BOARD LICENSURE EXAM FOR PROFESSIONAL • The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning • Teaching and Assessment

g • Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

TEACHERS (BLEPT) Principles • Speech and Theater Arts
• The Child and Adolescent Development • Language Education Research
what is BLEPT? • Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education • Children and Adolescent Literature
The Board Licensure Examination for Teachers measures CLUSTER 2 | (3 UNITS) • Mythology and Folklore
the extent of the knowledge acquired by teacher education THE SCIENCE AND METHODS OF TEACHING • Survey of Philippine Literature in English
graduates. • Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching • Survey of Afro-Asian Literature
Licensure is an important element to assure quality in the • Principles of Teaching • Survey of English and American Literature
teaching workforce. It establishes the floor intended to • Facilitating Learning • Contemporary, Popular, and Emergent Literature
distinguish between those who have the desired level of • Teaching Principles and Methods in the • Literary Criticism
competence to begin practice and those who do not. Major/Specialized Field • Technical Writing
Many professions use licensing systems to select • Campus Journalism
individuals into their fields and to prevent those considered CLUSTER 3 | (3 UNITS) • Technology for Teaching and Learning 2 (Technology in
incompetent from practicing. THE TEACHING AND LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Language Education)
• The Teaching Profession • Translation
March 2023 Results • The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and • Stylistics and Discourse Analysis
Elementary: Leadership • English for Specific Purposes
24,819 out of 60,896 (40.76%) • Social Dimensions of Education • Remedial Instruction
Secondary: • Creative Writing
48,005 out of 102,272 (46.94%) CLUSTER 4 | (3 UNITS)
DETERMINING THE INDICATORS OF STUDENT LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR PROFESSIONAL
September 2023 Results LEARNING OUTCOMES TEACHERS TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
Elementary: • Assessment of Learning 1
23,782 out of 50,593 (47.01%) • Assessment of Learning 2 COVERAGE SECONDARY EDUCATION
Secondary: • Tests and Measurement • GENERAL EDUCATION - 150 pts. | 20%
53,995 out of 95,969 (56.26%) • PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION - 150 pts. | 40%
CLUSTER 5 | (6 UNITS) • SPECIALIZATION - 150 pts. | 40%
RA 7836 PHILIPPINE TEACHERS APPLICATION OF THEORIES
PROFESSIONALIZATION ACT OF 1994 • Technology for Teaching and Learning GENERAL EDUCATION
Valid certificate of registration and a valid professional • Educational Technology Intellectual Competencies | 40% | 60 items
license from the Commission are required before any • Educational Research and Evaluation • Purposive Communication
person is allowed to practice as a professional teacher in the • Field Study 1 and 2 • Malayuning Komunikasyon sa Wikang Filipino
Philippines. • Teaching Internship • Science and Technology
• Mathematics
Allows non-education graduates to take the Licensure Implementation Of Unit Requirements For The Major
Exam for Professional Teachers, given that they comply Component Or Area Of Specialization For Graduates Of Personal and Civic Responsibilities | 30% | 45 items
with at least 18 units of Professional Education Non-Education Courses (60 Units) • Readings in Philippine History and Society
-BOARD RESOLUTION NO. 34, SERIES 2022 • The Life and Works of Rizal
For teachers in the secondary grades, a bachelor’s degree in • Ethics
the arts and sciences, with at least 18 units of professional BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
education. Evaluation for eligibility to take LEPT MAJOR IN ENGLISH MAJOR COURSES Practical Skills Development | 30% | 45 items
conducted by the PRC. • Introduction to Linguistics • The Contemporary World
• Language, Culture, and Society • Art Appreciation
The 18 units of professional education aim to provide the • Structure of English • Understanding the Self
basic knowledge of pedagogy and competencies in the • Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and
science and art of teaching to non-BSED graduates Learning PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
• Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies The Teaching Profession | 15% | 23 items
CLUSTER 1 | (3 UNITS) • Language Learning Materials Development 30% | 45 items
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND • Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies • The Teacher and the School Curriculum
YOUTH • Teaching and Assessment of the Macro skills • Methods and Strategies of Teaching
• Educational Technology for Teaching and Learning THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication models are visual representations
of the communication process. They help us
• The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles COMMUNICATION - exchange of thoughts, understand the typical flow of communication in
20% | 30 items ideas, concepts, emotions between and among certain situations.
• Assessment of Learning - 15% | 22 items humans
• Field Study Teaching Internship - 20% | 30 items COMMUN - something in common
Theoretical Foundations of Language, Culture, Literacies,
ICATION - understanding
and Literature | 25% | 37 items (Chase & Shamo, 2013)
• Introduction to Linguistics
• Language, Culture, and Society Communication pertains to achieving common
• Structure of English understanding of something. the process of
• Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Policies
sending and receiving messages through verbal or
Literature | 30% | 45 items nonverbal means, including oral communication;
• Children and Adolescent Literature writing and graphical representations; signs, Aristotle’s model is focused mainly on the
• Mythology and Folklore signals, or behavior (Nordquist, 2018) speaker and the speech given.
• Survey of Literature of Selected Countries
• Contemporary, Popular, and Emergent Literatures RHETORICAL APPEALS: ethos | logos | pathos
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Methodology | 45% | 68 items Sender - refers to the person or the group who
• Teaching and Assessment of the Macro skills initiates communication. Other terms may also be
• Teaching and Assessment of Literature used to refer to the sender such as encoder,
• Language and Literature Learning Materials Development source, or speaker.
• Speech and Theater Arts
• Language Education Research
Message - is the idea, information, opinion, or
• Literary Criticism emotion that is transmitted by the sender.
• Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Channel - pertains to the medium used to convey
• Campus Journalism the message. It may be done verbally or non-
• Technical Writing verbally.
• Technology in Language Education
• Translation and Editing of Text
Receiver - is the person or the group who collects
• English for Specific Purposes the message. In turn, the receiver decodes and Laswell’s model is often described as applicable
• Remedial Instruction and Early Interventions for analyzes the message in order to respond. Other to mass communication and its function to
Language Learning Difficulties terms may also be used to refer to the receiver society.
• Creative Writing such as decoder, destination, or listener.
To pass the exam, an examinee must obtain an average
Feedback - is the response given by the receiver
rating of not less than 75% and no rating lower than 50% in to the sender. It is the factor that determines if the
any of the tests. RA 10912 CONTINUING communication process was successful.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ACT OF 2016 Noise - may be any interference that occurs
an act that requires CPD as the mandatory requirement for during communication. This interference affects
the renewal of Professional Identification Card.
the communication in a way that it may distort or
FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS CPD UNITS change what is being sent or received during the
Year of Renewal Required Number of Units process.
December 2017 15
January- December 2018 30 COMMUNICATION MODELS
January 2019-onwards 45
This model was first conceptualized for radio and Non-verbal communication dependent on culture communication is more emotional in nature and
telephone communication. may become a source of misunderstanding. more instinctive
Typically conveys more meaning. is more
involuntary. is often more ambiguous. is often EMOTICONS - serve to underline the
more credible. importance of non-verbal communication.

CATEGORIES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL

COMMUNICATION SETTINGS
CULTURE - consists of the values, beliefs,
Visual - often called body language, includes systems of language and communication,
facial expression, eye movement, posture, and practices that people share in common (Cole,
gestures. 2018)
Tactile - involves the use of touch to impart
meaning as in a handshake, a pat on the shoulder, CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
a kiss, or a hug. CULTURE IS LEARNED - It is not biological. It
Communication is a process and people interact Vocal - pertains to the use of voice when is not inherited. Much of learning culture is
constantly in a cyclical manner. imparting messages since the way we say unconscious. It is learned from families, peers,
something also conveys meaning. This may institutions, and media. [enculturation: process of
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION include intonation, volume, stress, and rate of learning a culture]
VERBAL COMMUNICATION speech. CULTURE IS SHARED - Because it is shared,
a form of transmitting messages using word Time, Space, and Image - are also used to convey we are able to act in socially- appropriate ways as
symbols representing ideas and objects which meaning that cannot be expressed by words. well as predict how others will act. [culture is not
comes in two forms: oral and written (Manzano, always homogenous]
Arador, & Ladia, 2018) PROXEMICS - personal space physical CULTURE IS BASED ON SYMBOLS -
arrangement distance Symbols vary cross-culturally. They only have
ORAL COMMUNICATION EYE CONTACT - most telling of all nonverbal meaning when people in a culture agree on their
spoken words are used communication use. [language is the most important symbolic
face to face | group discussions speeches | video PARALANGUAGE - people convey their component of culture]
or phone feelings not only in what they say, but also how CULTURE IS INTEGRATED - Various parts of
they say it culture are interconnected. To truly understand a
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION FACIAL EXPRESSION - comprises a huge culture, learn about its parts, not only a few.
