
Enter value for number: 55
Enter value for publisher: fg
Enter value for isbn: 65839
old 1: insert into qq values('&name','&author',&number,'&publisher',&ISBN)
new 1: insert into qq values('cc','43',55,'fg',65839)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: ee
Enter value for author: 44
Enter value for number: 21
Enter value for publisher: dfd
Enter value for isbn: 1235798
old 1: insert into qq values('&name','&author',&number,'&publisher',&ISBN)
new 1: insert into qq values('ee','44',21,'dfd',1235798)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for name: oo
Enter value for author: 87
Enter value for number: 34
Enter value for publisher: gfh
Enter value for isbn: 6358379
old 1: insert into qq values('&name','&author',&number,'&publisher',&ISBN)
new 1: insert into qq values('oo','87',34,'gfh',6358379)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from qq;

NAME BOOK AUTHOR PUBLISHER

- ISBN

bb 21 23 dfd
573568

cc 43 55 fg
65839
 ee 44 21 dfd
1235798

NAME BOOK AUTHOR PUBLISHER ISBN

-
oo 87 34 gfh 6358379

CREATE VIEW STATEMENT

**********************
SQL>create view ww as select book,name,publisher from qq where ISBN=573568

View created.

SQL> select * from ww;

BOOK NAME PUBLISHER

-
21 bb dfd

UPDATE VIEW STATEMENT

**********************

SQL> update ww set publisher='qwa'where book=21;

1 row updated.

SQL> select * from ww;

BOOK NAME PUBLISHER

-
21 bb qwa

SQL> create view wq as select name,ISBN,publisher from qq where book>21

View created.

SQL> select * from wq;

NAME ISBN PUBLISHER

cc 65839 fg
ee 1235798 dfd
oo 6358379 gfh

SQL> create view ss as select name,book from aa union select name,book from qq;

View created.

SQL> select * from ss;

NAME BOOK
 bb 21
bb 23
cc 43
cc 55
dd 2
ee 21
ee 44
oo 87

8 rows selected.

COMPLEX VIEW
*************

SQL> create view er as select author,name,ISBN from qq where book>43;

View created.

SQL> select * from er;

AUTHOR NAME ISBN

21 ee 1235798
34 oo 6358379

SQL>select name from(select * from qq where publisher='fg')where ISBN=65839;

NAME

Cc

DROP VIEW
*************
SQL> drop view er;

View dropped

Result

Thus the view creation commands are executed successfully.

EX.NO:5 FUNCTIONS AND PROCEDURE

AIM:

To write PL/SQL(Functions)and to understand stored procedures in SQL.

FUNCTION:

A function is a subprogram that computes a value. The syntax for creating a function is given
below

Create or replace function<function_name>[argument]

Return datatype is
(local declaration)
begin
(executable statements)
[Exception]
(exception handlers)
end

PROCEDURE:

CREATE [ORREPLACE] PROCEDURE PROCEDURENAME

[PARAMETER[IN/OUT/IN/IN OUT] DATATYPE
[:=/DEFAULT EXPRESSION]
[(PARAMETER)]
IS/AS
DECLARATION
BEGIN
PL/SQL CODES
[EXCEPTION]
END

Sample Output

*****FUCTION USING FOR STATEMENT*****

SQL>create or replace function fact(a number)return number as

2 i number;
3 f number;
4 begin
5 f:=1;
6 for i in 1..a
7 loop
8 f:=f*i;
9 end loop;
10 return f;
11* end fact;
SQL> /

Function created.
*********FUNCTION USING WHILE STATEMENT *************

SQL> create or replace function fact(a number) return number as

2 i number;
3 f number;
4 begin
5 f:=1;
6 i:=1;
7 while (i<=a)
8 loop
9 f:=f*i;
10 i:=i+1;
11 end loop;
12 return f;
13* end fact;
14 /

Function created.

