ICT / COMPUTER STUDIES

Computer Studies is a subject that deals with the study of the features of computers and their
applications plus the ways and methods of using computers to provide an understanding of use of
computers to individuals, organizations and society at large.

Aims / Importance / Reasons for Studying or Learning Computer Studies

1. Computer studies helps us to demonstrate general knowledge and skills in using computers
and related technologies.
2. To use the knowledge acquired in computer studies to improve learning in other subjects
and fields like Education, Banking etc.
3. To exhibit basic computer skills that are required for employment.
4. To acquire knowledge as a foundation for further studies in computer technology.
5. To understand important issues of a technology based society and exhibit them using
computers.
6. To use a variety of computer technologies to assess and analyse and interpret information.

What is a Computer?
A computer is a machine or an electronic device that works under the control of stored programs
automatically accepting, processing data, storing, and produce results or output information.

A computer is a general-purpose machine that performs tasks in response given to it and it stores
information.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

ICT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect,
process, transmit and retrieve information from anywhere at any time.

ICT can also be defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to
communicate, create, store and manage information.

Information Technology (I.T) is the combination of computer and communication technologies

to process data into information.

Examples of I.T or ICT include; computers, radios, televisions, digital cameras, mobile phones,
scanners, photocopiers, faxing machines. Etc.

1
Examples of I.T applications in everyday life include;
 Payments by phone services at home.
 Payroll systems in factories.
 Report card systems in schools.
 Electronic Funds Transfer systems in banks.
 Ticket reservation systems in cinemas.
 Traffic control system in transportation.
 Stock control systems in department stores. And many more

At home:
 Budgeting and financial management.
 Entertainment. (Listening to music, watch movies and videos, play games)
 Research and education.

Computer Literacy
This refers to having the knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses.

Data and Information

Data: This is a collection of raw facts, figures and symbols obtained and have less meaning to the
end-user.
Information: This is organized, meaningful and useful results or output obtained after processing
data.
OR Information is processed data which is meaningful to the end-user.

Examples
Data Information
Letters (e.g. a, b, c) Words (e.g. apple, boy, cat)
Words and symbols A report, a letter, an essay
Numbers A mathematical formula
Examination scores Comments, grades
Music notes A piece of music, a song etc.

2
THE INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE

The series of events in processing information has got four stages. Namely; Input stage,
Processing stage, Storage stage and Output stage.

Input stage Processing stage Output stage

Processed or Processed or Processed or
Data is entered in the
unprocessed data can
Data is processed by
unprocessed data can
Information is then
unprocessed data can
computer system
be stored on stored
the CPU using the
be stored on stored
output from the
be stored on stored
using input devices
devices like the hard
CU, ALU and the
devices like the hard
computer using the
devices like the hard
like the mouse,
disk, CDs, flash disks, Registers which
disk, CDs, flash help
disks, monitor, speakers,
disk, CDs, flash disks,
keyboard,
memory cards joystick,
etc. inmemory
storingcards
of data
etc. printers, plotters
memory cards etc.
scanner etc. temporarily etc.

Storage stage
Processed or unprocessed data can be
stored on stored devices like the hard disk,
CDs, flash disks, memory cards etc. Stored
data can also be taken back to the CPU for
further processing.

COMPUTERS OF TODAY
The role of computers is becoming everyone’s concern since they have dominated almost all
sectors worldwide.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS

For a device to be characterized as a computer, it must manifest some or all of the following
characteristics.

1. Speed: Computers are quite fast in their operations in that their speed is measured in
millions instructions per second (MIPS). It is capable of doing work assigned to it within a
short time.

2. Accuracy: Computers are known to be so accurate that they hardly make any mistake. In
fact computers are capable of detecting and correcting errors. It follows therefore that if
3
 wrong data is fed into the computer, wrong results are expected out of the computer hence
the saying Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO)

3. Storage: For a computer to be able to work, it must have some form of work space where
data is stored before being processed or information is stored before being output to
particular devices. The storage is called Memory. A computer can store data temporally
during processing and permanently in its secondary storage devices for future reference.

4. Diligence (Consistency): Computers have the ability to perform the same task and over for
a long time without getting tired. Therefore computing devices must be able to perform the
same routines repeatedly. This evidenced in industrial robotics like those in car assembling
lines.

5. Artificial intelligence: Computers have the ability to reason like human beings. They can
respond to requests given and then provide solutions such as robots, detectors to check
criminals. This is accomplished by its programmability i.e. it can be taught to make
decisions and function accordingly. An example of this is the washing machine today,
which incorporates some form fuzzy logic. Such machines are capable of taking in
required amount of detergent and water for washing after assessing the amount of dirt in
the clothes.

6. Automation: Computers also work automatically, they do not need any supervision in
order to perform programmed routines e.g. booting, traffic light, digital watches.

7. Versatility: With respect to the inputs it can accept, a computer can do computations of
different kinds and can change from one activity to another simultaneously e.g. sounds,
image captured, video, weather forecasting, banking and many more.

8. Communicative: A computer is communicative whereby information from one computer

can be accessed via another computer on the same network.

ROLES / USES / IMPORTANCES / ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS IN SOCIETY

Computers are used in day today accomplishment of a number of tasks. Their uses cannot be
imagined by the users. They include the following:

1. Education Purpose: With development of internet, many local institutions have been
linked with those big universities overseas hence facilitating education and research. There
is creation of virtual universities (Virtual reality), E-learning.

4
2. Scientific Research: Recent advancement in scientific research has been possible due to
use of computers i.e. new drugs have been introduced, exploration in space made possible,
architectural construction, and so on.

3. Banking: Computers are used by companies for efficiency management control in

insurance policy and banking system to manage their large volumes of work or tasks. Some
other commercial application of computers is Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) which
operates 24 hours.

4. Communication: Computers provide cheap and convenient means of communication.

Such as use of electronic mails (Email), video conferencing, Chat, Facebook, WhatsApp
and so on.

5. Employment: Employment opportunities in the computing world are at an increasing rate

and many countries have developed because of their computing industries. Employment
opportunities include computer programmers, system analysts, Secretariat, computer
technician, computer teachers, and consultants.

6. Security and Defense: Police institutions are able to keep data concerning people like
fingerprints which are automatically analyzed by the computers. Today Iris scan is used to
trap criminals. They are also used in supermarkets, on roads to monitor the traffic and also
help trap traffic offenders.

7. Health: Computers are used in hospitals for scanning, X-rays, data storage purposes. They
are also used for online services. I.e. Consultation to expensive foreign experts without
travelling to their locations.

8. Industrial Use: Today modern industries use computers in the processing of good, quality
control and inventory management i.e. in production planning, scheduling and reporting
where by a computing system will provide real time information on production.

9. Recreation Purposes: Computers can be used to play games, play audio music, and watch
videos. This is always required for a relaxed mind.

10. Business Purposes: Very many businesses now use computers in their day-to-day
management. I.e. stock exchange (money markets). You only need to sit in front of your
computer and start to trade shares worldwide without physically going there.

5
 11. Used in Mass Media: Computers are also used in mass media by the use of internet. There
are various news media such as BBC, CNN, ALJAZEERA, NBS, NTV and so on

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS FOR PROCESSING INFORMATION

1. Moral Decay: Today the youths are glued on computers watching immoral pictures,
movies and magazines etc. i.e. pornography and copying western culture.

2. Unemployment: Computers are mainly used by literate people hence causing

unemployment amongst people in society. On addition, computers have replaced jobs that
could be done by people e.g. post office, cashiers leading to unemployment.

3. Expensive: Initial investment cost of a computer can be high. On addition to that,

computers are electric devices therefore they need power to operate which is costly and
cannot be afforded by some people.

4. Forgery: Computers are misused by some people to create or make fake money,
certificates, reports, and passports etc. using sophisticated printers.

5. Computer Viruses (Destruction programs): Computers especially on internet can easily

be attacked by viruses which are so destructive to useful data and programs. Hence may
lead to total loss to a company/organization.

6. Eye Defect: Computers can affect human eye sight especially to those users who are
frequently using the computers hence might end up putting on spectacles.

7. Body Fatigue: This is a result of using improper computer chairs and tables when using a
computer. Playing games and online chatting affects the physical growth of a child because
of lack of interest in exercise and outdoor games. Sitting on a computer for a long time can
cause depression and anti-social behavior.

8. Face to face interaction among staff may be reduced

9. Computers are expensive.

(a) Initial investment cost can be high. (Setting up)
(b) Extra costs is required to employ specialized staff to operate and design the data
processing

6
 (c) Problems may arise when computers cannot be used either because they are
malfunctioning or damaged. This can bring an organization to a halt if no back up
exists.

COMPUTER CLASSIFICATIONS TODAY

Computing devices fall into various classes. The basic computer classifications include:

1. Classification by Process.
2. Classification by Purpose.
3. Classification by User capacity and Size.
4. Classification by Processor Power.
5. Classification by Brand or Model.