use of written signs and symbols proportion of nonverbal communication and CULTURE IS DYNAMIC - Cultures interact and
email | letters | reports | memo chats | discussion reflects a person’s natural feelings change. As cultures interact with each other, they
boards KINESICS - gestures | body movements exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change
APPEARANCE - types of clothing, skin color, to adapt to changing environments.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION attractiveness, artifacts: makeup | jewelry | tattoos
transfer of meaningful information through | piercings CULTURAL ICEBERG MODEL
different methods other than the spoken language HAPTICS - touch Edward Hall, Father of Intercultural
90% of the meaning we derive from OLFACTICS - smell Communication
communication comesfrom non-verbal while some aspects may be visible, a larger
communication(Wertheim, 2012) people tend to have much less conscious control portion is hidden beneath the surface
over their non-verbal messages. non-verbal visible: 10% | hidden: 90%
MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION Countries in the Outer and Expanding Circle -used in informal speaking and writing situations
interacting with people from different cultural have been colonized by some countries in the -casual in tone, emotional, intimate, appropriate
backgrounds and mediating the differences Inner Circle– making the varieties they speak as for people with whom you have established a
post-colonial. more personal relationship
VARIETIES OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN COMMON VARIETIES
ENGLISH British English - United Kingdom, British Isles Professional Writing - project proposals, position
American English - [US English] United States papers, business letters, writing letters to
English was spread across continents through the of America superiors
colonial expansion of the British Empire. Australian English - Australia
New Zealand English - New Zealand [similar Legalese / Legal Language - archaic expressions,
Today, it is the world’s most widely-used with Australian English but with some key technical
language– the main tool for globalization and the differences] jargons, passive voice, long sentences
default choice for multicultural communication Black English - [African-American Vernacular
(Schneider, 2018). English] Black communities in the USA, UK, Personal Writing - love letters, greeting cards,
Africa casual text messaging, online chatting
The contact made by the English language to Singapore English - [Singlish] Singapore
indigenous languages created its different Philippine English - Philippines [similar with Textese or SMS Language - exact opposite of
varieties with functions and properties of their USA] legalese, use of abbreviations, acronyms, slang
own. Despite being rooted from the English language, words, and expressions
what makes these varieties unique are some of
WORLD ENGLISHES (WE) their differences. Formal Register - impersonal, factual, objective
WE actually stands for the localized varieties of follows a prescriptive format: complete sentences,
English as they are used or spoken in certain REGISTERS OF ENGLISH - Different situations no slang
areas. different varieties or kinds of English used and people call for different registers.
around the world based on geographical locations
Language Register - refers to the degree of
Three Concentric Circles - Braj Kachru (1985) formality with which we communicate. It is a
[an attempt to explain the spread of English variety of language defined
around the world] according to its use in social situations. In a
general sense, it may also pertain to the language
used by a group of people sharing similar work or
interests.

FORMAL REGISTER
-professional Lengthy Version:
-used in formal speaking and writing situations Chewing gum was originally brought to the U.S.
-more impersonal, objective, and factual by Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana. He was a
-uses complete sentences, technical or academic Mexican general.
vocabs Simpler Version:
Mexican general Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana
INFORMAL REGISTER introduced chewing gum in the U.S.
-casual/intimate
Lengthy Version: Avoid Slang, Clichés, Redundant Expression The topic sentence contains the “main idea” of
General Douglas MacArthur, who is an American, Slang: type of vocabulary common to a certain the paragraph. It should be specific and tells the
returned to the Philippines. region or group of people: bae, lit, bae, swag, reader what the paragraph will be about.
Simpler Version: kicks • There are so many choices. There’s ice cream,
American general Douglas MacArthur returned Clichés: overused expressions that have lost their cake, and cookies. I think brownies are my
to the Philippines. impact moment of truth, time is gold favorite. I wish I could just eat only desserts and
Redundancy: combining two or more words with never spinach!
GUIDELINES the same meaning 3 pm in the afternoon, free gift • I can hear him snoring at night. In the daytime
The Simpler and Shorter, the Better. Avoid gender-biased words or sexist language - he goes outside and eats my mom’s daisies. He
Keep sentences simple short because these are Use words that are free from gender prejudice tracked his muddy footprints into the house. I ask
easier to understand. Standard: 17-18 words/ and unfair assumption. for extra macaroni and cheese to feed my
sentence dinosaur.
Informal Register
Avoid Contractions Also called the casual register, appropriate for Supporting Details
Though common in spoken language, they should people whom you have established a more Development Sentences - Now that your
be avoided in formal language. They should be personal relationship with already. A recent paragraph has a topic, it is essential that this topic
spelled out. development is the use of textese language be sufficiently developed. Do not limit yourself
commonly seen in SMS and social media. It to a set number of sentences. Yes, your paragraph
Use the Third Person Point of View allows the use of abbreviations, acronyms, slang, should not be too short or too long, but it should
The first person and second person points of view and the like. There are no major rules to follow in be an appropriate length to flesh out the entirety
create an informal tone. This is why the third this register– just make sure it is understood by of your paragraph’s idea. A reader should not be
person POV is recommended. the readers. left with questions after a sufficiently
In summary: your purpose for communication development paragraph. In order to achieve this,
Use the Active Voice and the relationship you have with the listeners/ you can provide examples, cite work, provide
The active voice is recommended for use in readers will determine if you are to use formal or necessary definitions, describe, analyze, and
formal language. informal language organize your ideas.
Active Voice: The students completed the
research. COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS The supporting sentences of a paragraph are the
Passive Voice: The research was completed by PURPOSES sentences between the topic sentence and the
the students. concluding sentence. The supporting sentences
THE PARAGRAPH - In order for a paragraph to “support” the topic sentence. That is, they explain
be effective, it must begin with a topic sentence, and elaborate the point of the paragraph.
have sentences that support the main idea of that
paragraph, and maintain a consistent flow. Topic Sentences:
The pollution in the Philippines is getting worse.
PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH Life in the province is better than the life in cities.
Topic Sentence - The topic sentence is the most
important part of the paragraph; it tells the reader Conclusion - The concluding sentence is the last
the general idea of the paragraphs and should sentence in the paragraph. It should briefly end
essentially “hook” them into wanting to read the paragraph and transition to the next paragraph,
more! if appropriate. The concluding sentence signals
the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader
with important points to remember. It the world today. He is married, and he is a good differences of two or more actions, ideas, or
summarizes the information provided. provider to his family. He devotes much of his events are being discussed.
time preparing for his fights and defending his A paragraph may discuss only similarities or only
Concluding Sentences: Gold is prized for two boxing title from different contenders. He loves differences.
important characteristics. First, gold has a to travel, and from his journeys, he gained much
lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. experience in life. Cause and Effect - shows the relationship
Therefore it is suitable for jewelry. Second, gold between two things when one thing makes the
is valued for its usefulness to industry and Coherence - is more commonly referred to as the other thing happen.
science. For many years, it has been used in flow of your writing. It is important that If you can put the two things into a sentence
industrial applications. In conclusion, gold is sentences in the paragraph follow one another in using ‘if... then’, then you have the requirements
treasured not only for its beauty but also for its a natural sequence. When a paragraph flows, the for cause and effect.
utility. reader will be able to understand the main idea This is also called as explanation paragraph
that you have presented. “Paragraphs should because you need to explain how or why
There is no set length to a paragraph. Some logically fit together”. something happens.
paragraphs are only one sentence in length.
However, a short paragraph like that should be This can be achieved by arranging the sentences Process - is a series of steps that lead to a desired
left only to the expert writer—or a specific style to show a clear sequence of ideas and using result.
of writing. You wouldn’t find a single-sentence structural devices to show the logical connections A process paragraph explains how to do, create,
paragraph in a research paper or academic journal. between sentences. or understand something. In writing such, you
must know the procedure down to the smallest
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT METHODS OF PARAGRAPH detail.
“Development means to delve deeper into an DEVELOPMENT
idea.” In summary, a process paragraph does two things:
Definition - When writing a definition paragraph, • gives directions by telling someone how to do
But first, remember the two most important you take a thing or an idea and explain what it is. something
elements of writing (both for the paragraph and Definition gives an outright explanation of the • gives information about how some process was
the essay): meaning of a word by introducing or describing it or is to be completed
within the same context. When reading a
Unity - In order for a paragraph to maintain a definition paragraph, pay close attention to the Analogy - An expression of similarity between
sense of unity, the paragraph must focus solely topic sentence. It will identify the term and two unlike things. They are most commonly used
on a single idea, point, or argument that is being suggest the overall context in which the term is to explain something unknown in terms of
discussed. Therefore, the paragraph should not commonly used. something known.
begin to stray and develop new ideas. If you A good analogy can help readers understand a
begin to write sentence that wander from the Sequence - In a sequence paragraph, you are complicated subject or view a common
paragraph’s main idea, then it is time to start a writing to describe a series of events or a process experience in a new way. An analogy is also a
new paragraph. in sort of order. Usually this order is based on comparison which shows that if two things are
time. In this pattern, the details are presented in alike in one way, they can be alike in others.
Recognizing Unrelated Ideas the order in which they happened (time order or
Manny Pacquiao is a terrific Filipino boxer. He chronological order). THE ESSAY
has a good family. He has fought against several • A literary piece that tells about real people,
world famous boxers from different countries so Comparison and Contrast - The comparison- places, and events is classified as nonfiction.
strongly that he becomes the best loved boxer in contrast pattern is used when similarities and
• A nonfiction work that deals with one subject, out’ of information for the reader that has been Dear Sir/Madame:
often in a personal way, is called an essay. for him at least relatively unknown or difficult to ▪ Body - This contains the actual message of the
• An essay is a longer composition written to understand. letter. It should be brief and direct to the point.
communicate a main point to a particular Three to five paragraphs are ideal.
audience for a specific purpose. It is a shaped and Persuasive Essay - Convincing the Reader, It should be brief and to the point. Guideline: 3
structured piece of writing with a series of well- presents facts but its goal is to convince the paragraphs Brief Introduction
connected paragraphs. reader to accept the writer’s point of view. In Content: purpose for writing
doing so, the writer also presents facts, sound Conclusion
PARTS OF AN ESSAY reasoning, and logic in building the case. ▪ Complimentary Closing - This is a polite way of
Thesis Statement - This is the controlling ending the letter. It is a short, polite expression
mechanism or the focused topic that states the Business LETTERS followed by a comma.
purpose, method of discussion, and the point of Business letters may be defined as a media or Yours Truly, (same rank)
discussion. means through which views are expressed and Respectfully, / Respectfully yours, (someone
Supporting Paragraphs - Body of the Essay It is ideas or information is communicated in writing above your rank)
composed of supporting paragraphs that explain in the process of business activities. Sincerely, (if with a personal relationship)
the thesis statement. ▪ Signature Block - Written here is the sender’s
Conclusion - The last paragraph designed to Parts of a Business Letter name. In the space-in-between, the signature
bring the discussion to a close. restatement | The way a business letter is written today may should be placed using black or blue ink. The
thoughtful remark | summary vary depending on the policies and standards of sender’s position and company
an organization. Nevertheless, there is a need to may also be written.