SQL>begin
2 dbms_output.put_line('the factorial='||fact(&a));
3* end;
SQL> /
Enter value for a: 4
old 2: dbms_output.put_line('the factorial='||fact(&a))
new 2: dbms_output.put_line('the factorial='||fact(4));
the factorial=24

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

*****PROCEDURE TO FIND WHETHER A GIVEN NUMBER IS ODD OR EVEN*********

SQL> declare
2 n number;
3 begin
4 n:=&n;
5 if(mod(n,2)=0)then
6 dbms_output.put_line(n||'is even');
7 else
8 dbms_output.put_line(n||'is odd');
9 end if;
10 end;
11 /

Enter value for n: 3

old 4: n:=&n;
new 4: n:=3;
3is odd

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

**********PROCEDURE TO DISPLAY 1-10 USING WHILE*******
1 declare
2 n number;
3 i number;
4 begin
5 n:=10;
6 i:=1;
7 while (i<=n)
8 loop
9 dbms_output.put_line(i);
10 i:=i+1;
11 end loop;
12* end;
SQL> /
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

***********Procedure to display some numbers lesser than given number**********
1 declare
2 num number;
3 i number;
4 begin
5 num:=&num;
6 i:=1;
7 loop
8 dbms_output.put_line(i);
9 exit when(i>num);
10 i:=i+1;
11 end loop;
12* end;
SQL> /
Enter value for num: 4
old 5: num:=&num;
new 5: num:=4;
1
2
3
4
5
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

RESULT:

Thus the functions and stored procedures are executed in SQL.

Ex.no:6 FRONT END TOOLS

AIM:
To study about Visual Basic forms and controls

Visual Basic:
Visual Basic is Easy to learn Programming language. With Visual Basic one can develop Windows based
applications and games.Visual Basic is much more easier to learn than other language (like Visual C++),
and yet it's powerful programming language.

Visual Basic suits more for application developing than for Games developing. We can create
sophisticated games using Visual Basic, But to make a really advanced professional game like Quake 2,
other language (like C++), can be chosen which are harder to program with. However, Visual Basic will
be probably powerful enough to suit all your application and games programming needs.

The advantages of Visual Basic:

1) It's simple language. Things that may be difficult to program with other language,can be done in Visual
Basic very easily.
2) Because Visual Basic is so popular, there are many good resources (Books,Web sites, News groups and
more) that can help us learn the language.
3) There are many tools (Sharewares and Freewares) on the internet that will reduce the programming
time.

Creating the Project

First thing to do is to create a Directory where all VB Projects can be saved. Call it VBApps, for
example. Then start VB. The first screen will ask whether to open a new project or an existing one - it's
obviously a new one and it will be a Standard EXE. Then, maximize all the windows. Now, save the
project. It will first prompt to save the form - call it Score.frm - and then the Project - call it Scorebrd.vbp.
From now on, do File-->Save Project very, very frequently.
Before starting to build-up the form, it will make it easier if the the color of the form is changed. To
change the color, just click anywhere on the form, go to the properties window, find the property called
BackColor and change it to the standard Window background (teal) or to any color desired in the palette.

Suppose if we need 6 labels and 2 command buttons go to the Toolbox. Each one of the object that is
kept on a Form is called a control. To get a control , click on the control, come back to the Form and click
and drag the control to the size and position needed. Position the controls somewhat like in the diagram
below.

Now that we have a bunch of controls on the form, we have to jazz them up a bit. We do this by changing
the Properties of the controls in the Properties window. Each control has a whole series of properties,
most of which we won't need right now. The ones we do need are:
 Alignment = how text aligns in the control
BackColor = choose the color of the background
Caption = the text that will appear in the control
Font = choose the font type and size
ForeColor = choose the color of the text (foreground)
As with all Windows applications, We can select multiple controls with (Ctrl)+(Click) and change a
property for all of them at once. For example, if all backgrounds are white, select all controls, change
ForeColor to white and all of them are modified. Change the form to look like the one below. Note that
you do not have to change the Caption for Label4, Label5 and Label6 and that you can't change the color
of the buttons. They insist on being what was called in the old days "IBM grey". Don't forget to save the
project often as you go along!

If the application is executed at this point, the Form appears, just the way it was created. However if on
any of the controls is clicked, absolutely nothing happens! There are events that occur; the form opens, a
button is clicked, etc. But, there is nothing that tells the form what to do when it sees an event. That is why
code, also called script has to be written.
To switch between the Code window and the Form window, use the buttons just over the Project Explorer
window (diagram on the left).
Once in the Code window, We have the option of seeing all the code for the Project or the code for one
event at a time. Use the buttons in the lower left-hand corner (diagram on the right).
To select the object and the event to code, use the two Listboxes at the top of the Code window. The one
on the left for the object and the one on the right for the event. Start with General ... Declarations and
then Form ... Load, etc.

Now we can Run it and see something happen. When the Form loads, it will initialize the fields that we
specified in the code.Now code the Command1 button and Run it to see the result.

RESULT:

Thus the Visual Basic forms and controls are studied.