1. Classification by Process
In this classification, computers are classified according to how data is processed and represented.
This classification has three main categories.

(a) Digital computers. These perform arithmetic and logical functions. Digital computers are
so classified because they process data that is represented in form of discrete values.
(Discrete numbers are numbers that can be defined like 1, 2, 3...). Digital watches, digital
calculators are examples. They have a virtual monopoly of commercial applications. Most
computers are digital.
In computer context, a digital computer uses information in a coded (binary) form
represented by two state electronic devices: ON=1 OFF=0

(b) Analog computers: Analog computers process data that is in a continuous form or
measurable quantities or units e.g. the thickness of steel plates, strength of electricity
currents. Length, pressure, voltage. They can only be measured by comparing them to other
specific units. Their uses are normally restricted to scientific work and to engineering
functions. Examples of analog devices are hygrometer, thermometer, speedometer, pressure
sensors, and voltmeters. Etc.
7
 Differences between Digital computers and Analog computers

Digital Analog
1. Use binary code to represent 1. Use a changing phenomenon due
information. to environment.
2. Have no interference and 2. Have interference and background
background noise. noise.
3. Generally fast and cheap. 3. Generally slow.
4. Data does not degrade over time 4. Data degrades over time during
during transmission. transmission.
5. Data can be compressed. 5. Data can’t be compressed.
6. More Accurate. 6. Less accurate compared to digital.

(c) Hybrid computers. These are computers with combined features of both the digital and
analog computers.

2. Classification by Purpose
In this classification, computers are classified according to the uses or roles they give to the end-
users. Under this category, we have:

(a) Special purpose computers: These are designed to handle only a particular task. Their
form of operation is restricted in nature e.g. digital watches, pocket calculators. They are
designed to perform a particular task and no other. Currently, special purpose computers
are employed in devices like missiles.

(b) General purpose computers: These are designed to solve a wide range of problems.
They can be adopted to perform a wide range of problems. A typical example of this type
can perform calculations, keep data and time, word process documents, store databases etc.

3. Classification by User capacity and Size:

Computer systems can be categorized according to their sizes and number of users at a given time.
The main categories are:
8
 (a) Mainframe computers.
(b) Mini-frame computers.
(c) Micro-computers.
(d) Super computers.

(a) Mainframe computers. These are large general purpose computers with extensive processing,
storage and input and output capabilities. They are expensive and powerful computers that handle
thousands of connected users at the same time.

Characteristics of mainframes
a) They are very large computers with very high capacity of main storage.
b) Mainframes can process large amounts of data very quickly, and are therefore used by
governments, big companies and banks.
c) They support a wide range of peripherals.
d) More than one user can make use of the machine.
e) Mainframe computers generally require special attention and are kept in a controlled
atmosphere.
f) They are multitasking computers and generally used in areas where large databases are
maintained e.g. government departments and the airline industry.
g) They are capable of operating with 500 to 1,000 users at a time. They can be linked into a
network with smaller departmental computers, micro computers or with each other.
h) Each user works separately with a separate keyboard and monitor but they all use the same
processor(Central Processing Unit)
i) Specially trained operators and programmers are required for its operation.

Examples of mainframes include:

- IBM 4381
- ICL 39 Series
- CDC cyber series

(b) Mini-frame computers: These are often used in situations where a micro-computer is not
powerful enough. They possess the same working principles as the mainframe except that are
smaller. Users range from 50-500 at a time. They are mostly used in medium sized organizations.

(c) Micro-computers: A microcomputer is a computer that can perform all of its input, process,
output and storage activities by itself. Microcomputers are smaller than mini computers and are a
single user capacity. The keyboard, system unit and monitor can be used by one person at a time.
They are mostly used computers in day-to-day work.

9
Micro-computers are often called Personal computers (PC). The new processor is not only
cheaper, it is faster, smaller, more energy efficient, reliable and more modular. Microcomputers
include the following:

I. Desktop computers: These are designed so that the system unit, input devices, output
devices and any other device fit entirely on a desk or a table. They are standard PCs. The
development of other PCs has evolved from these.

II. Notebook computers: These are also called Laptop computers. They are personal
systems designed for mobile computing. They are small enough to fit on the lap such that
even if one is in a bus or plane, they can still work like they are on a desktop. Earlier
laptops had fewer resources like hard disks than the desktop but with advancement in
technology. More and more features are being incorporated.

Figures: laptops

Characteristics
o They are portable due to their size.
o Have limited support of peripheral devices.
o Fast in processing information.

III. Palmtops / Handheld devices: These are also called Personal digital Assistants (PDAs).
They are handheld devices designed for people who are ever on the move. They can easily
fit in a shirt, pocket and one can check for email at any time, take few notes, keep
schedules and appointments. Modern PDAs have been integrated with mobile cellular
phones.

i. Fig: Hand held devices

IV. Internet appliance. This is a computer with limited functionality whose main purpose is
to connect to the Internet from home. E.g. Desktop, laptop, tower etc.
10
N.B: Personal computer (PC) is a microcomputer designed primarily for independent use by an
individual at work or in the home.

(d) A super Computer: Is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive computer used for
applications that require complex and sophisticated mathematical calculations. Typical tasks
carried out by super computers include weather forecasting, Space exploratory, space Complex
and sophisticated mathematical calculations and weapon research.
Examples of super computers include; CRAY T3D AND NEC-500

Fig: A super computer

4. Classification by Processor Power: Due to rapid changes in technology, processing power in

also rapidly increasing. The higher the processing power, the better the computer. First computers
had a processing power less than 0.4MIPS but today 15MIPS is the minimum. The common
types of processor power include;
- 80286
- 80386
- 80484
- Pentium I (80556)
- Pentium II
- Pentium III
- Pentium IV
- Pentium V

5. Classification by Brand: In this category, computers are classified according to the

manufacturer or model. Such as Dell, Compaq, Samsung, Sony, Toshiba, HP (Hewlett Packard),
Acer, Gateway, IBM

11
 THE COMPUTER LABORATORY

This is a place where computers are set for a particular task. While in the laboratory a teacher
should work closely with students to see that they master basic techniques.

Fig: Typical computer laboratory

GENERAL OPERATION OF A COMPUTER

STARTING A COMPUTER.
 Switch on the mains.
 Switch on the stabilizer/backup/UPS (in case you have one)
 Switch one the system unit because most of the parts including the power supply unit are in
it.
 Switch on the monitor or Visual display unit reason being that what it displays comes from
the system unit.

As the computer is switched on, it does the Power On Self-Test (POST). The post consists of
RAM check, CMOS check, HDD controllers then an appropriate message is displayed on the
screen. Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message or an abnormal number of beeps
are sounded and this is called booting.
N.B: Most microcomputers are switched on by the switch on the system unit and the monitor.
12
BOOTING:
This is the process of starting or resetting a computer, which involves loading an operating system
into memory. They are two ways of booting.

(a) Cold booting: A computer is cold booted by turning on the power switch. In other words,
it is the turning on or starting of a computer which is completely off.

(b) Warm booting: A warm boot is the process of restarting or resetting a computer that is
already turned on. Sometimes, the computer stops working or responding to the
commands given by the user. In such a case, we need not to switch the power off to restart
the system, we can restart the system by pressing ALT + CTRL + DEL keys together. On
some computers, Reset switch is there. In warm booting, ROM does not test RAM or the
peripherals.

Circumstances under which a warm boot would be carried out

 When the computer stops responding for unclear reasons. (freezes)
 When the computer slows down.
 When the computer is affected by a virus, it can constantly restart its self.
 After installing a software program.
 After installing a hardware device like a flash disk.
 After uninstalling a software program.
 After changing CMOS or BIOS setup.

SHUTTING DOWN A COMPUTER.

 Close all applications (Active window)

 Click on the start button and then click on shut down or turn off computer. A dialogue box
will appear from which;
 Select the option shutdown or turn off and ok or yes.
 Finally switch off the system unit and monitor.
N.B: If your computer does not turn off automatically a message appears when you can safely
turn off your computer.

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)

13
Momentary power interruptions of fluctuations often cause micro-processor based instruments to
re-initialize themselves and computer to crash. The main causes of power disruption are;
 Amplitude fluctuation
 Power line noise
 Low voltage surges.
 High voltage surges.
 Voltage spikes.
 Wave from distortions and frequency variation.
The potential danger with power disruptions may include damage to storage devices and critical
data as well as loss of information that had not been saved prior to the power disruptions.

All the power quality defects are largely eliminated by the use of a power correction equipment
known as uninterruptible power supply (UPS) and other utility power conditioning equipment e.g.
Line conditioners (surge suppressors, voltage stabilizers), standby UPS (Battery backups)

PC CONFIGURATIONS
The hardware and software specifications required for PC or any other type of computer is term as
the computer configurations. A typical configuration is given below;
- Micro Processor Pentium series.
- Hard disk in the range of gigabytes.
- Floppy disk drive (3.5, 1.44mb)
- 104 keyboard
- 14” or 17” color digital monitor.
- Desktop version of an inkjet printer.
- Multimedia kit which consists of: CD ROM drive, DVD drive, Speakers, sound
card etc.
- 3 button mouse with a rolling button.
- System software with the latest version.
- Application software with the latest MS Office version.