TYPES OF ESSAYS know its parts in order to write an effective letter. ▪ Optional Parts:
Descriptive Essay - Painting a Picture, A ▪ Heading/ Letterhead - contains the contact • Enclosure Notation - This lists the documents
descriptive essay gives a clear picture of a person, information: name of the business, postal address, attached with the letter.
place, object, event, or idea. Details often come email address, phone numbers, business logo Encl: resume
from the writer’s senses– smell, taste, touch, Note: for most organizations, this part is already • Reference Initials
hearing, and sight. printed out in its official stationery • Copy Circulation - COPY CIRCULATION/
Description answers the question: “What does ▪ Date - The date as to when the letter was written CARBON COPY/ COURTESY COPY
he/she / it look like? While painters use paint and should also be included in the letter. The most This is included when copies of the letter are also
brush in describing something, writers use words. common format is the “month-day-year” format. sent to other people apart from the recipient.
Its position, however, depends on the format used cc: Dean, President
Narrative Essay - Telling a Story, A narrative for the letter. NOTE: bcc
essay gives the details of an experience or event ▪ Inside Address - addressee’s information (to • Post Script - This is written to add
in the order in which they happened. whom the letter is sent) In writing the inside information not necessarily related to the letter
Narration means to ‘recite the details’. This is the address, include the appropriate title of respect. like a personal note. It is expressed as:
unfolding of a series of events. In case no names are available, the position may P.S.
Expository Essay - Presenting the Facts, An be written instead.
expository essay gives directions or uses facts ▪ Salutation - This is the greeting of the letter. It Teaching of Literature
and details to explain information. to inform, should be cordial yet formal. This is always Objectives:
clarify, or explain. This kind of essay answers the accompanied by a colon. 1. Review concepts, beliefs, principles, and
questions how and why. Dear (Mr., Ms., Mx.) Locke: practices in teaching literature.
expose comes from the Latin ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ Dear Sir: 2. apply the concepts, beliefs, principles, and
and ‘poser’, ‘to place’ The ‘exposing’ or ‘placing Dear Madame: practices in teaching literature to classroom
situations and in preparing lessons and/or lesson genuine interaction. The learners can even be language the better able they will be to come to
plans. taught to develop critical thinking. terms with a literary text as literature.
3. display literary competence in approaching the
teaching of literature. Motivational. The personal growth model
Literary texts are non-trivial since they deal with One of the main goals for teachers who are
Introduction matters which concerned the writer enough to primarily committed to a personal growth model
Knowledge of literature is perhaps better make him or her write about them. In this they of literature teaching is to try to help student is to
expressed in terms of pleasure and enjoyment are unlike many other forms of language teaching achieve an engagement with the reading of
rather than in terms of the accumulation of facts, inputs, which frequently trivialize experience in literary texts. This engagement cannot really be
however valuable those facts may sometimes be. the service of pedagogy. Literary text is touch on measured in terms of passing examinations in
The teacher who wishes to impart knowledge of themes to which learners can bring a personal literature; the test of the teacher's success in
literature aims to impart personal pleasure in response teaching literature is the extent to which students
reading literary texts and is likely to select from their own experience. carry with them beyond the classroom an
teaching methods which lead to active enjoyment and love for literature which is
involvement in reading particular texts rather 2. Why teach literature? - Three Models renewed as they continue to engage with
than to a passive reception of information about (Carter and Long,1991). literature throughout their lives.
the texts.
Matthew Arnold once said that he knew when he The reasons for teaching literature necessarily 3. What are the processes involved in studying
had encountered great literature because the hair transcend the particular circumstances, places and literature? How do readers respond to
at the back of his head stood up. It is this kind of contexts literature? How can we make our students
emotional and experiential involvement which in which literature is taught. respond to literature?
constitutes knowledge of literature. This kind of a. Description. Students can talk or write about
knowledge is not normally conveyed by survey The cultural model what they read in their own words.
lecture courses about literature; it is more likely Teachers working within such an orientation b. Discrimination. Students can discriminate
to be conveyed by activity-based, student- stress the value of literature in encapsulating the among the different literary types. They can
centered approaches which aim to lead to a high accumulated wisdom, the best that has been identify them by type, author, or theme.
level of personal response and involvement. thought and felt within the culture. Teaching c. Relation. Students can relate several elements
literature within a cultural model enables students of a literary text to each other or to other texts.
1. Why teach literature? (Duff and Maley,1990) to understand and appreciate cultures and d. Interpretation. Students can figure out what
ideologies different from their own in time and they think the author is saying and defend their
Linguistic. space and to come to perceive tradition of interpretations.
In terms of language acquisition and learning, thought, feeling, and artistic form the heritage the e. Generalization. Students can draw out the main
literary texts offer samples of a very wide range culture of such cultures endows. idea of a piece of literary work or an author's
of styles, registers, and text types at many levels style.
of difficulty. The language model f. Evaluation. Students can evaluate the worth of
Literature puts students in touch with some of the a piece of literature using a set of criteria.
Methodological. subtler and varied creative uses of the language. g. Valuing. Students can indicate the importance
Since literary texts are open to multiple The main impulse of a language-centered of literature to their own lives or to the world
interpretations, readers can have different literature teaching is to help students find ways outside of the text.
opinions and ideas about a variety of topics. This into a text in a methodical way and for h. Creation. Students can respond creatively by
provides learners an opportunity to engage in themselves. Literature is made from language and making art projects, composing a musical medley,
that the more students can reading and through
producing an MTV, writing another stanza for a o The climax is story's highest point of interest Poems are forms of literature usually written in
poem or another chapter to a novel, etc. which may take the shape of a decision, a lines or verses that make up stanzas. The lines
revelation, an action, an affirmation, or a and stanzas may be of various lengths. Some
4. What do we teach? realization. poems have rhyme and meter. Poems are
4.1. Fiction o The denouement is the finishing of things right designed to be recited or read aloud. The
Fiction is any imaginative recreation and re- after the climax. recitation of a poem reveals its rhythm (regular
construction of life. It includes short stories and sound patterns) and thought units that help out
novels. The novel and the short story differ from Point of View. This refers to the one who tells the the meaning it wishes to convey.
each other in length and complexity. Even though story.
fiction is make-believe, the characters seem The point of view can be: The elements of poetry are:
almost real and the situations or problems they  Omniscient - delves into the thoughts of the • Sense - It is revealed through the words, images,
are in are similar to real-life. Readers see characters (godlike, knows everything and and symbols.
themselves in the characters or they relate them anything) • Diction - This refers to the denotative and
to real people they know.  first person - the narrator may be the connotative meanings.
protagonist, a minor character, an observer, • Images and Sense Impressions - These refer to
The elements of fiction are: or the writer himself/herself. the words used that appeal to the sense of sight,
Settings - This refers to the time and place in  third person limited point of view - the smell, hearing, taste, and touch.
which a story takes place. narrator can only relate the actions or • Figures of Speech -- These refer to the creative
behavior of the characters use of words or expressions that a poet uses to
Characters - They are usually the representations enhance the sense impression.
of human beings. The author may reveal a • Theme - This refers to the significant truth • Sound - This is the result of the creative
character by what he/she does in a certain about or insight into life and human nature that is combination of words. The poet may resort to the
situation, by describing directly the character, by illustrated in the actions, preoccupations, and use of alliteration, assonance, rhyme, repetition,
focusing on what the character says and thinks, or decisions of the characters. The theme is some anaphora.
by what other characters say about him/her. familiar saying or moral. This can be expressed • Rhythm - This is the ordered alternation of
in complete statements, stated as a generalization, strong and weak elements in the flow of sound
Plot - This refers to the way the actions are a statement that accounts for the major details of and silence.
arranged in the story. Some stories have a linear the story, or stated in more than one way. • Meter - This refers to the duration, stress, or
or chronological arrangement of the plot. Others number of syllables per line.
have a circular plot arrangement which combines • Images - These are usually characterized by • Rhyme Scheme - This is formal arrangement of
linear with flashback. Still the plot can be in concrete qualities rather than an abstract meaning. rhymes in a stanza or in the whole poem.
medias res or in the middle of things. The parts of These appeal to the sense of sight, hearing, touch, • Structure - This refers to the arrangement of
the plot are: exposition, complication, crisis, taste, or smell. words and lines to fit together and the
climax, denouement. organization of the parts to form the whole.