 7. FORMS
AIM:
To implement the employee details using Visual Basic Form as front-end and Oracle as backend.

PROCEDURE:

1. Create a table for employee details using SQL .

2. Start Visual Basic 6.0 and select a new standard EXE project.
3. Open a form ,andplace proper controls in the form to display employee database.
4. Add the ADO Data control in the bottom of the form from the Project->Components menu.
5. Set proper caption and names fror form,controls, and ADOD control.
6. Right click the ADOD control and set its properties to connect it to the database provider.
7. Provide database connectivity to textboxes by connecting ADOD control with the text boxes.
8. ADOD control can be used to view data and modifications to the database can be done only with
coding.
9. Without ADOD control connection to the database can be established with the help of coding for
which the ADOD library should be included from the Project->References menu.
10. Place the desired command buttons in the form and write the actions to be perfomed in the click
event of the command button.
11. Choose the startup object as form1 that contains the controls from the Project->properties menu.
12. Run the project to view the employee database and do manipulations to the database.
Form design in Visual Basic (Front end)
Code for Form
Dim con As New ADODB.Connection
Dim rs As New ADODB.Recordset

Private Sub add_Click()

rs.AddNew
Text1.Text = ""
Text2.Text = ""
Text3.Text = ""
Text4.Text = ""
Text5.Text = ""
Text6.Text = ""
Text1.SetFocus
End Sub

Private Sub delete_Click()

rs.delete
MsgBox "Record deleted"
rs.MoveFirst
Call display
End Sub

Private Sub exit_Click()

rs.Close
con.Close
Unload Me
End Sub
Private Sub Form_Load()
con.CursorLocation = adUseClient
con.Open "Provider=MSDAORA.1;password=user02;User ID=user02;Data Source=orcl"
rs.Open "select * from emp_details", con, adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
Call display
End Sub
Private Sub display()
Text1.Text = rs.Fields("empname")
Text2.Text = rs.Fields("empno")
Text3.Text = rs.Fields("designation")
Text4.Text = rs.Fields("dept")
Text5.Text = rs.Fields("salary")
Text6.Text = rs.Fields("address")
End Sub

Private Sub save_Click()

rs(0) = Text1.Text
rs(1) = Val(Text2.Text)
rs(2) = Text3.Text
rs(3) = Text4.Text
rs(4) = Val(Text5.Text)
rs(5) = Text6.Text
End Sub

Private Sub update_Click()

If rs.EditMode = adEditAdd Then
rs(0) = Text1.Text
rs(1) = Val(Text2.Text)
rs(2) = Text3.Text
rs(3) = Text4.Text
rs(4) = Val(Text5.Text)
rs(5) = Text6.Text
End If
rs.update
End Sub

Table Creation in Oracle (Backend)

SQL> create table emp_details(empname varchar2(20),empno number(10),designation varchar2(15),dept

va
rchar2(10), salary number, address varchar2(20));

Table created.

SQL> insert into emp_details values('&empname',&empno,'&designation','&dept',&salary,'&address');

Enter value for empname: suba
Enter value for empno: 1234
Enter value for designation: AP
Enter value for dept: IT
Enter value for salary: 21047
Enter value for address: IBcolony
old 1: insert into emp_details values('&empname',&empno,'&designation','&dept',&salary,'&address')
new 1: insert into emp_details values('suba',1234,'AP','IT',21047,'IBcolony')
1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for empname: Anitha
Enter value for empno: 1322
Enter value for designation: SrLecturer
Enter value for dept: Physics
Enter value for salary: 18000
Enter value for address: GoldenRock
old 1: insert into emp_details values('&empname',&empno,'&designation','&dept',&salary,'&address')
new 1: insert into emp_details values('Anitha',1322,'SrLecturer','Physics',18000,'GoldenRock')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for empname: Naveen
Enter value for empno: 1432
Enter value for designation: AP
Enter value for dept: CSE
Enter value for salary: 21000
Enter value for address: Tanjore
old 1: insert into emp_details values('&empname',&empno,'&designation','&dept',&salary,'&address')
new 1: insert into emp_details values('Naveen',1432,'AP','CSE',21000,'Tanjore')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for empname: Deepa
Enter value for empno: 1363
Enter value for designation: reader
Enter value for dept: English
Enter value for salary: 31000
Enter value for address: Karur
old 1: insert into emp_details values('&empname',&empno,'&designation','&dept',&salary,'&address')
new 1: insert into emp_details values('Deepa',1363,'reader','English',31000,'Karur')

1 row created.