CARING FOR MICRO COMPUTERS

Like all electronic equipment, microcomputers need to be serviced regularly to maintain their
operability. Some of the measures that should be taken are:

1. Avoid abrupt switching off and on the computer system. Use the normal way of shutting
down or closing down all the programs the shut down the computer from the start button.
2. Avoid making connections when the computer is on power e.g. keyboard connections,
mouse, printer, monitor etc.
14
 3. Place the microcomputer in a dust free environment with good ventilation. Dust covers
should be used to cover the microcomputers when not in use if you use polythene covers,
do not cover immediately after switching off as it will trap heat.
4. The microcomputer should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
5. Food and drinks should not be allowed near the computers.
6. The computers should be regularly serviced, at least once a year or more frequently if the
environment is dusty. The service should normally include.
 Blowing dust from the system unit.
 Cleaning the floppy drives, keyboard including all the keyboard contacts.
 Also clean the monitor externally and the computer equipment regularly with a wet
cloth. Make sure you do not drop water in the computer system. If water drops
accidentally, do not use the computer immediately until water has completely
evaporated.
7. Do not open the computer for inside cleaning. This should be handled by a qualified
personnel.
8. It is a good practice to keep a record of the daily condition in case of computer failure.
9. In areas where the power fluctuates, it is important to use either a stabilizer or UPS to
ensure a steady input power to the computer system.
10. The floppy disks used for the installation of programs and backups should be kept safely in
disk banks and kept away from sunlight and magnetic media.
11. The peripheral devices such as printers and mouse should be regularly serviced.

SOFT WARE CARE:

The vital part of a computer system is the data. In fact, data is exposed to a number of risks and
great care should be adopted to protect against them. The risks to data are;
 Accidental loss.
 Accidental damage or corruption.
 Theft.
 Deliberate damage.
 Authorized disclosure.
To guard against the risks, the operator must make sure that;
1. Makes backup copies of data regularly. Before backing up, make sure that data is error
free otherwise; you might take a backup copy of corrupted data.
2. Minimize the number of visitors to your computer installations and do not allow anyone to
your server except the network administrator.
3. Avoid diskettes from different installations as your system might contract viruses.
4. If you have unwanted printouts, please destroy them because data is not supposed to fall in
unauthorized hands.
5. Save data regularly as an abrupt power cut off may corrupt your data, if you have no UPS.
15
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

System: A system is a group of many inter-related parts which work together to achieve a
common goal.
A computer system: Is a set of inter-related components working in union to process data. It
consists of those elements that make the computer work towards goal oriented behavior.

A computer system is mainly composed of these parts, which are;

(1) Computer Hardware.
(2) Computer Software.
(3) Computer Human ware or live ware.

Brief definitions:
1. Computer Hardware: These are tangible parts of the computer that can be seen, touched
and felt. E.g. keyboard, mouse, monitor etc.
2. Computer Software: This is a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do.
E.g. operating system, programming languages etc.
3. Computer Human ware: These are computer users. E.g. programmers, students etc.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware components include;
1. System Unit / Processing Devices.
2. Input Devices.
3. Output Devices.
4. Storage Devices.
Basic Parts of a Computer’s Hardware

16
1. System Unit. (Processing Devices)
This is the part of the computer which works as the head. It houses many items in it e.g. the brain
of the computer (CPU). If the computer is to be a multi-user, it means that each user has to be
with a monitor, a keyboard and a mouse but all connected to one system unit. Inside the system
unit, there are the following;
(a) Main memory: This often referred to as Random Access Memory (RAM) and it is a
primary storage device i.e. where data goes when you are entering it in the computer.
(b) Central Processing Unit: This handles the processing of information that takes place in
the computer. It has two important units i.e. Arithmetic logic unit and control unit.
(c) Power Supply Unit. The role of a power supply unit is to:
 Step down the incoming power.
 Converts the alternating current (AC) to Direct current (DC)
 Distribute power to other parts of a computer. Each and every part inside the
computer has to receive power e.g. memory chips, data buses, etc. So when the
power supply receives power, it reduces it, converts it to direct current and finally
distributes it to other parts of a computer.
(d) Data Buses: These are highways on which data travels (moves) to go to different parts of a
computer. Using data buses, data can move from the keyboard, to the main memory, from
here to the monitor so that it can be observed by the user.
(e) Disk Units. Still inside the system unit, there are disk units and these ones manage disks
in case where they need to be used. Without disk units, it would be difficult to perform the
process of storing the work permanently as it would be remaining the main memory.

Fig: Inside a typical system unit

17
THE CPU: (Central Processing Unit). This executes or controls the execution of a program and
various circuits performing the required operations. It handles all the processing of information
that takes place into the computer.
The CPU has three important units.
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): This unit manages arithmetic and logical operations.
It calculates and compares data.
2. Control Unit: This is the part of the central processing unit which controls all the activities
when the computer is performing (executing) its duties.
3. Registers: This part of the CPU stores processed data temporarily.

Functional organization of the CPU

Instructions Instructions
Control Unit
Gives instructions to each device after
interpreting program instruction

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Calculates and compares data
Results of processing Data to be processed

Data input Main Memory output data

Input Unit Stores data and instructions to be Output Unit
processed temporarily
Output to be stored Data to be processed

Secondary Storage Devices

Stores data and instructions to be processed
permanently

N.B:
 On a personal computer, the CPU is usually contained on a single chip and is often called
a Microprocessor.
 A microprocessor usually contains the control unit, the arithmetic and logic unit, registers
and system clock.
 Decoding: This is the process of translating the instruction into commands that the
computer understand.
 Executing: This process of carrying out the commands.
 Storing: This is the process of writing the results to memory.
18
  Registers: These are temporary high-speed storage locations used to hold data and
instructions.

COMPUTER INPUT DEVICES

What is input? This refers to the process of entering data, programs, commands and user
responds into memory for processing.

Input devices are attachments or devices through which data is entered or captured into the
computer. The input device translates data from the symbols of low language to symbols of
higher language inside the machine.
An input device can also be defined as any hardware component that allows a user to enter data
and instructions into a computer. Input devices can be classified into manual input devices and
automated input devices. Examples of input devices include;
Keyboard, Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, Touch screen, Light pen, Digital camera, Optical
character, Recognition reader, Microphone, Voice recognition device, Web Cam, Sensor and
Remote censor, Trackball etc.

KEYING INPUT DEVICES

1. Keyboard
This is a primary input and control device of a computer. It is an input device used to type and
enter instructions into a computer.

Parts of a keyboard
(a) Typewriter area. This is a part that looks like or similar to a typewriter keyboard. It
indicates the letters of alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks and other basic keys.
(b) Function keys. These are labeled F1- F12 that have different functions in different
programs.
(c) The numeric keypad. This is similar to a calculator and can be utilized as an adding
machine once the num lock (number lock) is on. It is usually located on the right side of
the keyboard.
(d) Special keys. On the computer keyboard, we have keys which are not found on a
typewriter keyboard. These keys are the ones called special keys. They include; Alt
(Alternate), Ctrl (Control) etc.
(e) Cursor Control keys:
A Cursor: A cursor is a blinking bar on the screen which indicate where text should be.
When the cursor fails to come, you can’t enter data in the computer. Cursor control keys
include:

19
  Home
 End
 Page down
 Page up
 Insert
 End
 Arrow/Movement keys which drives the cursor across the screen.

Fig: Standard computer keyboard

N.B: On a notebook computer and many handheld computers, the keyboard is built on the top of
the system unit.

Functions of keyboard buttons

(a) Space bar: It is used to create space with in words in a word document.
(b) Backspace: It erases data on the left of the cursor and any highlighted data.
(c) Enter/Return key: - Used to go to a new line
- Used to select items on the menu
(d) Delete: Erases data on the right of the cursor and any highlighted data.
(e) Shift: It is held down to turn on capital letters and some symbols like ?, !, >, < etc.
(f) Caps lock: This turns on capital letters and vice versa (upper case and lower case)
(g) Num lock (Number Lock: It makes the number pad active and vice versa.
(h) Tab/TAB: - Used to create space in word document
- Use to navigate in a group of icons, short cuts, menu items etc.
(i) End: Takes the cursor to the end of a line or when pressed together with ctrl takes the
cursor to the end of text.
(j) Home: Takes the cursor to the beginning of a line or if pressed with ctrl takes the cursor
to the beginning of text.
(k) Escape (Esc): Terminates a process i.e. cancels commands in most situations.