• Symbols. These could be images or objects that • Word Order - the natural or unnatural
o The exposition introduces the main characters, stand for something other than themselves. They arrangement of words
their background, characteristics, interests, do not just represent their own concrete qualities, • Ellipsis - omitting some words for economy or
limitations, etc. but the idea or abstraction that is associated with effect
o The complication marks the onset of the major them or implied by them. • Punctuation - abundance or lack or punctuation
conflict in the plot. marks
o The crisis is the point in which curiosity, 4.2. Poetry • Shape - contextual or visual design, omission of
uncertainty, and tension are greatest. spaces, capitalization or lower case
Types of Poems Literary Devices in Poetry Figures of Speech Literary Allusions and Expressions
• Lyric - it expresses the author's mood, emotion, • Simile - comparison of two things by using the Penelope's web - a task that is never ending or
and reflection in musical language. It derives its words like or as done repeatedly and never finishes
name from the lyre, and was primarily intended ex. There is no frigate like a book. Achilles' heel - the weakest point of one's
to be sung. Not all lyrics are singable, but they • metaphor - a direct comparison of two unlike personality a something that marks the weakest
are all melodious. things or ideas point of a person.
ex. She is a phantom of delight. Example: Kryptonite for Superman
• Ode- the most majestic type of lyric poetry. It • personification-gives human traits to inanimate Bacchanalian feast - a gathering that is
expresses enthusiasm, lofty objects or ideas characterized by wanton abandon
praise of some person or thing, deep reflection, or ex. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust Herculean task - a great or almost impossible
restrained feeling. The author is in an exalted • synecdoche - using a part for the whole task; something that is almost impossible to be
mood; he/she feels deeply what he/she is saying; ex. No busy hand provokes a tear No roving accomplished or it will take a great effort to do
hence the subject matter can never be trivial. foot shall crush thee here Apple of discord - the object of conflict
• metonymy - using another word which is clearly Beware of Greeks bearing gifts - be careful if an
• Elegy - a lyric poem that can always be identifiable or associated with the idea referred to enemy suddenly becomes very friendly
distinguished by its subject matter, ex. And trouble deal heaven with my bootless
death. It may voice the author's personal grief for cries. Sound Devices
a loved one, or a loss affecting the public as a • Hyperbole - exaggeration • Onomatopoeia - the use of words that imitate
whole, or it may simply be a meditation on death ex. I breathed a song in the air, the sound of the idea.it denotes
in general. It fell to earth, I knew not where; o ex. Hiss, Swoosh, Bang, Buzz
• Sonnet - a lyric poem that can be distinguished For who has sight so keen and strong, • Alliteration - the repetition of consonant sounds,
by its form, for it always consists of fourteen (14) That it can follow a flight of song? especially in the initial position
iambic pentameter lines. • Apostrophe - a direct address to something o ex. The splendor falls on castle walls
inanimate or dead or absent And snowy summits told in story
• Song - a short lyric poem which is intended ex. Break, break, break, • Assonance - the repetition of vowel sounds
primarily to be sung. It has that particular On thy cold grey stones,0 Sea! o ex. Long, long afterward, in an oak
melodious quality required by the singing voice. • Oxymoron - using contradictory terms I found the arrow, still unbroke;
• Simple lyric - the category of all those lyrical ex. O heavy lightness, serious vanity! I found again in the heart of a friend.
poems that do not properly belong under any of • Litotes - giving an assertion by means of • Rhyme - the repetition of sounds at the end of
the other types of lyrics. The simple lyric touches negation or understatement words
every mood and emotion of the human heart. ex. I never saw a moor, o Ex. And what shoulder and what art
I never saw the sea; Could twist the sinews of thy heart?
• Narrative Poem - tells a story of love, adventure, Yet know I how the heather looks, And, when thy heart began to beat,
or romance. And what a wave must be What dread hand and what dread feet?
• the epic - a long, narrative poem about the • allusion - refers to any scientific, historical, • Consonance - the identity of consonant sounds
exploits of a supernatural hero. mythological, literary, or biblical event or figure in words without the identity of vowel sounds
• the ballad - tells the story of ordinary people. ex. I am not Lazarus nor Prince Hamlet o ex. black-block, slip-slop, creak-croak
• the metrical tale - an ordinary story told in verse. • paradox - a phrase or statement that on the • Anaphora - the repetition of a word or words at
• the metrical romance - a medieval verse tale surface seems contradictory, but makes some the beginning of two or more successive clauses
based on legends, chivalric love and adventure, kind of emotional sense or verses
or the supernatural. ex. You have to die to live. o ex. Lay me an anviI,0 God!
Beat me and hammer me into a crowbar,
... informal or familiar essay - covers light, • Elizabethan Theater-this used a wooden
Lay me an anvil, O God! ordinary, or even trivial subject matters in a structure providing an enclosed space around a
Beat me and hammer me into a steel spike. conversational, friendly, and often humorous tone, courtyard open to the sky. The enclosed structure
... but equally insightful as that of the formal essay. generated an intimacy and involvement between
the actor and the audience. Actors were in a habit
4.3. The Essay 4.4. Drama of speaking directly to the audience.
The essay is a prose composition of moderate The drama is a story written to be performed by • Proscenium - the stage used in the 19th
length, usually expository in nature, which aims actors. It may consist of one or more large century. This stage distances the audience from
to explain or clear up an idea, a theory, an sections called acts, which are made up of any the play, providing a clear frame behind which
impression, or point of view. The author gives in number of smaller sections called scenes. the performers act out their scenes unaware of the
prose form some of his/her thoughts, feelings, It originated in religious rituals and symbolic audience's presence.
experiences, or observations on some phase of reenactments of primitive peoples. The ancient • Eclectic - this is theater of the modern times.
life that has interested him/her. Greeks developed drama into a sophisticated art proscenium and every other kind of staging.
and created such dramatic forms as comedy and Some contemporary theater converts non-
It may treat any subject from the light, humorous, tragedy. Oedipus the King is a classic example of theatrical spaces, such as the street, on top of a
trivial things to the deepest thoughts that the soul Greek tragedy. The classical drama of Greece and truck, or a warehouse, into a space for
can fathom. There is no definite form essays must Rome declined as the Roman Empire declined. performance.
take. They are as varied as the writers themselves Drama revived in Europe during the Middle Ages.
and show, through and through, each author's The Renaissance produced a number of great Genres of Drama
personality. They may be written to dramatists, especially in England. Christopher • Tragedy - a type of drama that shows the
entertain, to inform the mind, or to teach moral or Marlowe's Dr. Faustus and William downfall and destruction of a noble or
religious truths. It never gives an exhaustive Shakespeare's comedies and tragedies are outstanding person, traditionally one who
treatment of any subject, but, as the name implies, examples from that period. A Doll's House by possesses a character weakness called a tragic
is an attempt to set forth only those phases or Henrik Ibsen began a trend toward realistic prose flaw. The tragic hero, through choice or
things that the author may choose to express. It is drama and away from drama in verse form. Most circumstance, is caught up in a sequence of
suggestive and rambling rather than complete and of the great Western dramas of the twentieth events that inevitably results in disaster.
direct. century were written in prose. Among the forms
of drama from the East are the No and Kabuki • Comedy - a type of drama intended to interest
Parts of the Essay plays of Japan and the dramas from India and amuse the audience rather than make them
the introduction (Shakuntala by Kalidasa) and China (The deeply concerned about events that happen. The
the main body, consisting of a series of Injustice Done to Tou Ngo). characters overcome some difficulties, but they
paragraphs, more or less closely related, in which always overcome their ill fortune and find
the subject is developed Theatrical Styles happiness in the end.
the conclusion • Arena-the theater style of early Greeks. The
actors are surrounded on all sides by the audience • Tragicomedy - a play that does not adhere
Types of Essays and they make entrances and exits through the strictly to the structure of tragedy. This is usually
formal or impersonal essay - deals with a aisles. This establishes a serious play that also has some of the qualities
serious subject and an important topic like an intimate relation with the audience. of comedy. It arouses thought even with laughter.
philosophy, science, politics, religion. It has an • Medieval Theater-this used staging areas
authoritative and scholarly style. The tone is called mansions inside the churches and portable • Farce - has very swift movements, has
formal, detached, objective, or straightforward. wagons wheeled about outside the churches. ridiculous situations, and does not stimulate
The purpose is mainly to teach or to inform.
thought. Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors, The personal feelings) or an aside (a short speech 5.3 Development of students' character and
Taming of the Shrew, and The Merry made by a character to the audience which, by emotional maturity. Through literature, the
Wives of Windsor are examples of this. convention, the other characters onstage do not students can discover and realize many universal
hear). truths and insights about the world and human
• Melodrama - show events that follow each • Movement - the actor's movements are keyed nature. They may learn from the different literary
other rapidly, but seems to be governed always to the structure of their speeches. The stage texts’ knowledge, wisdom, and values that they
by chance. The characters are victims in the directions give information as to where the will apply in real life.
hands of merciless fate. Shakespeare made use of characters are, where they go, and even the 5.4 Development of critical thinking.
this in Titus Andronicus and Cymbeline. significance of their movements. Literature is a very good means to develop
• Music - some dramas incorporate music for critical thinking. Students may be challenged to
Elements of Drama dramatic effect. This may be sung live or used as interrogate their own beliefs and practices and
• Plot - the sequence of events in a drama. a background to set the mood of the play. those of others. The study of literature will help
Most plots can be analyzed by dividing them into • Theme the message, the central action, or them interpret, analyze and criticize things in
most or all of the following parts: what the play is all about. There may be several their own life and those around them.
o Exposition - introduces the setting, the themes in a play. 5.5 Development of literary appreciation and a
characters, and the basic situation refined reading taste. The literary experience
o inciting incident - introduces the central 5. What are the goals in teaching literature? should provide students a love for literature. They
conflict will learn what is beautiful in a poem, what to
o development - the conflict runs its course and 5.1 Development and/or extension of literary like in a drama, what is good in a novel or short
usually intensifies competence. Literary competence is the ability to story, or what is worthwhile in an essay.
o climax - the conflict reaches a high point of internalize the 'grammar' of literature which Hopefully they will read on their own and
interest or suspense would permit a reader to convert linguistic become readers of literature for life.
o resolution- the conflict is ended sequences into literary structures and meaning
o denouement - ties up the loose ends that remain (Jonathan Culler). Anyone wholly unacquainted 6. The Teacher of Literature: Requisites and
after the resolution of the with literature and unfamiliar with its Demands
conflict conventions would be quite confused if presented
with a literary work. He/She may be able to read 6.1 Literary competence. The teacher of
• Characters - the entire shape of the action the literary text, but may not literature must not only be literature literate, but
derives from the characters' strengths and fully comprehend what the text may signify or more importantly literary competent
weaknesses thus; they create their own mean. He/She must possess literary competence himself/herself. He/She is the one who mediates
opportunities and problems. not just reading comprehension skills. between the literary text and the students.