SQL> select * from emp_details;

EMPNAME EMPNO DESIGNATION DEPT SALARY ADDRESS

suba 1234 AP IT 21047 IBcolony

Anitha 1322 SrLecturer Physics 18000 GoldenRock
Naveen 1432 AP CSE 21000 Tanjore
Deepa 1363 reader English 31000 Karur

RESULT:

Thus the employee database has been implemented using Visual Basic Form as front-end and Oracle as
backend.
EX.NO:8 TRIGGERS

AIM:
To perform High-level language extension with triggers (Student mark list).
SYNTAX:
CREATE[OR REPLACE]TRIGGER[schema.]trigger
{BEFORE|AFTER|INSTEAD OF}
{DELETE
|INSERT
|UPDATE[OF column[,column] .... ]}
|OR {DELETE
|INSERT
|UPDATE[OF column,[,column]....]}]...
ON[schema.]{table|view}
REFERENCING(OLD[AS]old
|NEW[AS]new. ]
FOR EACH{ROW|STATEMENT}{WHEN(condition)}]
DESCRIPTION:
The details about the students mark are being in the stu table with attributes.
Name, Rollno, Mark, Mark2, Mark3.
The stu1 table consists of attributes, Rollno, Total, Average, Result
The details of the first table are being given in the prompt by the user. The total, average are processed for
currently processed row in the stu table using after insert on trigger the values are placed in the table stu1.
Trigger
Create or replace trigger strig
After insert on st1
For each row
Declare
Total number(8);
Avg number(8);
Result varchar2(20);
Begin
Total:=(:new.m1+:new.m2+:new.m3);
Avg:=total/3;
If(:new.m1>50 and :new.m2>50 and:new.m3>50) yhen
Result:=’pass’;
Else
Result:=’fail’;
End if;
Insert into st2 values(:new.rollno,total,avg,result);
End;
/
Trigger created

SQL>insert into st1 values(‘raja’,004,100,99,90)

1 row created
SQL>select * from st2;
ROLLNO TOTAL AVG RESULT
4 289 96 Pass
RESULT:

Thus the high-level language extension with triggers has been performed for generating the
students mark list.
EX.NO:9 MENU DESIGN

AIM:
To design menus using menu editor in Visual Basic.

PROCEDURE:

To create the following menus,

Color
o Se t co l or
● Red
● Green
● White

Size
● Large
● Small
Exit

It is required to do the following things:

1. Exit the program if the user clicks Exit menu.

2. Change the colour of the form if the user clicks a particular colour.
3. Change the size of the form if the user clicks any of the option in size menu.

Steps to be followed:

1. Start a new VB project

2. Add a MDI form to the project by clicking Add MDI form from Project menu.
3. Create menus.
Name – this is the name you use to reference the menu control from code.
Caption – this is the text that appears on the control.
Click OK button, the menus will be created on the top of MDI form.
4. Either we can use the MDI form to see the changes or a separate form can be added to show
the changes on clicking the menu items.
5. Double-click menu item and add codes there.
6. Choose the startup object as MDIForm1 from the Project->properties menu.
7. Run the project.
Code for Menu Editor
Private sub mnuexit_click()
Unload Form1
End Sub

Private sub mnublue_click()

Form1.BackColor=vbBlue
mnured.Enabled=True
mnublue.Enabled=False
mnuwhite.Enabled=True
End Sub

Private sub mnularge_click()

Form1.WindowState=2
mnusmall.Enabled= True
mnularge.Enabled= False
End Sub

Private sub mnured_click()

Form1.BackColor=vbRed
mnured.Enabled= False
mnublue.Enabled= True
mnuwhite.Enabled=True
End Sub

Private sub mnusmall_click()

Form1.WindowState=0
mnusmall.Enabled= False
mnularge.Enabled= True
End Sub

Private sub mnuwhite_click()

Form1.BackColor=vbWhite
mnured.Enabled= True
mnublue.Enabled= True
mnuwhite.Enabled=False
End Sub
RESULT:
Thus the menu editor has been created in Visual Basic..
Ex.No.10 REPORTS

AIM:

To generate data report from the existing database.