20
 (l) Alternate (Alt):
- Alternates between two things e.g. activating and deactivating a menu.
- Used in combination with other keys to produce certain results e.g.
Alt+Ctrl+Delete restarts the computer.
(m) Control (Ctrl): It is used in combination with other keys to produce certain results.
(n) Page up: Takes you up the page.
(o) Page down: takes you down the page.
(p) Insert: Allows the insertion of characters or text between a word or replacing of a text or a
word. When the insert mode is on, characters can be inserted to replace others and when
off, characters add to the existing text.
(q) Print screen: Allows you to print all the contents of the screen.
(r) Scroll Lock: Allows you to control the scroll bar.
(s) Pause/Break: Allows you to stop recursive information being displayed on the screen.
(t) Function keys: These perform specific functions depending on the application package or
program e.g. most applications use F1 for help.

Advantages of using keyboards for data input.

1. It is not necessary to buy additional equipment because most computer systems are
normally supplied with keyboards.
2. Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster than pointing devices.
3. Keyboards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors that other input devices such
as voice input and optical character recognition.

Disadvantages of using keyboards

1. It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and accurately, especially for
computer beginners.
2. It is easy to make mistakes when typing in data.
3. It is very difficult to enter some data such as graphics. (diagrams and pictures)

POINTING INPUT DEVICES

1. Mouse
A mouse is a handheld device that acts as an electronic finger to select applications and icons. It
controls the movement of a pointer on the screen. Some have two buttons while others have one.
Each of these buttons has a particular to play.

Types of Mice
(a) Desktop mouse: This is commonly with desktop computers and has two push buttons on top
and a ball on the underside. Moving the mouse on the surface causes the pointer to change the
positions.
21
(b) Track ball mouse: This is common in laptops. In this type, a rolling ball and buttons are
embedded within the keyboard.

(c) Touch-Pad mouse: This is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to
pressure and motion. The movement of a finger on the pad causes the mouse pointer to change
position accordingly. They are common on notebook computers.

(d) Optical mouse: Uses devices that emit and sense light to detect the mouse’s movement.

(e) Cordless mouse (either mechanical or optical): Transmit data using wireless technology such
as radio waves.

Fig: Desktop mouse Fig: Cordless mouse

Terms used when using a mouse.

Pointing: This means positioning a pointer over an item. Or to move a pointer to a desired spot
on the screen over an object.

Clicking: This means pressing and releasing a mouse button one time. You can select items or
objects on your screen by using one of the buttons on your mouse.

Double clicking: This means to press and release a mouse button twice in a quick succession.
Double click starts a program or opens a document.

Dragging: This is to press and hold down the left mouse button while moving the pointer to
another location on the screen.
Steps of dragging
- Position the pointer over an item.
- Press and hold down the left mouse button.
- While still holding down, move the mouse to the desired place.
- Release the button.

22
Drop: It is to release the mouse button after dragging. Dragging and dropping makes it easy to
move an item on the screen.

Right click: It is to press the right mouse button and release which brings up popup menu with
oppositions to choose from.

Advantages of using a mouse

1. A mouse is user friendly for computer beginners.
2. A mouse is easy and convenient to use with graphical user interface.
3. Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the screen is faster that
using a keyboard.
4. A mouse can be operated with one hand.
5. A trackball is good for limited desk space because the user does not have to move the
entire device.

Disadvantages of using a mouse

1. It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
2. Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard especially to
beginners.
3. It needs some practice in order to control mouse properly.
4. A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision.
5. A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.

2. Joystick
This is a pointing device with a vertical lever mounted on a base. The lever usually includes
buttons called triggers, which activate certain events when pressed. Joysticks are mainly used for
computer games and ultra sound scanners in hospitals and military science.

Advantages
1. Allows fast interactions required in most games.
2. They can aid people with disabilities better than
trackballs.

Disadvantages
1. Joysticks are not particularly strong and break easily when used in video games.
2. Some people find joysticks difficult to control because of more arm and wrist movements
required.
3. It is difficult to select objects accurately on the screen.

23
3. Touch Pad
A touch pad is a flat rectangular device that has weak electric fields to sense the touch as users
move the finger-tips. It is used to control the pointer with a finger. The cursor follows the
movement of the finger on the pad.

4. Track Ball
This one functions like a mouse. It has a movable ball on top of a stationery device that is rotated
with a finger or palm of a hand. A track ball is built into the keyboard especially on some portable
devices like phones, laptops etc.

5. Light Pen
A light pen is a hand held, pen-shaped device connected by a cable to a terminal which can be
used with special software to detect light. It is used to indicate a desired point on the display
screen.
Light pens are used by engineers, graphic designers, doctors, dentists

Advantages
1. No need to type or write.
2. Faster input than typing.

Disadvantages
1. It can only record the presence of light.
2. It requires complex software. Light pens normally require a specially designed monitor to
work with.

6. Touch screen
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive display. These are screens that can
sense when a particular part of the screen is touched on pressed and
hence respond accordingly. They are commonly used by security
systems and can read fingerprints of individuals.

Advantages
1. No extra peripherals are needed except a monitor.
2. A touch screen allows easy access to commands which are usually identified by words or
symbols on the screen.
24
Disadvantages
1. Touch screens are not suitable for inputting a large amount of data because they require a
lot of arm movements.
2. Only items on the screen can be selected.

SCANNING INPUT DEVICES

These are hardware devices that capture images of hardcopy and coverts them into a digital form
for computer processing.

1. Optical scanner
This is a device that uses a laser beam and reflected light to translate/capture hardcopy image of
text, drawings and photos into digital form. This looks like a photocopier. It is used to copy
photographs, designs or text from paper into the computer. The quality of a scanner is determined
by its resolution and color depth.

Advantages of using scanners

1. Any image can be converted from paper into digital format and later enhanced, edited and
used in other computer applications e.g. Microsoft word, Photoshop etc.

Disadvantages of using scanners

1. A scanner is best for dimensional objects only.
2. Scanned images usually take up a lot of storage.

2. Bar code reader

Bar codes are vertical zebra-strips or line marks or striped marks printed on retail products and
other items. A bar code reader is a photo electric scanner that translates the barcode symbols into
digital form of which the corresponding information about the items appears on the sales clerk’s
point of sale terminal. (Teller) and printed out for a customer as a receipt.
Records of sales are easily input into the computer which in return maybe used for accounting and
restocking. Places where barcodes are mainly used include; medical stores, bookshops,
supermarkets, departmental stores.

Advantages of using barcode readers

1. The process of data entry is fast and accurate.
2. Barcodes can be printed by normal printing method.
25
 3. There is no need to write the name of the commodity and its price by use of pen and paper.
4. Eliminates possible human errors.

Disadvantages of using barcode readers

1. Barcodes cannot be read directly by people
2. Only numbers can be coded
3. Barcode readers may misread the barcodes if there is any dirt on the code.

3. Optical Mark Recognition reader (OMR)

This is a scanning device that detects/ reads the presence of a pencil mark(s) by reflecting the light
on it and converts it into a digital for computer processing.
OMR reads and often used for making multi choices, answer sheets; capturing data from
questionnaires, interviewed environment forms, marks sheets etc.

Advantages of OMR reader

1. A fast method of inputting large amount of data- up to 10,000 forms can read per hour
depending on the quality of the machine used.
2. OMR is much more accurate than being keyed in by a person.
3. Errors are easily corrected and the forms can be created without a form.

Disadvantages of OMR reader

1. If the marks don’t fill the space completely or are not dark enough, they may be read
incorrectly.
2. The reader will have to be reprogrammed for each new document designed.
3. Document for OMR are complicated to design.
4. Any folding or dirt on the form may prevent it from being read correctly.

4. Optical Character Recognition reader (OCR)

This is a scanning device that reads special pre-printed characters and converts them into a digital
form for computer processing.
An OCR can well consist of a normal scanner and some special software of which the software
exams the scanned text and converts it into a form that can be edited by any word processor
package.
OCR readers are often applied to turn around documents such as electricity/ water bills; OCR
readers can also recognize hand human characters but generally must be block printed.

26
Advantages of OCR
1. Written and printed data can be read.
2. Documents can be read in a written and printed format hence reducing costs and input
errors.
3. The input character can be edited by word processing software.
4. Document design is less complicated compared to OMR design.

Disadvantages of OCR
1. The reader is relatively expensive.
2. Only certain forts are accepted.
3. Hand written characters have high reject.

Advantages of OCR over manual data entry by a typist

1. Cheaper than paying someone to manually entering large amount of text.
2. Much faster than someone manually entering large text.
3. The latest software can recreate tables and original layout.

Disadvantages of using OCR over manual data by a typist

1. Not 100% accurate, there are likely to be some mistakes made during the process.
2. All documents need to be checked over carefully and then manually corrected.
3. If the original document is of poor quality or the handwriting difficult to read, more
mistakes will occur.
4. Not worth doing for small amounts of text.

5. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition reader (MICR)

Magnetic ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a device that uses a scanning technology to
translate magnetically charged numbers printed at the bottom of bank cheques or deposit slips i.e.
cheque number and bank account number.