• Setting - the time and place in which the 5.2 Development and/or enhancement of the 6.2 Broad reading background. A teacher of
action takes place. It also refers to the scenery imagination and creativity. Literature definitely literature must not be just one paragraph or one
and physical elements that appear on stage to develops and enhances the imagination. The book ahead of his/her students. He/She must have
vivify the author's stage directions. different literary genres allow the readers to enter read a lot of literature before even venturing to
• Dialogue - the speeches the characters use to different worlds - realistic, fantastic, futuristic, teach it.
advance the action. Since there is description or and even out of this world. 6.3 Love for literature. The students must sense
commentary on the action, as there is in fiction, Literature hopefully will inspire them to write that their teacher in literature oozes with love for
the dialogue must tell the whole story. The their own poems, essays, fiction, or drama and literature in the way he/she discusses literary
dialogue may take the form of a soliloquy (a encourage them to respond creatively by tapping texts, gives ready examples, quotes lines of
speech in which an actor, usually alone on the their own skills and talents in drawing, singing, poetry or passages from fiction or drama, or talks
stage, utters his/her thoughts aloud, revealing acting, and the like. about the authors.
6.4 Emotional maturity and experience. to think on their own, to trust themselves, and to The questions we ask should reflect our emphasis
Certain topics and themes in literature need to be feel confident about their own reading of on developing higher-order thinking skills. The
handled carefully and tactfully, without literature. teacher should not limit his/her questions to: what
moralizing or pontificating or passing judgment 7.2 Teacher talk vs. Student-talk is the tile of the selection, where is the setting,
on people, their religion, race, gender, or class. A literature teacher's choice of method, strategies, who are the characters, who can summarize the
He/She must remember that the object is to and techniques should consider giving the story. In teaching literature, the questions for
liberate the students' minds from prejudices, students more opportunities to talk and discuss discussion should engage the students in making
biases, or narrow mindedness. among themselves. The students must be allowed self-reflection, in formulating their own questions,
6.5 Knowledge of different methods, strategies to confront a text as openly and as directly as in interrogating the text itself.
and techniques. The teacher of literature possible to help them find their own unique
constantly finds ways to make the teaching of responses to literature. The literature classroom 8. Considerations in Interpreting Literary
literature meaningful, interesting, enjoyable, and must be a place where students can test their Texts
even unforgettable for his/her students. Teaching ideas, reshape their visions of the world, and
with only one method and using the same rethink their own beliefs and practices. 8.1 Meaning-making vs. Meaning spotting.
strategy amt technique will only bore the students 7.3 Supplementing the Printed Page Does the meaning of a text reside in the text
and make them hate it. If not properly guided and motivated, students waiting to be found by the readers? Or meaning
6.6 Knowledge of students 'reading ability, could easily be turned off by literature on the is negotiated by the readers?
language ability, and interests. The teacher printed page. The long narration or description in 8.2 Meaning vs. Significance.
must know where the students are coming from- fiction could prove to be boring and the figurative Meaning refers to what the author really intended
their ability level, what they have read, if they lines of poetry could prove to be taxing. The (if the teacher knows it for a fact-like he/she
like acting, singing, writing, or debating, what choice of methods, strategies, and techniques talked with the author or read somewhere what
hobbies and habits they have, etc. should take into account the inclusion of the author said about his/her work). Significance
activities that would require students to work is what readers read in the text and the result of
7. Considerations in Choosing Methods, with their hands, to perform, to create, and the their reading regardless of what the author really
Strategies, and Techniques in Teaching like. means.
Literature 7.4 Variety 8.3 Using literary approaches and theories.
Students have different interests, needs, The way a teacher guides his/ her students to read,
7.1 Teacher-centered vs. Student-centered preferences, learning styles, and abilities. A interpret and analyze literary texts will have more
Classroom teacher of literature needs to address this fact focus and direction if literary approaches and
Traditionally literature is taught through lecture about his/her students. They do not learn in the theories (American New Criticism,
and straight recitation. The teacher is the same way, and they do not grasp the same things. Psychoanalytical, Mythological/Archetypal, and
fountainhead of knowledge and sole authority of A variety of methods, strategies, and techniques the like) are employed.
the correct interpretation of literary texts. In such could address different needs at different times. 8.4 Reader and the text.
a teacher-centered classroom, the students The teacher cannot insist on using the same Who is the reader? How will the reader relate to
become passive recipients of knowledge. This method, strategy, and technique all the time. the text? How will the reader respond to the text?
set-up, although convenient for the teacher, could 7.5 Multiple Intelligences 8.5 Reader and Other Readers.
prove to be boring, unchallenging, and The teaching of literature can very well be After reading the text how will the readers
monotonous. A student-centered classroom gives integrated with developing multiple intelligences. compare or contrast their responses? How will
students an opportunity to read and experience The choice of activities or tasks should consider the readers enhance their understanding of the
literature freely, without fear of being the development of multiple intelligences. text by sharing their ideas with other readers?
reprimanded for not being able to guess the 7.6 Higher-Order Thinking Skills 8.6 Text and Other Texts.
teacher's interpretation. Students are encouraged
How can a text be compared with other texts? interpretive reading (including Readers Theater, their minds. Once they have done this, students
How can reading other texts enhance one's Chamber Theater) are asked what they felt, saw, etc.
reading of a particular text? debate 11.3 Biographical Montage.
9. Considerations in Choosing Literary Texts panel forum This is a good activity to use to talk about the
9.1 Students' language ability. 10.4. Audio-Visual Methods author before taking up his/her work. Students
Discussing and responding to literature written in teaching with slides collect or make photos, objects, things, pictures
English will come easier if students have at least teaching with OHP of places, etc. relevant to the author's life. These
average language ability. If the class has low teaching with film/vcd/dvd are mounted on a cartolina or illustration board,
language ability, the text to be chosen should teaching with cassette recorder/cd player even a simple folder, and arranged or laid out
have low frequency of difficult words or a 10.5. Project Methods creatively.
glossary should be provided. scrapbook making 11.4 Writing Chapter 0.
9.2 Students' reading ability. exhibit/diorama Students are asked to write a scene before
Success in reading and understanding literature dramatization Chapter 1 of a novel they have just read. They
written in English depends on the students' ability literary map can write the additional chapter following the
to comprehend. The teacher should start with time line author's style. This is like writing a prequel of the
shorter texts for a class with low reading ability. video/audio scriptwriting story.
9.3 Students' cognitive ability. making a storyboard/screen adaptation 11.5 Graphic Representation.
Students with high cognitive ability show more 10.6. Field Research Methods Students are asked to make a visual
success in studying literature. For a class with field trip representation of the plot, characters, or setting.
low cognitive ability, the teacher may opt to start author interview Crayons, water color, pencil or the like can be
with texts that have more familiar subject matter 10.7. Creative Writing Methods used as drawing materials.
so students can make use of their schema or journal writing 11.6 Creative Conversation Writing.
previous knowledge. closure writing Writing dialogues is a way for students to explore
9.4 Culture load. team writing their views about the characters or the story itself.
The culture load of the text may pose difficulty to writing workshop Students may be asked to lake some scenes from
the students. The texts to be chosen should not the story in which there is no dialogue, and they
have heavy culture load. If it cannot be helped, 11.Some Strategies and Techniques imagine the conversation that took place.
then more background information about the text 11.7 Thought Bubbles.
should be provided by the teacher. 11.1 Using the title and cover design. Students are asked to write the 'inner' dialogue
The teacher motivates the students by showing that parallels the 'outer' dialogue in the literary
10. Methods Employed in Teaching Literature them an interesting or intriguing cover design of work. They may even draw the thought balloons
a novel. Students are asked to guess or infer what and write the dialogues inside them.
10.1. Lecture Methods the book is about from the title and cover design. 11.8 Movie Poster.
formal lecture Another way to use this is to ask students to make Students are asked to imagine the story as a
informal lecture their own title and cover design for a novel, a movie. They will make a movie poster just like
straight recitation short story, or a drama. the ones they see in movie theaters to advertise
10.2. Discussion Methods 11.2 Getting in the Mood. films. They choose the actors to play the
pair work This is a kind of guided fantasy. The teacher asks characters in the story, the place where the movie
buzz group students to make a mental picture of particular will be shot to reflect the setting of the story, a
group work scenes in the story or a scene depicted in a poem. design to reflect something of the plot, and an ad
10.3. Public Speaking Methods Then the class is invited to inhabit the scene in blurb to reflect the theme of the story.
memorizing 11.9 Movie Trailer.
Students prepare a 1-minute teaser about the Survey of Literature of Selected Persian and Arabic
story as if it is a film. There is a voice-over
announcer to narrate something about the story. Countries AUTHOR ATTRIBUTIONS
Koran/ Quran/ Qur’an • The central religious
The other students in the group act out the chosen
text of Islam
scenes for the trailer. Sumerian, Egyptian, Hebrew • According to Islamic
11.10 Worksheets.
To encourage students to read on their own,
AUTHOR ATTRIBUTIONS belief, it is the literal
Gilgamesh • This epic poem is the first transcript of God’s
worksheets can be made. These worksheets can speech revealed to
be in the form of an agree/disagree worksheet, great heroic narrative of
prophet Muhammad.
true/false worksheet, values worksheet, or a world literature.