OBJECTIVE:

• Once you have gone to all the trouble of developing and managing a database, it is nice to have the
ability to obtain printed or displayed information from your data. The process of obtaining such
information is known as creating a data report.
• There are two steps to creating a data report. First, we need to create a Data Environment. This is
designed within Visual Basic and is used to tell the data report what is in the database. Second, we create
the Data Report itself. This, too, is done within Visual Basic. The Data Environment and Data Report files
then become part of the Visual Basic project developed as a database management system.
• The Visual Basic 6.0 data report capabilities are vast and using them is a detailed process. The use of
these capabilities is best demonstrated by example. We will look at the rudiments of report creation by
building a tabular report for our phone database.
Example - Phone Directory - Building a Data Report
We will build a data report that lists all the names and phone numbers in our phone database. We will do
this by first creating a Data Environment, then a Data Report. We will then reopen the phone database
management project and add data reporting capabilities.
Creating a Data Environment
1. Start a new Standard EXE project.
2. On the Project menu, click Add Data Environment. If this item is not on the menu, click
Components. Click the Designers tab, and choose Data Environment and click OK to add the designer
to your menu.
3. We need to point to our database. In the Data Environment window, right-click the Connection1 tab
and select Properties and set the connection.
4. We now tell the Data Environment what is in our database. Right-click the Connection1 tab and click
Rename. Change the name of the tab to Phone. Right-click this newly named tab and click Add
Command to create a Command1 tab. Right-click this tab and choose Properties. Assign the following
properties:
Command Name - PhoneList
Connection - Phone
DataBase Object - Table
ObjectName - PhoneList
5. Click OK. All this was needed just to connect the environment to our database.
6. Display the properties window and give the data environment a name property of denPhone. Click File
and Save denPhone As. Save the environment in an appropriate folder. We will eventually add this file to
our phone database management system.
Creating a Data Report
Once the Data Environment has been created, we can create a Data Report. We will drag things out of the
Data Environment onto a form created for the Data Report, so make sure your Data Environment window
is still available.
1. On the Project menu, click Add Data Report and one will be added to your project. If this item is not on
the menu, click Components. Click the Designers tab, and choose Data Report and click OK to add the
designer to your menu.
2. Set the following properties for the report:
Name - rptPhone
Caption - Phone Directory
DataSource - denPhone (your phone data environment - choose, don’t type)
DataMember - PhoneList (the table name - choose don’t type)
3. Right-click the Data Report and click Retrieve Structure. This establishes a report format based on
the Data Environment.
4. Note there are five sections to the data report: a Report Header, a Page Header, a Detail section, a Page
Footer, and a Report Footer. The headers and footers contain information you want printed in the report
and on each page. To place information in one of these regions, right-click the selected region, click Add
Control, then choose the control you wish to place. These controls are called data report controls and
properties are established just like you do for usual controls. Try adding some headers.
5. The Detail section is used to layout the information you want printed for each record in your database.
We will place two field listings (Name, Phone) there. Click on the Name tab in the Data Environment
window and drag it to the Detail section of the Data Report. Two items should appear: a text box Name
and a text box Name (PhoneList). The first text box is heading information. Move this text box into the
Page Header section. The second text box is the actual value for Name from the PhoneList table. Line this
text box up under the Name header. Now, drag the Phone tab from the Data Environment to the Data
Report. Adjust the text boxes in the same manner. Our data report will have page headers Name and
Phone. Under these headers, these fields for each record in our database will be displayed. When done, the
form should look something like this:
In this form, We’ve resized the labels a bit and added a Report Header. Also, make sure you close up the
Detail section to a single line. Any space left in this section will be inserted after each entry.
6. Click File and Save rptPhone As. Save the environment in an appropriate folder. We will now reopen
our phone database manager and attach this and the data environment to that project and add capabilities
to display the report.

Accessing the Data Report

1. Reopen the phone directory project. Add a command button named cmdReport and give it a Caption of
Show Report. (There may be two tabs in your toolbox, one named General and one named DataReport.
Make sure you select from the General tools.)
2. We will now add the data environment and data report files to the project. Click the Project menu item,
then click Add File. Choose denPhone and click OK. Also add rptPhone. Look at your Project Window.
Those files should be listed under Designers.
3. Use this code in cmdReport_Click:
Private Sub cmdReport_Click()
rptPhone.Show
End Sub
4. This uses the Show method to display the data report.
5. Save the application and run it. Click the Show Report button and this should appear:
RESULT:

Thus the Report has been generated in Visual Basic..