Advantages of MICR reader over OCR

1. Magnetic ink characters are difficult to forge.
2. Documents (Slips/Cheques) can still be read when folded or even when written on.
3. The reader is very reliable and has low errors. i.e. the “can’t read” rate is usually less than
1% and the misread is 0.001%
Disadvantages of MICR reader
1. MICR reader is relatively expensive.
2. The system only accepts few character sets.

27
6. Magnetic Strip Reader
Magnetic strip readers are used to read information contained in magnetic strips on credit cards or
ATM cards. A magnetic strip reader detects the pattern of magnetic irons and converts it into
numeric data irons and coverts it into numeric data.

Uses
 It is widely used for access control and transaction processing.
 It is used in electronic fund transfer (EFT), whereby in shopping malls money from the
customer’s account can be transfer to the account of the mall at electronic point of sale
(EPOS).
Advantages of Magnetic strip reader
1. Simple for people to use –little or no training.
2. Cards are inexpensive to produce.
3. The cards can be read multiple times without damaging the strip.
4. Data on a card can be altered/modified if necessary.
5. Security is improved by the use of PIN numbers to confirm that the person is the rightful
card owner.
Disadvantages of Magnetic strip reader
1. Very limited storage capacity for data.
2. The magnetic strips (Data) can be easily destroyed by a strong magnetic fields.
3. Not always secure as thieves can obtain the readers and read the data on the card.

7. Fax Machine (Facsimile Transmission Machine)

It is a devise that scans an image on paper and sends it as electronic signals over telephone line
lines to a receiving fax machine which recreates the image on the paper. The term facsimile
means an “exact copy” and document sent or received via machine is known as a “fax”
Fax Modem
A fax modem is device that can be attached to a computer to transmit and receive faxes to and
from a fax machine or another fax modem.

28
Advantages of fax modem
 It saves paper.
 It allows the user to store received faxes on a computer which can be emailed to others.

Advantages of fax machine

1. Faxes are a fairly inexpensive method of sending message.
2. Simple to use and require little training.
3. They allow exact of hand written information to be transmitted without having to prepare it
in any special way.
4. Faxes can be received at any time provided the fax machine is switched on.
5. No need of any specialist installation or cabling since they have existing telephone lines.

Disadvantages of fax machine

1. Sending a big document via fax machine takes a lot of time (slowly)
2. There is no immediate response or feedback from the recipient.
3. There is wastage of papers when a jack fax is sent.
4. If a receiving machine is busy, your fax will not be delivered, although you can set it to re-
try a few times.

8. Digital Camera
A digital camera is an input device that takes videos or still photograph, or both, digitally by
recording images via electronic image sensor. It stores the images on a flash memory card or
compact disc (C.D) or micro drive.

9. Stylus and graphic tablet (Digitizing Tablet)

A stylus / puck is a pen-like pointing device which uses pressure to write texts and drawing.
Graphic Tablet or digitizer is a computer that enables a user to hand-draw images, animations
and graphics, similar to the way a person draws images with a pencil and a paper. These tablets
may also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures. It can be used to trace an image from a
piece of paper which is tapped or otherwise secured to the surface.

Uses:
 It can be used in drawing with great accuracy.
 It is mainly used for computer aided design software for designing by architects, map
makers and artists.
29
Advantages of stylus and graphics tablets
 In a design environment, it is an effective method of inputting data about diagrams on the
computer.
Disadvantages of stylus and graphic tablet
 A stylus and graphic tablet normally has to work together and it work separately.
 This method is really only for inputting data about line diagrams.

10. Voice Recognition Device

Voice recognition (speech recognition) is the ability of the computer to react to someone speech.
It is the computer’s capability to distinguish spoken words. It also includes all types of
microphones used in communication like Internet and for recording purposes.
Voice recognition software will take in the voice signal being picked up by a microphone and
sound card, and then processes it in order to extract commands.
For instance, you can use your voice to start programs, open menus and other objects on the
screen dictate text document. What you can do with keyboard and mouse can be done with only
your voice.

Advantages of voice recognition

1. Not typing of data is necessary.
2. The system can be used remotely by telephone or by people whose hands are occupied or
disabled.
3. Voice recognition system is also ideal for blind or visually impaired users.

Disadvantages of voice recognition

1. Error rate is still high at the moment.
2. Recognition of words is slow.
3. Words sound the same e.g. see and sea can’t be distinguished.
4. The system is not suitable for use in noisy places.
5. The software must be trained to recognize specialists or technical words.
6. Many people find it difficult to speak in writing style.

11. Microphone
A microphone is an input device that detects sound which is transmitted as electrical signal to the
computer. A special hardware (sound card) changes data into digital form for computer processing
and storage.
MIDI Device (Musical Instrument Digital Interface): These are instruments (devices) used to
enter music into a computer package. They are used to connect to the sound card of the computer.
E.g. a piano keyboard can be played and notes are recorded and then edited on the computer.

30
12. CCTV (Closed-Circuit Television) Camera
CCTV cameras can produce images or recordings for surveillance purposes, and can be either
video cameras, or digital still cameras. Marie van Brittan was the inventor of the CCTV camera.

13. Biometric Scanners

Biometric consists of methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or more intrinsic
physical or behavioral trials.
Physiological Traits are related to the shape of the body. Examples include finger print, face
recognition, DNA, palm print, hand geometry, iris recognition

Behavioral traits are related to the behavior of a person. Examples include typing rhythm, gait,
and voice.

14. Web-cam
Web-cam is a short form for web camera. It is a real-time video camera whose image can be
accessed using World Wide Web (www), instant messaging, a pc video calling application
(Skype)

Uses of webcam
 It is commonly used to allow people to see each other while chatting over internet.
(Teleconferencing)
 It is widely used in burglar alarm and other security equipment. Whereby it will detect any
moving object in front of it

15. Sensor and Remote sensor

A sensor is an input device that detects external changes in an environment. An external change
includes; level of light, temperature, sound, position PH value and humidity. The data received
can be processed indirectly to influence the output of the system. When sensors are connected at
some distance from the computer, they are known as remote sensors.

31
 COMPUTER OUTPUT DEVICES
These are devices which convert the results of processing into a form that can be understood by
the users. E.g. printers, speakers, monitors, modems etc.
They receive and accept information from the CPU and produce it in a suitable form
Output devices include the following;

1. DISPLAY DEVICES
A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics and video information to the user.
Display devices can be:
(i) Polychrome (many colors)
(ii) Monochrome (information displays in our color on a different background e.g. white and
black)

TYPES OF DISPLAYS
They are two types of displays;
Character
 Displays character as a dot pattern.
 Needs less memory than graphics.
Graphics
 Use a technique called BIT mapping in which each pixel is stored in one or more bits in
memory.
 These screens take up a lot of memory and operate more slowly.

Advantages of display devices

1. Time to display the image is fast.
2. Screen displays can include text, graphics and colors.
3. Display devices are usually quite.
4. No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.

Disadvantages of display devices

1. Information produced on the screen is only temporary and will be lost when the power of
the display device is turned off.
2. Unsuitable for users with visual problems.
3. Needs a separate device to produce a hard copy.

(a) MONITORS
These are devices which are used to display the computer output. Information on a display device
is called a “soft copy” because it exists electronically.

32
Advantages of using colored monitors
 Colors make the screen displays attractive.
 Colors can be used to highlight error messages and menu options.
 Images can easily be distinguished.

Disadvantages
 Screens with a lot of colors take long to process.
 More memory is required to display a lot colors.

Categories of monitors
Two main types of display devices are CRT monitors and LCD monitors.
(a) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
(b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Fig: CRT Monitor Fig: LCD Monitor

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors

These work like a standard television because it also contains a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The
front of the CRT is the screen, which is coated with tiny dots of phosphor material. Each dot
consists of a red, green, green and blue phosphor and the three dots combine to make up each
pixel.
A CRT monitor is made of small picture elements called pixels. It grows at varying intensities to
produce colored images.

Advantages of CRT Monitors

1. They can produce fast and rich color output.
2. They can be viewed from a very wide angle.
3. They are cheaper than LCD monitors in general.
4. Do not break easily.

Disadvantages of CRT Monitors

1. They are big in size. (Occupy more space)
33
 2. Emit higher electromagnetic radiation (EMR) than LCD monitors.
3. Consume more energy than LCD monitors.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors

These are flat panel screens that use liquid crystals to create images on the screen. They are
normally used on portable computers such as laptops, digital watches. Calculators, phones etc.
LCD monitors produce color using either passive matrix or active matrix technology.

Advantages of LCD monitors

1. They consume less power.
2. They occupy less space. (Portable)
3. Radiation emitted by LCD monitors is negligible.
4. They display sharp excellent images.

Disadvantages of LCD monitors

1. They are usually more expensive than CRT monitors.
2. They can only be viewed from a very narrow angle.
3. Can easily break.

A Plasma Display
A plasma display is an emissive flat panel display where light is created by phosphors excited by
a plasma discharge between two flat panels of glass. The gas exchange contains no mercury. A
mixture of noble gases (neon and xenon) is used instead. The gas mixture is inert and entirely
harmless.