The Thousand and One • Also known as the
completion worksheet. • It narrates the legendary Nights Arabian Nights
11.11 Sculpting. deeds of Gilgamesh, the • By far the most famous
Students work in groups to re-create the King of Uruk. He is collection of Arabic
important scenes in a story through a kind of a endowed with great fables and folktales
montage or tableau set-up. One member acts as strength, courage, and The Shan-nama • Also known as the Epic
the 'sculptor' who 'sculpts' a scene using his/her beauty, making him more (Firdawsi) of Kings
god than man (2/3 god, 1/3 • Probably the most
group members as the 'sculpted' objects. famous
11.12 Transparency Overlay. man).
The Bible: Old • It contains the sacred poem in Iranian literature
The transparencies are used to re-create the • It is considered a
characters, setting, or plot by putting one Testament scriptures of the Jewish
national treasure in Iran,
transparency over the other to build/complete the faith, written from Moses presented as a history of
desired until 400 BC. Iran from the beginning
output. • It chronicles God’s power of the world until the
and works, looking toward conquest of Irans by
the coming Messiah. Arabs
The Bible: New • It combines the four • The most important
Testament gospels of Mark, Matthew, warrior is Rustam
Luke, and John. The Rubaiyat • This is a collection of
• The focus is the revelation (Omar Khayyam) poems written in the
of Jesus as the Messiah, literary form known as
looking back at His life and the rubai, where each
poem contains four lines,
teachings as the basis of the the first, second, and
church. fourth of which rhyme
with one another
• Omar is a
mathematician and a
scientist, probably the
best-known Islamic poet
in the West
 Indian Literature A. Vedic Period attributed to a learned Brahman, Vishnusarman,
The term Indian literature is used to refer to This period is named after the Vedas, a set of who used fables to instruct the three dull-witted
literature produced across the Indian subcontinent hymns that formed the cornerstone of Aryan sons of a king.
prior to the creation of and within the Republic of culture. Hindus consider the Vedas to be the most
India. sacred of all literature for they have been Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells the
revealed to humans directly by the gods. Rigveda love between Sakuntala and King Dushyanta.
Religion - Indian creativity is evident in religion (hymns of supreme sacred knowledge) is the What begins as a physical attraction for both of
as the country is the birthplace of two important oldest of the Vedas often comparable to the them becomes spiritual in the end as their love
faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Psalms in the Old Testament. endures and surpasses all difficulties. Emotion or
Buddhism, which ironically became extinct in rasa dominates every scene in Sanskrit drama.
India but spread throughout Asia. B. Epic and Buddhist Age These emotions vary from love to anger, heroism
This time was the growth of later Vedic literature, to cowardice, joy to terror and allows audience to
Hinduism - “the belief of the people of India,” is new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist literature. take part in the play and be one with the
the predominant faith of India and of no other The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, characters.
nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God tells the struggle for supremacy between two
and the creation of the universe. The Hindus groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. D. Medieval and Modern Age
regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul It is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct). Persian influence on literature was considerable
and original source of the universe. Kama refers The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit by the during this period. Persian was the court language
to the proper pursuits of man in his role as a poet Valmiki. It reflects the Hindu values and of the Muslim rulers.In the 18th century, India
householder. The Kama-sutra is a classic forms of social organization, the theory of karma, was directly under the British crown and
textbook on erotic and other forms of pleasure honor, and promises. remained so until its Independence in 1947.
and love attributed to the sage Vatsyayana. Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit and consists British influence was strong and modern-day
of some 24,000 couplets divided into 7 books. It Indians are primarily educated in English.
Buddhism - originated in India in the 6 th century describes the royal birth of Rama. The Bhagavad On Learning to be an Indian is an essay by
BC. This religion is based on the teachings of Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the Santha Rama Rau that illustrates the effects of
Siddharta Gautama, called Buddha or the greatest and most beautiful of the Hindu colonization on the lives of the people
“Enlightened One.” Much of Buddha’s teachings scriptures. It is written in the form of a dialogue particularly the younger generation.
are focused on self- awareness and self- between the warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally
development to attain nirvana or enlightenment. and charioteer, Krishna, who is also an earthly published in India in 1910, and its translations
The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an incarnation of the god Vishnu. followed in 1912. In these translations,
anthology of basic Buddhist teaching in a simple Rabindranath Tagore uses imagery from nature to
aphoristic style. These verses are compared with C. Classical period express the themes of love and the internal
the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or that of Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect speech’, is conflict between spiritual longings and earthly
Christ’s Sermon on the Mount. considered a sacred language, the language desires. The Taj Majal, a poem by Sahir
spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such, Ludhianvi, is about the mausoleum in North India
Literary Periods Sanskrit was seen as the only appropriate built by the Mogul
The Indus Valley civilization flourished in language for the noblest literary works. emperor Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-i-
northern India between 2500 and 1500 BC. The The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast Mahal. The construction of the building took 20
Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, fables originally written in Sanskrit. It is intended years to complete involving some 20,000 workers.
were the earliest known migrants into India. They as a textbook of artha (worldly wisdom). It is a
brought with them a well-developed language frame story. The introduction acts as an enclosing
and a set of religious beliefs. frame for the entire work. The stories are
 Chinese Literature The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Journey to the West is perhaps the most
In contrast to other ancient literary cultures, Confucian texts. The sayings range from brief influential of the four classics. It is also the most
which begin with epics, prose, legends, or hymns statements to more extended dialogues between widely known beyond China’s borders. Wu
to the gods, the Chinese tradition begins with Confucius and his students. Cheng’en wrote the novel. It depicts the
lyric poetry. The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the pilgrimage of the Buddhist monk Xuanzang to
Five Classics of Confucian philosophy and has India, accompanied by his three disciples.
Dynasties been primarily used for divination. Although its framework is based on Buddhism,
Chou Dynasty- This era is known as the Hundred the novel draws on a host of Chinese folktales
Schools period because of the many competing Taoism - Lao Tzu expounded on Taoism. The and mythology to create its cast of characters and
philosophers and teachers who emerged during “Tao” or “The Way” means the natural course creatures.
this period. The most influential among them are that the world Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a historical
Lao Tzu, the proponent of Taoism, and follows. Lao-tzu is known as the “old novel that recounts the political intrigue and
Confucius, the founder of Confucianism. philosopher” and known as an elder deceit within the Three Kingdoms period of
Lao Tzu stressed freedom, simplicity, and contemporary of Confucius who once consulted Chinese History. The novel combines history,
mystical contemplation of nature, whereas with him. legend, and mythology to tell the tumultuous
Confucius emphasized a code of social conduct The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of Power) story of this era. It was written by Luo
and stressed the importance of discipline, explains the basic concept of the dao/tao, wu wei, Guanzhong, who incorporated hundreds of
morality, and knowledge. or non-action: Do nothing, and everything else is characters and weaved a multitude of
The Book of Songs (Shih Ching), first compiled done. complicated plotlines.
in the 6th century BC, is the oldest collection of
Chinese poetry. It is considered a model of poetic Four Classical Novels Dream of the Red Chamber was the last of the
expression and insight. Chinese literature contains four masterpieces, the four great novels to gain prominence. It is a semi-
An official government career was considered Four Great Classical Novels: Journey to the West, autobiographical work that focuses on the
prestigious, and the selection was by means of a Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, financial and moral decay of author Cao
civil service examination. This examination and Dream of the Red Chamber. Written during Xueqin’s family and, by extension, the Qing
tested the major Chinese works of philosophy the Ming and Qing dynasties, these novels have dynasty. The novel offers a detailed rendering of
and poetry requiring the composition for verse. permeated Chinese culture and are currently the life of 18th-century Chinese aristocracy.
Most government officials were well-versed in represented in various media.
literature and philosophy, and many Chinese Japanese Literature
poets also served in the government. Water Margin was the first of the four classical Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular
novels to be released. It introduced the vernacular means of expression and communication in
Philosophy & Religion form and style. The title has been translated in a Japanese culture. Poetry has already existed for
Chinese literature and all of the Chinese culture number of ways, including Outlaws of the Marsh, centuries as part of the oral tradition of the
has been profoundly influenced by three great Tale of the Marshes, All Men are Brothers, or Japanese.
schools of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and The Marshes of Mt. Liang. The work is attributed
Buddhism. to Shi Nai’an. The novel is set in the Song Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular
dynasty and depicts a group of outlaws who means of expression and communication in
Confucianism - gives the Chinese a moral order eventually go on to serve the Emperor in battling Japanese culture. It was used then as a means
and order for the universe. It is not a religion. foreign invaders. It was based on the real-life through which anyone could chronicle
Confucius was China’s most famous teacher, story of Song Jiang. experiences and express emotions. The
philosopher, and political theorist, whose ideas Manyoshu (Book of Ten Thousand Leaves) is an
have influenced all civilizations of East Asia. anthology of poets from various social classes. It
is considered the first anthology of Japanese There are different poems according to set forms • Yasunari Kawabata - won the Nobel Prize for
poetry. or structures: Literature in 1968. Three of his best novels are:
• choka are poems that consist of alternate lines Snow Country, Thousand Cranes, and Sound of
Early Japan’s political structure was based on of five and seven syllables with an additional the Mountains.
clans. Each clan developed a hierarchy of classes seven-syllable line at the end. There is no limit on • Yukio Mishima is the pen name of Kimitake
with aristocrats, warriors, and priests at the top the number of lines. Hiraoka, regarded by many writers as the most
and peasants and workers at the bottom. During • tanka is the most prevalent verse form in important Japanese novelist of the 20th century.
the 4th century AD, the Yamato clan grew to be traditional Japanese literature; it consists of five It was common for Japanese intellectuals during
the most powerful and imposed the Chinese lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables. that time to commit suicide.