S. No Name of the program
1 Database Schema for a customer-sale scenario

Customer(Cust id : integer, cust_name: string)

Item(item_id: integer, item_name: string, price: integer)
Sale(bill_no: integer, bill_data: date, cust_id: integer,
item_id: integer, qty_sold: integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints

b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

c) List all the bills for the current date with the customer
names and item numbers

d) List the total Bill details with the quantity sold, price of
the item and the final amount

e) List the details of the customer who have bought a

product which has a price>200

f) Give a count of how many products have been bought by

each customer

g) Give a list of products bought by a customer having

cust_id as 5

h) List the item details which are sold as of today

i) Create a view which lists out the bill_no, bill_date,

cust_id, item_id, price, qty_sold, amount
Create a view which lists the daily sales date wise for the last
one week

2 Database Schema for a Student Library scenario

Student(Stud_no : integer, Stud_name: string)

Membership(Mem_no: integer, Stud_no: integer)
Book(book_no: integer, book_name:string, author: string)
Iss_rec(iss_no:integer, iss_date: date, Mem_no: integer,
book_no: integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity
constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
 c) List all the student names with their membership
numbers
d) List all the issues for the current date with student and
Book names
e) List the details of students who borrowed book whose
author is CJDATE
f) Give a count of how many books have been bought by
each student
g) Give a list of books taken by student with stud_no as 5
h) List the book details which are issued as of today
i) Create a view which lists out the iss_no, iss _date,
stud_name, book name
j) Create a view which lists the daily issues-date wise for
the last one week

3 Database Schema for a Employee-pay scenario

employee(emp_id : integer, emp_name: string)

department(dept_id: integer, dept_name:string)
paydetails(emp_id : integer, dept_id: integer, basic:
integer, deductions: integer, additions: integer, DOJ: date)
payroll(emp_id : integer, pay_date: date)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity
constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List the employee details department wise
d) List all the employee names who joined after particular
date
e) List the details of employees whose basic salary is
between 10,000 and 20,000
f) Give a count of how many employees are working in
each department
g) Give a names of the employees whose netsalary>10,000
h) List the details for an employee_id=5
i) Create a view which lists out the emp_name,
department, basic, dedeuctions, netsalary
j) Create a view which lists the emp_name and his
netsalary

4 Database Schema for a Video Library scenario

Customer(cust_no: integer,cust_name: string)

Membership(Mem_no: integer, cust_no: integer)
Cassette(cass_no:integer, cass_name:string, Language:
String)
 Iss_rec(iss_no: integer, iss_date: date, mem_no: integer,
cass_no: integer)
For the above schema, perform the following—
a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity
constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the customer names with their membership
numbers
d) List all the issues for the current date with the customer
names and cassette names
e) List the details of the customer who has borrowed the
cassette whose title is “ The Legend”
f) Give a count of how many cassettes have been
borrowed by each customer
g) Give a list of book which has been taken by the student
with mem_no as 5
h) List the cassettes issues for today
i) Create a view which lists outs the iss_no, iss_date,
cust_name, cass_name
j) Create a view which lists issues-date wise for the last
one week

5 Database Schema for a student-Lab scenario

Student(stud_no: integer, stud_name: string, class: string)

Class(class: string, descrip: string)
Lab(mach_no: integer, Lab_no: integer, description: String)
Allotment(Stud_no: Integer, mach_no: integer, dayof
week: string)
For the above schema, perform the following—
a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity
constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the machine allotments with the student names,
lab and machine numbers
d) List the total number of lab allotments day wise
e) Give a count of how many machines have been allocated
to the `CSIT' class
f) Give a machine allotment etails of the stud_no 5 with
his personal and class details
g) Count for how many machines have been allocatedin
Lab_no 1 for the day of the week as “Monday”
h) How many students class wise have allocated machines
in the labs
i) Create a view which lists out the stud_no, stud_name,
mach_no, lab_no, dayofweek
j) Create a view which lists the machine allotment details
 for “Thursday”.
6 Write a program to find largest number from the given three
numbers.
7 Simple programs using loop, while and for iterative control
statement.
8 Write a program to check whether the given number is
Armstrong or not
9 Write a program to generate all prime numbers below 100.
10 Write a program to demonstrate the GOTO statement.
11 Write a program to demonstrate %type and %rowtype
attributes
12 Write a program to demonstrate predefined exceptions
13 Write a program to demonstrate user defined exceptions
14 Create a cursor, which displays all employee numbers and
names from the EMP table.
15 Create a cursor, which update the salaries of all employees as
per the given data.
16 Create a cursor, which displays names of employees having
salary > 50000.
17 Create a procedure to find reverse of a given number
18 Create a procedure to update the salaries of all employees as
per the given data
19 Create a procedure to demonstrate IN, OUT and INOUT
parameters
20 Create a function to check whether given string is palindrome
or not.
21 Create a function to find sum of salaries of all employees
working in depart number 10.
22 Create a trigger before/after update on employee table for
each row/statement.
23 Create a trigger before/after delete on employee table for each
row/statement.
24 Create a trigger before/after insert on employee table for each
row/statement.
25 Create a Form to display employee details using SQL
26 Create a Report to generate all employee annual salaries….