A VIDEO CARD (Video Graphics Array)

A Video card also called a graphics card or video adapter. It converts digital output from the
computer into analog video signal that is sent through a cable to the display device. It is required
to display color on a monitor.
The number of colours that a video card can display is determined by its bit depth.

Types of Video display cards/Graphic adaptors.

(a) CGA (Colour Graphics Adaptors) displays 320 x 200 pixels in 4 colours.
(b) EGA (Enhanced Colour Graphic Adaptor) displays 640 x 480 pixels in 16 colours later
changed to extended EGA (320 x 200) pixels in 256 colours.
(c) VGA (Video Graphic Array) took the place of EGA
(d) SVGA. Today every monitor supports the super video graphics Array standard.

34
N.B: Resolution describes the sharpness and clearness of an image. The higher the resolution,
the better the image quality. Resolution is often expressed in dot per inch (dpi)

(b) PROJECTORS
A data projector is an output device that takes the image displayed on a computer screen and casts
it onto a larger screen so that people can see the image clearly.
Types of projectors include the following;

1. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Projectors.

LCD projectors use liquid crystal display technology to produce lower quality images only.

2. DLP (Digital Light Processing) projectors.

DLP projectors use thousands of tiny mirrors on a small chip along with a spinning colour wheel
to reflect light can produce much better images even in a well-lit room.

3. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Projectors.

These are the original and still offer the best picture. CRT projectors used three large tubes to
project the image, in a way similar to a T.V

2. PRINTERS
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as a
paper. Printed information is often referred to as a Hard copy because the information exists
physically and is more permanent form of output than that presented on a display device (Soft
copy).

Printing mechanisms
1. Character printing: This is done by low speed printers that mimic the action of type-writers
by printing one character at a time. The characters are output on the print heads directly. This
means the character font type cannot easily be modified. E.g. Thimble printer, Daisy wheel printer
etc.. They are relatively cheap and commonly used in small business systems

35
2. Line printing: In this type of printing, the printer prints line by line. The paper used on line
printers is called continuous stationery though varieties of paper can be used.
Line printers are often used with mainframes, minicomputers or with a network in applications
such as manufacturing, distribution or shipping.

3. Page printing: In this type of printing, the printer outputs page by page e.g laser jet printer.
They are relatively expensive and intend to deal with large volumes of print output in large
organizations.

Classification of Printers

Printers are grouped into two categories.

1. Impact printers
2. Non-impact printers

1. Impact Printers
Impact printers form characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking mechanism against an
ink ribbon that physically contacts the paper.
Striking mechanism  this means head physically touching the print media.
Print media include papers, transparencies, cloths etc.

Examples of impact printers include;

(i) Dot Matrix Printers.

A Dot matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images with a print head striking
mechanism. A higher number of pins on the print head means more dots are printed, which results
in higher print quality i.e. a 24-pin printer has better print quality than a 9-pin printer.
The speed of a dot matrix printer is normally measured by the number of characters per second it
can print.

Fig: Dot matrix printers

36
Advantages of Dot Matrix Printers
1. They can be used to print graphs.
2. Any character can be designed in any shape.
3. They can withstand dust environments, vibrations and extreme temperatures.
4. Dot matrix printers can print on continuous paper or multipart forms.
5. They are relatively cheaper compared to other printers.

Disadvantages of Dot Matrix Printers

1. They are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism.
2. Print quality is not as good as those from inkjet and LaserJet printers.
3. They are relatively slow.
4. The colour print is limited to two. (Black and white)
5. They are not easily serviced because they are based on old technology.
6. Not readily available on market.

(ii) Daisy Wheel Printers.

This is an impact printer that uses a wheel as a print head. As the wheel rotates, a hammer strikes
the backside of the spoke and presses it against the paper to print a character.

Advantages of Daisy Wheel Printers

1. It is cheap.
2. It can print letter quality characters.
3. It produces pre-defined characters that are of better quality compared to dot-matrix
printers.

Disadvantages of Daisy Wheel Printers

1. They are noisy.
2. The printing speed is very slow.
3. Has a limited set of characters.
4. It cannot print graphics.

(iii) Ball Printer.

A ball printer is an impact that uses a rotating ball as a print head. The printing characters are on
the surface of the ball, which strikes a ribbon to transfer the character onto a paper.

(iv) Desk Jet Printers.

This has a head which is pushed against the paper to produce characters or graphics. Its
performance is relatively similar to inkjet printers.
37
2. Non-Impact Printers.
These use chemical lasers to form images that eventually become characters. They form
characters and graphics on a piece of a paper without actually striking the paper. Examples
include:

(i) Laser Jet Printers.

Laser jet printers are also known as page printers because they process and store the entire page
before they actually print it. The mechanism of how a laser printer works is similar to a
photocopier.

Advantages of Laser Jet Printers

1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast during printing.
2. They can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
3. The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers.

Disadvantages of Laser Jet Printers

1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high compared to other printers.
2. They cannot withstand dust and extreme temperatures.
3. Laser printers are relatively expensive to maintain than dot-matrix printers and inkjet
printers.

(ii) Ink Jet Printers.

An ink jet printer is a non-impact printer that forms characters and graphics by spraying tiny
drops of liquid ink onto a piece of paper. Ink jet printers can produce letter quality text and
graphics in both black and white and colours. The speed of ink jet printers is measured in pages
per minute (ppm)

Advantages of Ink Jet Printers

1. They are generally quiet.
2. They can produce high quality colour output.
3. They can produce letter quality text and graphics in both “black and white” and colours.

38
Disadvantages of Ink Jet Printers
1. Specialized papers are required to produce high quality colour output.
2. The ink cartridges and specialized papers are expensive.
3. The ink may smear when printed on ordinary paper.

(ii) Thermal Printer:

A thermal printer generates images by pushing electronically heated pins against heat sensitive
paper. Standard thermal printers are cheap but the print quality is also low.

(iv) Plotter.
A plotter is a sophisticated printer used to produce high quality drawings that can be quite large
(e.g with width up to 60 inches). Two basic types of plotters are pen plotters and electrostatic
plotters. One advantage of a plotter is that information produced is permanent.

(v) Photo printer: A photo printer is a colour printer designed to produce photo quality pictures
directly from the digital camera.

A comparison of Impact and Non-impact Printers

Impact printers Non-Impact printers

1. Ideal for printing multipart forms 1. Generally much quieter than impact
because they can easily print through printers because there is no striking
many layers of paper. mechanism.
Advantages

2. Can normally withstand dusty

environment, vibrations and extreme 2. Can produce high quality output
temperature.
1. Generally noisy because of the 1. Cannot print multipart forms.
Disadvantages

striking activity.
2. Produce near letter quality (NLQ)
print only, which is just suitable for
printing mailing labels, envelopes or
invoices
39
Common factors to consider when buying a printer
 Page per minute (ppm)
 Memory of at least 2mb
 Price of the cartridge or toner
 Availability of cartridges.
 Purpose for which the printer is going to be put to use.
 Printer drivers. Most printer drivers are installed before a printer can print some work for
you.

3. AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES.

Audio output devices are the components of a computer that produce music, Speech or other
sounds. Two commonly used audio devices are speakers and headsets.

(a) Speakers
These are output devices used to output sound from the computer. Most computers have small
internal speakers.
Most personal computers have a small internal speaker that outputs only low quality sound.

Users who need higher quality sound output may use a pair of
stereo speakers and subwoofers connected to ports on the sound
card.

One advantage is that they are ideal for visually impaired people.
On the other hand, they are not suitable for use in noisy
environments and no permanent copy is produced.

(b) Headphones
These are a pair of small speakers, or a single small speaker, used to output sound from the
computer. They are similar to speakers except they are worn on the ears, so only one person can
hear the output at a time.

Other output devices include:

4. Facsimile (fax) machine
5. Multifunction machine
6. Terminal
7. Modem
N.B
(a) A PORT: This is an outlet for data to the computer peripheral e.g. printer, monitor,
modem, flash disks. Etc. Most computers today have three ports. They are;
40
 (i) Serial port (Com1, Com2). A serial port transmits data one bit(s) at a time and usually
connects devices that do not require fast data transmission.

(ii) Parallel ports (LPT1 LPT2) : Used by many printers and send out 8 bits or 1 byte at
time. The newer types of parallel ports are the enhanced parallel port (EPP) and the
Extended capabilities port (ECP)

(iii) USB port (Universal Serial Bus) can theoretically connect up to 127 different
peripheral devices daisy chained to one general purpose port. USB also supports hot
plugging as well as plug and play.
Devices connect to the system unit using USB port include keyboard, mouse, scanner, disk
drive and digital camera. The newer USB 2.0 can run 40 times faster than the earlier
version.

(b) NETWORK CONNECTORS: These act as an interface in networking (linking)

computers, so that one can access data or information on another computer on the network
card.