Imperial System on Japan, creating an emperor, • renga is a chain of interlocking tanka; each
an imperial bureaucracy, and a grand capital city. tanka in a renga was divided into verses of 17 and Greek and Roman
14 syllables. Greek Literature begins with two masterpieces,
The Heian Age was a period of peace and • hokku was the opening verse of a renga, which the Iliad and Odyssey, which are attributed to the
prosperity, aesthetic refinement and artificial developed into a distinct literary form known as poet, Homer.
manners. The Pillow Book by Sei Shonagon haiku. The haiku consists of 3 lines of 5-7-5
represents a unique form of the diary genre. It syllables. • The Iliad recounts only part of a long series of
contains vivid sketches of people and places, shy • Matsuo Basho is regarded as the greatest haiku events in the Trojan War. It covers the last 49
anecdotes, and witticisms. Primarily intended to poet. days of the 10th year of the war. Achilles is
be a private journal, it was discovered and • Yosa Buson is regarded as the second greatest shown as the main character.
eventually printed. haiku • The Odyssey is concerned with the return of the
poet. surviving heroes to their kingdoms, particularly
The Feudal Era was dominated by the samurai • Koyabashi Issa is ranked with Basho and Buson Odysseus. It recounts the 10 years he spent
class. This included the militaristic lords, the although his talent was not recognized until after wandering before returning to Ithaca. Greek
daimyo, and the band of warriors, samurai. The his death. Dramas are usually tragedies and comedies
Tokugawa Shogunate in the late 1500s crushed performed with the worship of Dionysus.
the warring feudal lords and controlled all of Prose - appeared early in the 8th century, • Tragedies dealt with universal issues and
Japan from a new capital at Edo (Tokyo). For two focusing on Japanese history. During the Heian contemporary politics, with themes such as war,
centuries, Japan was a closed society: all Age, members of the imperial court kept lengthy incest, and murder.
foreigners were expelled, Japanese Christians journals and experimented with writing fiction. • Sophocles is considered one of the great Greek
were • The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki - is tragedians. He wrote the trilogy of Oedipus Rex,
persecuted, and foreign travel was forbidden. considered to be the world’s first true novel. It Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.
traces the life of a gifted and charming prince.
Shintoism - or ‘the way of the gods,’ is the • In the Grove by Ryunusuke - Akutagawa is the Certain conditions must exist in tragedies:
ancient religion that reveres dwelling spirits, or author’s most famous story made into the film • First, the character must be of high birth or
kami, found in natural objects and places. The Rashomon. noble status.
Shinto legends from the Records of Ancient • The Tale of Haike - was the most famous early • Second, they must experience events that
Matters (Kojiki) and the Chronicles of Japan Japanese novel. threaten their positions.
(Nihongi) form the earliest writings of ancient • Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenko - was • Finally, the tragic character must suffer a tragic
Japan. Both writings have been influenced by written during the age of feudalism. It is a fall through his/her own actions.
Chinese thought. collection of insights, reflections, and The gods interfere to some extent, but they never
observations. direct the plot or the character’s actions, which
renders tragedy tragic. Tragic characters choose
their destinies. It is their choices that cause their humiliation, the despondency, and the indignity not yet redeemed
downfall. of prison of life. by Christ’s crucifixion and
• Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka - is a ends with the poet’s return
• Oedipus Rex (Oedipus the King) is a Greek satirical poem that became the poet’s most as a man, renewed in hope,
tragedy about a man unknowingly fulfilling a anthologized poem reflecting negritude. having beheld
prophecy by killing his father and marrying his • Africa by David Diop - is a poem that achieves the beatific vision of the
mother. its impact by a series of climactic sentences and divine grace
• Oedipus at Colonus describes the end of rhetorical questions. Beowulf • The national epic of
Oedipus’ tragic life. • Song of Lawino by Okot P’Bitek - is regarded England
• Antigone is the daughter of Oedipus. This as the first important poem in English to emerge • It is the most notable
tragedy is about her disobeying the King’s law by from Eastern Africa. example of the earliest
English poetry, which
burying her brother, Polynices.
blends with Christianity and
Selected Literary Works paganism
Romans also venerated the Homeric epics. To
take his place alongside Homer, Virgil situates
AUTHOR ATTRIBUTIONS The Canterbury • A large collection of
The Song of • A long, historical poem Tales isolated stories featuring
his story at the time of the Fall of Troy. (Geoffrey different pilgrims of
Roland about a medieval knight,
• The Aeneid tells the story of the foundation of Chaucer) Medieval England
(Chanson de Roland, who is the nephew
Rome from the ashes of Troy. It recounts • Chaucer uses the tales and
Roland) of King Charlemagne
Aeneas’ quest to establish a new city for the • This is an example of a the character descriptions to
Trojan people. chanson de geste, or a song paint an
It recombines and transforms the major works of of deeds, focusing ironic and critical portrait of
Greek and Roman tradition to make a new, on deeds surrounding English society at the time,
original, and fundamentally Roman work. Charlemagne and his court particularly of the Church
The • One of the great works of The Decameron • A collection of tales told
Africa Nibelungenlied German literature (Giovanni by a group of young people
Literary Forms - Orature is the tradition of • This epic of murder and Boccaccio) escaping the black
African oral literature which includes praise revenge highlights the death from the city
poems, love poems, tales, ritual dramas, proverbs, relationship between • It is told as a frame story
fables, and epics. Griots, the keepers of oral Kriemhild and Siegfried encompassing 100 short
literature in West Africa, may be a professional • The first part describes the prose tales or novelle
storyteller, singer, or entertainer. life and death of Siegfried, The Adventures • Don Quixote and Sancho
and the second of Don Quixote Panza, the
Negritude - which mean literally “blackness” is part features the story of the (Miguel knight and the squire, ride
the literary movement that protested against vengeful Kriemhild Cervantes de from one ludicrous
French colonial rule and the policy of The Divine • An Italian epic divided in Saavedra) adventure to another in
assimilation. It began to examine Western values Comedy three parts: Inferno, pursuit of the knight’s
critically to reassess African culture. It (Dante Alighieri) Purgatorio, and Paradiso– dream of glory.
the great purpose was • The central concern of the
committed writers to use African subject matter
the salvation of the soul novel is the relationship
and should excite a desire for political freedom.
• It takes the readers on a between reality and fantasy.
journey that symbolically The Faerie Queen • An elaborate allegory built
• Letters to Martha by Dennis Brutus - is the (Edmund on the story of a 12-day
begins in a despairing world
poet’s most famous collection that speaks of the
Spenser) feast honoring the exchange of power and in terms of personal
Queen of Fairyland, Queen knowledge fulfillment and love
Elizabeth I The King James • One of the supreme The Old Man and • A short poetic novel about
God Sees the • A short story about a man Bible achievements of the English the Sea a poor, old fisherman who
Truth but falsely judged and accused Renaissance (Ernest heroically
Waits (Leo of murder • The translation was Hemingway) catches a huge fish devoured
Tolstoy) ordered by King James I and by sharks
A Doll’s House • A story of a husband who made by 47 scholars Death of a • A study of man’s search
(Henrik Ibsen) treats his wife, Nora as a • Regarded as the most Salesman for merit and worth in his
doll, a plaything, a pet influential book in the (Arthur Miller) life and the realization that
instead as a person history of English failure invariably looms
Gulliver’s Travels • An adventure story civilization The Invisible Man • The story of a black man
(Jonathan Swift) involving several voyages of Paradise Lost • An epic poem in blank (Ralph Waldo who lives a subterranean
Lemuel Gulliver, a ship’s (John Milton) verse that tells the fall of the Ellison) existence in a hole brightly
surgeon, as he ventures to angels and the creation of illuminated by electricity
the unchartered regions of Adam and Eve and their stolen from a utility
the world temptation by Satan company
• It is a satire about the Paradise • Centers of the temptation The Catcher in • Centers on a sensitive 16-
pettiness of human nature in Regained of Christ the Rye year-old Holden Caulfield,
general (John Milton) and the thirst for the word of (J.D. Salinger) who flees his elite boarding
The Lady with the • Depicts what at first seems God school for the outside world
Dog a casual liaison between a Moby Dick • An epic story of the of adulthood, only to
(Anton Chekhov) married man and a married (Herman whaling ship Pequod and its become disillusioned by its
woman. Neither expects Melville) “ungodly, god-like materialism and phoniness
anything from the man,” Captain Ahab, whose • Holden wants to be the
encounter, but they find obsessive quest for the white “catcher in the rye”—
themselves drawn back to whale Moby Dick leads the someone who saves
each other, risking the ship and its men to children from falling off a
security of their family lives. destruction cliff, which can be
A Doll’s House • A story of a husband who Uncle Tom’s • The most popular understood as a metaphor
(Henrik Ibsen) treats his wife, Nora as a Cabin American book of the 19th for entering adulthood.
doll, a plaything, a pet (Harriet Beecher century

Le Morte
instead as a person
• Originally written in 8
Stowe) • Its passionate appeal for an
end to slavery in the USA
Selected Literary Authors
• Kalidasa is a Sanskrit poet and dramatist. He is
d’Arthur books, this collection of inflamed the debate that led
to the US Civil War
probably the greatest Indian writer of all time.
(Sir Thomas stories revolves around the
Mallory) life and adventures of Huckleberry Finn • Has inspired countless
• Rabindranath Tagore is a Bengali poet and
King Arthur and the Knights (Mark Twain) literary interpretations mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in
of the Round Table • It is a story of death, 1913 for Gitanjali. This achievement marked him
Doctor Faustus • Written by the Father of rebirth, and initiation as the first Asian Nobel laureate.