Additional Programs

S. No Name of the Program

1 Create a form using Forms 6i to display Employee table

data.
2 Create a Master/details relationship form which
perform Add New, Search, Delete, Save and Update
on the records
3 Generate a report to calculate employee's salaries
department wise from employee table.
4 Create a Report to generate the details of employee
table including sum and average salaries department
wise.
 VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. What is a database?
A DBMS is a complex software system that is used to manage, store and manipulate data and
metadata used to describe the data.
2. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other words it
is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining, constructing and
manipulating the database for various applications.
3. What is a Database system?
The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.
4. Advantages of DBMS.
Ø Redundancy is controlled.
Ø Unauthorised access is restricted.
Ø Providing multiple user interfaces.
Ø Enforcing integrity constraints.
Ø Providing backup and recovery.
5. Disadvantage in File Processing System
Ø Data redundancy & inconsistency.
Ø Difficult in accessing data.
Ø Data isolation.
Ø Data integrity.
Ø Concurrent access is not possible.
Ø Security Problems.
6. What is a key? what are different keys in database?
A Key is nothing but a attribute or group of attributes. They are used to perform some specific
operation depending on their operation. The keys are classified into primary key, secondary key,
alternative key, super key, candidate key, compound or concatenated or composite key.
7. What is a primary key?
A primary key is an attribute to identify a record uniquely is considered to be primary key. for eg
in the student table student_no is the primary key because it can be used to identify unique record
or unique student.
8. What is a secondary key?
An attribute used to identify a group of records satisfying a given condition is said to be a
secondary key. In the employee table, designation is a secondary key because more than one
employee can have the same designation.
9. What is a candidate key?
Register no usually allotted in the exams is also unique for each student in that case for identifying
a student uniquely either student_no or register_no can be used. Here two different candidates are
contesting for primary key post. Any of them can be selected as primary key.
10. What is an alternate key?
If any one of the candidate keys among the different candidate keys available is selected as
primary key then remaining keys are called alternate key.
11. What is a super key?
With primary key if any other attribute is added then that combination is called super key. In other
words, primary key is the minimum possible super key. In the student table student_no +
student_name is one of the super key.
12. What is a composite key?
If the primary key is combination of more than one key then it is called the composite key. In the
table called marks student_no + subject is the composite key.
13. What is a relation?
A Relation consists of a homogeneous set of tuples.
14. What is a table?
it is the representation of a relation having records as rows and attributes as columns.
15. What is an attribute?
An object or entity is characterized by its properties or attributes. In relational database systems
attributes corresponds to fields.
16. What is a domain?
The set of allowable value for the attribute is the domain of the attribute.
17. What is a tuple?
Tuples are the members of a relation. An entity type having attributes can be represented by set of
these attributes called tuple.
18. What is a selection?
An operation that selects only some of the tuples in the relation is known as selection operation.
The selection operation yields a horizontal subset of a given relation.
19. what is a join operation?
The join operation allows the combination of two relations to form a new relation.
20. What are base operations in relational algebra?
Union: - The term of the relation as performed by combining the tuples from one relation with
those of a second relation to produce a third relation. Duplicate tuples are eliminated. The relation
must be union compatible.
Difference: - The difference of two relations is a third relation having tuples that occur in the first
relation but not in the second relation.
Intersection: - The intersection operation selects the common tuples from the two relations.
cartesian product: - The cartesian product of two relations is the concatenation of tuples
belonging to the two relations. A new resultant scheme is created consisting of concatenation of all
possible combination of tuples.
21. What are different DBMS facilities? How many types of facilities are provided by a DBMS?
1) The data definition facility or data definition language(DDL)
2) The data manipulation facility or data manipulation language(DML)
3)The data control facility(DCL)
22. What is Data Definition Language?
Data scheme is specified by a set of definitions which are expressed b a special language called a
DDL.
23. What is Data Dictionary?
A Data Dictionary is a file that contains metadata i.e data about data. This file is consulted before
actual is read or modified in the database system.
24. What is a DML?
A DML is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data as organized by the
appropriate data model. There are basically two types:
1) procedural DML require a user to specify what data is needed and how to get it.
2) non procedural DML require a user to specify what data is needed without specifying how to get
it.
25. What is a query?
A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information.