(c) EXPANSION SLOTS AND BOARDS

Expansion slots are places where new boards or cards can be added to customize the
computer.
41
 Boards/cards are control devices to add special functions or more power to the computer
e.g. TV card, sound card etc.
Among the types of expansion cards are expanded, memory, display adapter, graphics
adapter cards. Etc…

(d) BUS: This is an electronic channel that allows the various devices inside and attached to
the system unit to communicate with each other.

(e) A port is also the interface or a point of attachment to the system unit. Other types of ports
include;
- SCSI port, 1394 port, MIDI port, IrDA port, Video Adapter game, Game port

A MIDI (Musical Instrument digital interface) port is designed to connect the system unit
to a musical instrument such as the electronic keyboard. MIDI is a standard of the music
industry.
An IrDA (Infrared Data Association) port allows wireless devices to transmit data via
infrared light.

STORAGE DEVICES

These are devices that hold data or information or a file when it is needed for processing.
Processed data may also be put onto external storage devices. Most computers have a backing
storage. Backing storage is necessary because memory is volatile and usually limited.

Memory is fast because it is accessed electronically and no mechanical components are involved.

Storage Media: This is a physical material (equipment) on which a computer keeps data,
instructions and information for future use. Common types of storage media are: Floppy disk,
Hard disk, Compact disk, Tape, Zip drive, memory card, smart card, online storage etc

Storage capacity: This is the number of bytes (i.e. characters) a storage medium can hold.

A storage device records and retrieves items to and from a storage medium.
Storage devices act as input devices when they read and act as output devices when they write.

Reading: This is the process of transferring data, instructions and information from a storage
medium into the computer’s memory. Activity is also referred to as opening a file or loading an
application.
42
Writing: This is the process of transferring items from the computer’s memory to a storage
medium. Activity is also referred to as saving a file.

The speed of a storage device is defined by its access time, which the amount of time it takes to
locate an item on a medium.

MAIN MEMORY / PRIMARY STORAGE

This is also called memory, primary storage, and internal memory or Random Access memory. It
refers to working storage.
Main memory
- Holds data for processing.
- Holds instructions for processing the data
- Holds data after it is processed.

The contents in the main memory are temporal, meaning that if you turn off the computer before
saving your work, you will lose any your latest edits.
It is characterized by fast access to information, low capacity and high costs.

There are three types of main memory in use today: These are;

(a) RAM (Random Access Memory): This is the primary storage device. It stores information
as one is currently working on the computer. A computer will be slow with little RAM.

Fig: RAM chips

Characteristics of RAM
 It can be changed removed or changed.
 It is volatile. If you have data in this memory and there is power failure, all your work will
be lost. To avoid this, you should always save your work on a permanent memory such as a
hard disk, flash disk, diskette etc.
43
(b) ROM (Read Only Memory): This contains instructions which are permanently recorded in
the memory. Its contents can be read but cannot be written during normal computer operations.

Characteristics of ROM
 It cannot be changed or deleted.
 ROM is non-volatile. It stores information permanently.

(c) Registers: These are high speed staging ideas that temporarily store data and instructions that
will be used immediately by the CPU. To process an instruction, the control unit of the CPU
retrieves it from memory and places it in a register.

Differences between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
1. It is volatile 1. It is non volatile
2. RAM is read and write 2. ROM is read only
3. RAM is temporal 3. ROM is permanent
4. RAM can be increased 4. ROM is normally not increasable.
N.B
(a) Volatile memory loses its contents when the computer is turned off. Almost all RAM is
volatile.
(b) Non-volatile memory does not lose its contents even when the computers power is turned
off. Examples include ROM, Flash memory, SMOS
(c) ROM (Read only Memory is an example of non-volatile memory. ROM chips containing
data, instructions or information which is recorded permanently by the manufacture are
known as Firm ware
Variations of ROM chips include
(i) Programmable Read only memory (PROM). This is a type of ROM chip on which
permanently items can be placed.
(ii) Erasable Programmable Read only memory (EPROM). Or Electronically Erasable
programmable read only memory (EEPROM) are Rom chips designed to be modified by the user.

(d) BIOS (Basic Input Output System). This is firmware that contains the computers start up
instructions. Rom contains the Basic input and output system. It is a sequence of instructions
that a computer follows to load the operating system and other files when the computer is
turned on.

44
(e) Flash Memory. Also known as Flash Rom or Flash Ram is a kind of non-volatile memory
that can be erased electronically and reprogrammed. It is used to store programs and data on
personal computers.

(f) CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-conductor). This is used to store

configurations about the computer which includes;
 The amount of memory
 Type of disk drives
 Current data and time.
 Keyboard and monitor
CMOS chips use battery power to retain information even when the computer is turned off.
Unlike Rom, information stored in CMOS can be changed. The CMOS chip is updated
whenever new components are installed.

HOW CAPACITY IS EXPRESSED

In a computer system, data is represented using the binary system. Combinations of binary digits
(bits). They are only two binary digits. 1 (“on”) and 0(“off”)

These digits can be arranged in such a way that they represent characters, digits and other values.

(a) Bit. This is the smallest unit of measurement of information. In binary system each 0 or 1
is called a bit, which is a short form for a binary digit.

(b) Byte. A group of 8 bits is called a byte and a byte represents one character, digit but the
figure is commonly rounded.

(c) A Kilo Byte: (KB) is about 1000bytes (1024 bytes)

(d) A Megabyte: (MB) is about 1 million bytes (1,048,576 bytes)
(e) A Gigabyte: (GB) is about 1 billion bytes. (1,073,741,824 bytes)
(f) A Terabyte: (TB) is about 1 trillion bytes (1, 009, 511, 627, 776)

Summary:
Unit Abbreviation Exact amount Approximate no. of
(Bytes) pages of text
Kilobyte KB 1,024 ½
Megabyte MB 1,O48,576 500
Gigabyte GB 1, 073, 741,824 500,000
Terabyte TB 1, 099,511,627,776 500,000,000
45
A byte is eight bits grouped together as a unit, and provides enough different combinations of 0s
and 1s to represent 28 = 256 individual characters that include numbers, letters and symbols.

A byte is the basic storage unit in memory and each byte is placed in a precise location in memory
called an address.

BINARY CODING SYSTEM

Letters, numbers and special characters are represented with in a computer system by means of
binary coding schemes i.e. off/on 0s and 1s are arranged in such a way that they can be made to
represent characters, digits and other values. Two binary coding schemes are:

(a) ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

(b) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

ASCII is typically used to represent data for microcomputers, and EBCCDIC is used on larger
computers.

SECONDARY STORAGE

Secondary storage (Auxiliary storage) is any storage device designed to retain data and
instructions in a relatively permanent form. Secondary storage is non-volatile meaning that saved
data and instructions remain intact when the computer is turned off. The following are the forms
and elements of secondary storage:
- Diskettes
- Hard disks
- Flash memory
- Compact disks
- Optical tape
- Punched cards
- Magnetic tapes

(a) Floppy Diskette

This is a thin circular, flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-shaped
plastic shell. A floppy disk drive (FDD) is a device that can read from and write to a floppy disk.
If the computer has two drives, the first drive is usually designated drive A and then the second B
i.e. (A:) (B:)

46
The most widely used floppy is 3.5 inches which might either be high density (HD) or Double
density (DD). Before anything can be written on a new floppy disk or hard disk, it must be
formatted.

Fig: A floppy diskette

N.B Formatting is the process of preparing a floppy disk or hard disc for reading and writing by
organizing the disk into storage locations called tracks and sectors. For reading and writing
purposes, sectors are grouped into Clusters.

CARING FOR DISKETTES

1. Never expose the diskette to direct sunshine, heat and cold conditions.
2. Never bend or sit on it in your pocket.
3. Do not expose it to moisture.
4. Do not expose it to magnetic field e.g. by placing it on top of a monitor or radio.
5. Never touch the circular plate.
6. Never pull out the diskette from the drive when light is on.
7. Never format a disk that is not yours or one that still holds important information.
8. Keep diskettes in a safe place preferably in a locker in a water proof container.
9. Floppy disks should be kept away from dust and smoke. These can easily contaminate the
storage surface.

Advantages of floppy diskettes

1. Floppy disk is portable and inexpensive.
2. Data on a floppy can be accessed randomly
3. Data on a floppy disk can write protected from being changed accidentally.
4. Floppy can be used to transfer data from one computer to another.
5. Their storage capacity is quite considerably bigger compared to previous media like
punched cards.
Disadvantages
1. Since they are external, they are vulnerable to harsh conditions of storage like
temperatures, moisture, bending, breaking etc. which might cause life being unreliable.
2. Access time of floppy disk is slow (about 84ms).
3. Data can easily be lost once the magnetic media is exposed to a magnetic field.
47
(b) Hard disk (Fixed disk)
This is a metallic media which reside inside the computer for storing computer programs and data.
Disk space is measured in Megabytes or Gigabytes. Typical sizes are 10GB, 20 GB, 80GB,
120GB, 320GB etc. The capacity of a hard disk is much higher than that of a floppy diskette.