(Christopher English Tragedy The Great Gatsby • Focuses on the story of Jay • Matsuo Basho is regarded as the greatest haiku
Marlowe) • In the play, Faustus sells (F. Scott Gatsby who discovers the poet.
his soul to the devil in Fitzgerald) devastating cost of success
• Yasunari Kawabata won the Nobel Prize for and for his short stories like God Sees the Truth • Wole Soyinka is a Nigerian poet and playwright.
Literature in 1968. The sense of loneliness and but Waits, which probed human nature and its Some consider him as Africa’s most
preoccupation with death permeates much of his strengths and weaknesses. distinguished playwright when he won the Nobel
writing. • Edgar Allan Poe is noted not only for being the Prize for Literature in 1936, the first African to
• Ryunosuke Akutagawa is one of the most greatest American short story writer but also for be so honored.
widely-translated of all Japanese writers. having standardized the short story as a literary • William Wordsworth found beauty in the
• The Venerable Bede is considered the Father of type. The Raven and Annabel Lee are some of his realities of nature, which he vividly reflects in his
English History and the greatest Anglo-Saxon famous poems. His popular short stories include poems: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and The
scholar. The Cask of Amontillado, The Masque of Red World is Too Much with Us.
His most notable work is the Ecclesiastical Death, and Tell-Tale Heart. • Jane Austen is a writer of realistic novels about
History of the English People. • Robert Frost is ranked as one of the best English middle-class people. Pride and Prejudice
• Robert Burns is also known as the national poet modern American poets. His popular poems are is her best-known work. Her other novels include
of Scotland because he wrote not only in The Road Not Taken, Fire and Ice, and Stopping Emma and Sense and Sensibility.
Standard English but also in Scot’s dialect. by the Woods on a Snowy Evening. • Charles Dickens became the master of local
• Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley followed the • Ernest Hemingway wrote about people’s color and England’s best-loved novelist. His
Gothic tradition in her Frankenstein. struggles to maintain a sense of dignity while works include Great Expectations, Oliver Twist,
• Francisco Petrarca, or Petrarch, was the greatest living in a seemingly hostile and confusing world. A Christmas Carol, and A Tale of Two Cities.
Italian poet of the 14th century. He wrote lyric His works include novels such as Farewell to • Rudyard Kipling satirized the English military
poems that are dedicated to Laura. Arms, For Whom the Bells Toll, and The Old and administrative classes in India. He stirred the
• William Shakespeare is the most important Man and the Sea. emotions of the empire lovers through his
figure of the Renaissance. He wrote sonnets, • Anton Chekhov is considered one of the delightful children’s
comedies, tragedies, and historical plays. Later greatest writers of the short story. He gave a tales. He is best known for The Jungle Books.
on, he also wrote romances. poignant illumination to human experiences such • Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson)
• Francis Bacon was an English essayist, as loneliness, hunger, and misery. Among his combines fantasy and satire in Alice’s
philosopher, and statesman. His essays are famous works are the plays The Bear and The Adventures in Wonderland and Through the
written in clear English and contain memorable Cherry Orchard. One of his most famous short Looking Glass.
maxims on friendships, studies, truth, and stories is The Lady with the Dog. • H.G. Wells wrote science fiction like The Time
adversity. He is also known as the Father of the • William Faulkner is generally regarded as the Machine and The War of the Worlds.
English Essay. most innovative American novelist of his time. • James Joyce was noted for his experimental use
• Guy de Maupassant and his short stories show a His works include As I Lay Dying and The of the interior monologue and the stream of
realistic depiction of life and it’s underlying Sound and the Fury. consciousness technique in his novels as Ulysses,
pessimism, inescapable irony, and surprise • Gabriel Garcia Marquez is a Colombian writer Finnegan’s Wake, and The Portrait of the Artist
ending. His more popular works are The known as one of the most innovative writers of as a Young Man.
Necklace, A Piece of String, The Jewels, and the time. He combines realistic storytelling with • Virginia Woolf also believed that reality or
Madame Sauvage. elements of folklore and fantasy. Among his consciousness is a stream. Life is an immersion
• Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian writer, created the novels, the most famous is One in the flow of that stream. Mrs. Dalloway is
modern, realistic prose drama. He was also one of Hundred Years of Solitude. among her best works.
the first writers to make drama a vehicle for • Pablo Neruda is a Chilean poet who received • William Golding was awarded the Nobel Prize
social comment. the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971. Much of for Literature in 1983. His first novel, The Lord
• Leo Tolstoy was regarded as the greatest 19th- his later of the Flies, is also one of his best-known works.
century Russian writer. He is remembered most work expresses political sentiments. • George Orwell is known for the powerful anti-
for his novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina Communist satire Animal Farm. This was
followed with an anti-totalitarian novel entitled (I’m Romeo to known person, place, addition to the dictionary
Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984). your Juliet.) event, literary work, or meaning of a word
• Nathaniel Hawthorne set his stories in Puritan work of art Consonance • The repetition of
New England. His greatest novels, The Scarlet Anecdote • A brief story about an (Mike likes his consonant sounds at the
Letter interesting, amusing, or new bike.) ends of words or accented
and The House of Seven Gables, highlight the strange event syllables
obsession with morality, sexual repression, guilt Antagonist • A character or force in Denotation • The objective meaning of
and confession, and spiritual salvation. conflict with a main (blue: color) a word, independent of
• Herman Melville went to sea when he was just character, or protagonist; other associations that the
19. Most of his early novels grew out of his not all stories contain word brings to mind
voyages. Moby Dick is his masterpiece. antagonists Dialogue • A conversation between
• Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain)’s style is Aphorism • A general truth or characters; writers use
vigorous, realistic, colloquial American speech. (Actions speak observation about life, dialogue to reveal
Hemingway’s statement that all American louder than usually stated concisely character, to present
literature comes from one great book, Twain’s words.) and pointedly; often witty events, to add variety to
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, indicates this and wise narratives, and to arouse
author’s towering place in the tradition. Apostrophe • A figure of speech in the reader’s interest
• F. Scott Fitzgerald is known for novels whose (O Death, where which a speaker directly Elegy • A solemn and formal
protagonists are disillusioned by the great is thy sting?) addresses an absent person, (O Captain, My lyric poem about death,
American dream. or a personified quality, Captain) often one that mourns the
• Ernest Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in object, or idea passing of some particular
1954 for his Old Man and the Sea. The same Assonance • The repetition of vowel person
novel also won him the Pulitzer Prize in 1953. He (No pain, no sounds in conjunction with Figurative • Writing or speech not
often wrote of war, death, and the “lost gain) dissimilar consonant Language meant to be taken literally
generation” of cynical survivors. sounds (Vowel Rhyme) Flashback • A section of a literary
Ballad • A songlike poem that work that interrupts the
Literary Devices tells a story, often dealing chronological presentation
TERM DESCRIPTION with adventure and of events to relate an event
Allegory • A story or tale with two romance from an earlier time
or more levels of meaning • It is characterized by Foil • A character who provides
a literal one and more repetition and often by a (Draco to Harry) a contrast to another
symbolic levels. The repeated refrain character
events, setting, and Caesura • A pause or break in the Foreshadowing • The use of clues that
characters in an allegory (In fair Verona, middle of a line of poetry suggest events that have
symbolize ideas and where we lay our yet to occur
qualities. scene.) Hyperbole • A deliberate exaggeration
Alliteration • The repetition of Climax • The highest point of (dying of or overstatement
(Clary closed her consonant sounds at the interest or suspense in a laughter)
cluttered clothes beginning of words or literary work Imagery • The descriptive or
closet.) accented syllables Connotation • An association that a (The grass figurative language used in
Allusion • A reference to a well- (blue: sadness) word calls to mind in tickled his skin literature to create word
and sweat cooled pictures for the reader the original Plot Armor • When the main
on his brow.) Personification • A figure of speech that character’s life and health
Irony • A contrast between what (The stars gives human traits to are safeguarded by the fact
(a robbery in a is stated and what is meant, winked.) inanimate objects or ideas that he is the one person
police station) or between what is Satire • Writing that ridicules or who can’t be removed
expected to happen to what (The Simpsons) criticizes individuals, from the story
actually happens ideas, institutions, social Poetic Justice • A type of happy ending
Litotes • A figure of speech that conventions, or other where virtue is rewarded
(He is not the makes a deliberate works of art or literature and vice is punished
sharpest tool in understatement to affirm Simile • A figure of speech that
the shed.) by negating its opposite (as busy as a makes a direct comparison
Local Color • The use of characters and bee) between two subjects using
details unique to a like or as
particular place or Synecdoche • A figure of speech in
geographic area (Jack got some which part of something is
Lyric Poem • A melodic poem that new wheels.) used to stand for the whole
expresses the observations thing
and feelings of a single Epic • A long narrative poem
speaker about the exploits of a
Metaphor • A figure of speech that supernatural hero
(She is a night expresses an indirect or Medieval • Pictures chivalrous
owl.) implied comparison of two Romance knights engaged in a
things which are not number of adventures to
evidently comparable protect their King, to pay
Metonymy • A figure of speech that homage to their lady love,
(the pen is entails using a word that and to prove their honor
mightier than the closely relates to a person Gothic Literature • A literary style that
sword) or thing usually portrayed fantastic
Onomatopoeia • The use of words that tales dealing with horror,
(boom, buzz, imitate sounds despair, the grotesque, and
clink) other “dark” subjects
Oxymoron • A figure of speech that In Media Res • Technique of beginning
(freezing fire, combines two opposing or the story in the middle of
cruel kindness) contradictory ideas the action, with
Paradox • A statement that seems to background information
(Youth is wasted be contradictory but given later in flashbacks
on the young.) actually presents a truth Deux ex • Plot device intended to
Parody • A humorous imitation of Machina solve an unsolvable
(Austin Powers a literary work, one that conflict by unexpected
for James Bond.) exaggerates or distorts the appearance of a character,
characteristic features of object, action, or event