26. What is a query language?
The portion of DML that involves information retrieval is called a query language.
27. What are the advantages of DBMS?
Reduction of redundancies, Integrity, Security, Conflict resolution, Data independence, shared
data, Data quality enhanced.
28. What is a SQL?
Structured query language(sql) originated in 1974 at IBM.SQL is the data definition and
manipulation language.
29. What are the features of SQL?
Portability, client server architecture, dynamic data definition, multiple views of data, complete
data base language, interactive, high level structure and SQL standards.
30. How SQL organizes the data?
SQL organizes data as databases, tables, indexes, views.
31. What is data definition?
SQL lets a user to define the data structure and relationship at the stored data.
32. What is data retrieval?
Allows a user or an application program to retrieve the stored data.
33. What is data sharing?
Data can be shared by more than one user.
34. What is a view?
It is an object of SQL. A query can be defined, stored and named. This is called view.
35. What is normalization?
It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional Dependencies
(FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
Ø Minimizing redundancy
Ø Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.
36. What is a first normal form?
A relation which contains no multi valued attributes.
37. What is a second normal form?
A relation is in second normal form for if it is first normal form and every non key attribute is fully
functionally dependent on primary key.
38. What is a third normal form?
A relation is in third normal form if for every functional dependency F :x->y is aDkey.
39. What is BCNF?
Boyce-code normal form.
40. What is fifth normal form?
A relation which eliminates join dependencies.
41. What is Functional Dependency?
A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y that are subsets
of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a relation state r of R. The constraint
is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This means the
value of X component of a tuple uniquely determines the value of component Y.
42. What is Lossless join property?
It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation schemas
after decomposition.
43. What are the commands to delete, modify and insert a record in the table?
DELETE, UPDATE, INSERT INTO.
44. What is time stamping?
In the time stamping based method, a serial order is created among the concurrent transactions by
assigning to each transaction a unique non decreasing numbers .you will be allocating fixed time
for each transaction.
45. What is data base schema?
It is the description of the database i.e its data structure and not the detail.
46. What is a self join?
Joining the table to the same table.
47. What are the different aggregate functions in SQL?
AVG(), MIN(), MAX(), COUNT(), SUM().
48. What is data integrity?
Data must satisfy the integrity constraints of the system.
49. What is data independence?
Data independence means that “the application is independent of the storage structure and access
strategy of data”. In other words, The ability to modify the schema definition in one level should
not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
Two types of Data Independence:
Ø Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical level.
Ø Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.
NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve
50. What is dead locking?
It is the situation where two transactions are waiting for other to release a lock on an item.
51. What is decryption?
Taking encoded text and converting it into text that you are able to read.
52. What is a distributed database?
A Database in which the datails contained within a number of separate subsystems usually in
different locations.
53. What is an entity?
it represents a real world object.
54. What is a conceptual data model?
A conceptual data model is concerned with the general description of the database without concern
for how the data may be organized.
55. What is two phase locking?
It is a most common mechanism that is used to control concurrency in two phases for achieving the
serializability. The two phases are Growing and Shrinking.
1) A transaction acquires locks on data items it will need to complete the transaction. This is called
growing phase. A transaction may obtain lock but may not release any lock.
2) One lock is released no other lock may be acquired. This is called shrinking process. A
transaction may release locks but may not obtain any new locks.
56. What is projection?
The projection of a relation is defined as projection of all its tuples over a set of attributes. it yields
vertical subset of the relation. The projection operation is used to trim the number of attributes in
the resultant relation or to reorder attributes.
57. What are the different phases of transaction?
Different phases are
Ø Analysis phase
Ø Redo Phase
Ø Undo phase
58. . What is Relational Algebra?
It is procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as
input and produce a new relation.
59. What is Relational Calculus?
It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases proposed by E.F.
Codd. E.g. of languages based on it are DSL ALPHA, QUEL.
60. . How does Tuple-oriented relational calculus differ from domain-oriented relational
calculus The tuple-oriented calculus uses a tuple variables i.e., variable whose only permitted
values are tuples of that relation. E.g. QUEL
The domain-oriented calculus has domain variables i.e., variables that range over the underlying
domains instead of over relation. E.g. ILL, DEDUCE.