Fig: A hard disk

Hard disks are magnetic storage media that contain
one or more platters coated (covered) with a
magnetic oxide material where data is recorded
magnetically on the surface of the platters.

Advantages of Hard disks

1. Since they reside inside the computer, they can’t easily be stolen or misplaced and data is
secure.
2. The speed and time of data access is very fast and convenient.
3. Though disks have been known to fail with very long periods of non-use, the data life of a
hard disk is quite long once in use.
4. A hard disk is cheaper than a floppy disk per megabyte stored.
5. Better protection against dust and dirt because they reside inside the system unit.

Disadvantages of Hard disks

1. Hard disks are susceptible to virus attacks especially in unprotected systems thereby
causing vital data loss.
2. They are not portable since they reside in a computer.
3. These disks may fail due to violent shaking (vibrations)
4. They are metallic and expand depending on changes in temperature. This may cause loss
of data. Use of air-conditioned rooms is therefore recommended.

Comparison between a floppy disk and a hard disk

Hard disk Floppy disk

1. Has bigger storage than a floppy 1. Low storage
2. Fixed with in a system. 2. Is portable
3. Has greater speed in saving 3. Low storage speed
Information than a floppy.
4. Fixed in a system unit from 4. More expose to hazards.
Environmental hazards.
5. Organizes data in a combination 5. Organizes data in a single concentric circles
of tracks called cylinders called tracks.
48
N.B Advantages and disadvantages plus definitions can serve as characteristics.

(c) Magnetic Tapes

These are magnetic storage media that contain a thin ribbon of plastic coated with a magnetic
oxide material that can be used to record and retrieve large amounts of data. They can also be
termed as Data cartridge. They are normally used for long-term storage and back-up data. They
were used in the late 1950’s to early 1960’s as the primary means of storing data.

(d) A compact Disk (CD): A Compact disk is a flat, round, portable storage medium that is
usually 4.75 inches in diameter and less than one twentieth of an inch thick. Most of the
computer software today is supplied on CD’s. It is capable of storing large amounts of
information.

Fig: A compact CD
The drive designation of a compact
disk drive usually follows
alphabetically after that of a hard disk
i.e. if the hard disk is C: then the
compact disk is drive D:

Variations of Compacts Disks designed for Use with Computers include;

(i) CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory)

This is a disk that uses the same laser technology as audio CDs for recording music. A CD Rom
can however contain graphics, video and sound. The contents of CD ROMS are written or
recorded by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the user.

A CD-ROM drive or CD Rom player is required to read items

on a CD ROM. It can hold up to 650MB of data, instructions
and information.

49
(ii) CR-R (Compact disk – Recordable)
This is a technology that allows a user to write on CD using a computer. CR-R is a “write once,
read many” technology. A user can write on the disk in stages – writing on part of it one time and
writing on another part at a later time. However, the user can write on each part only one and
cannot erase it. CD-R software and a CD drive are required in order to write on a CD-R.

Advantages of CD-R
 It is more portable than a hard disk.
 The storage capacity of a compact disk -Recordable is very much larger than that of a
floppy disk.
 The average access time of a compact disk is faster than that of a floppy disk.

Disadvantages of CD-R
 Some kinds of CDs are read only (CD ROM and DVD ROM)
 The average access time of a hard disk is slower than that of a hard disk.

(iii) CD-RW (Compact Disc Re-writable)

This is an erasable compact disk that can be written on multiple times. A CD-RW acts like a
floppy disk or hard disk, allowing data, instructions and information be written onto it multiple
times. CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive are required in order to write and re-write on a CD-
RW. One problem with a CD-RW is that they cannot be read by all CR ROM drives.

(iv) DVD-ROM (Digital Video/Versatile Disk- ROM)

This is an extremely high capacity disk capable of storing from 4.7GB to 17GB. A DVD Rom
drive or DVD player is required to read a DVD ROM. Although the size and shape of a DVD
Rom and a CD ROM are similar, a DVD Rom uses the following techniques to increase its
storage capacity.
 Making the disk denser by packing the bits together.
 Using two layers of pits, which double the capacity of the disk.
 Some are double sided, which means that they can be removed and turned over to read the
other side.

50
(v) DVD-RAM. This is a recordable and re-writable version of DVD Rom which allows items to
be erased to be recorded on it multiple times.

(vi) DVD-R. This is the recordable and rewritable version of DVD ROM which can be written
once and read (play) for many times.

(vii) DVD-RW. This is the recordable and re-writable versions of DVD ROM which can be
written and read (play) for many times. A DVD-RW is similar to a CD-RW except, it has storage
capacities up to 4.7GB.

(viii) Photo CD. This is a type of CD that contains digital photographic images saved on a photo
CD format developed by Eastman Kodak.

CARE FOR COMPACT DISCS

Most manufacturers guarantee that a properly cared for compact disk will last up to 50 years. Pay
attention to the following points for taking care of compact disks.
 Always store the compact disk in a jewel box or their cases when not in use.
 Always hold a compact disk by its edges or through the hole in the middle of the disk.
 Never touch the under the side of the compact disk because it contaminates easily.
 Never stack disks on top of each other.
 Never expose the disc to excessive heat or sunlight or near heat generating devices.
 Do not write on the CD except with a felt tipped marker or simply paste labels on them.
 Avoid spilling liquids on the disk.

(e) Flash Disks.

These are small mass storage media with a USB interface that is used to get connected to the
computer. They are typically small, lightweight, removable and re-writable. They hold between
1GB - 64GB of data. They are the latest storage media technology today. To access data on a
flash disk, it must be connected to a USB port (front or back) on the system unit or through a USB
hub.

(f) Punched cards

Among the first forms of storage devices in computers were the
punched cards. They were flat cards, which consisted of rows
of numbers and letters neatly arranged in columns. To store
data, the card was inserted in a computer drive and then a
computer punched a series of holes in the rows of characters to
represent data stored. In the read process, a computer made out
words in order of the holes.
51
 Disadvantages
 Cards were made out paper and could easily be destroyed by moisture, rats or tear.
 They were small rectangular cards of about 5x10cm and only few sentences would be
stored on hence limited storage capacity.
 Their data life was rather limited because paper depreciates with time.

Other types of storage media include:

- Zip disk
- Mo Disk
- PC Card
- Smart card
- Online storage
- Microfilm and Microfiche.

Make research on the following:

1. (a) Uses of Flash disk storage.
(b) Advantages of flash disks compared to compact disks.
(c) Disadvantages of flash disks compared to compact disks.

2. (a) Define the term “formatting a disk”.

(b) Define the following as used with formatting a disk.
(i) A track.
(ii) A sector.
(iii) A cluster.
(iv) A cylinder.

3. Write down the tasks performed by the operating system when you format a disk.
4. Differentiate between “media failure” and “device failure”.

52
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is a collection of programs. The term software is used to describe the complete range of
computers programs that convert the general-purpose computer system into one capable of
performing a multitude of specific functions.

Program: This is a set of instructions, commands that are arranged in a logical way which can
run a computer.

N.B: If you compare a computer with a human being, the body is similar to hardware of the
computer. What is inside i.e. the spirit or life within a human body is similar to software as
regards the computer.

Software is used in contrast to hardware to enable the computer run all the programs installed on a
computer.

CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE

Computer software can be broadly classified into two categories.

(a) System Software.
(b) Application Software.

(a) System software.

This is software responsible for the operation of a computer. It is usually supplied by the
manufacturer of the computer. Some of the programs reside inside the ROM and are known as
Firmware.
System software consists of the following:

(i) Operating system.

(ii) Programming languages.
(iii) System utilities/Utility programs.

System software acts as an interface between the user, application software and hardware.

(b) Application software.

These are programs developed to solve the users’ problems e.g. typing a document, internet,
designing and graphics etc. These programs include: word processors, spread sheets, accounting
programs etc. Application software which handles the needs of the end user fall into two main
categories:
53
(i) Special purpose packages. These are also called custom made packages which are written to
meet specific needs of an organization that cannot be usually satisfied by other sources of
software.
(ii) General purpose packages. These are also called off-the-shelf packages which may be used
for a wide variety of purpose such as word processors, spread sheets, databases, and presentation
software etc.

N.B: An application service provider (ASP). This is a third party organization that manages and
distributes software and services on the web.

SOFTWARE CLASSIFICATIONS
Software

System software Application software

Operating Utility Programming

systems programs languages

OS for standalone Low level

computers

High level

OS for networked
computers

Custom package Off the shelf

Tailored package package

54
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

(I) OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system is part of system software which is core or master program that allows
application software to communicate with the hardware.

An operating system is a program which enables a computer to deal with input and output, keep a
track of what is going on and allocate storage space.

You as user in most cases, you are dealing with exterior parts but when you are using a computer,
you can’t look inside to see what is going on but this remains the work of an operating system.

When you are storing on diskettes, you can’t know whether it is full by looking at it but it is the
operating system to tell that the disk is full by giving you information on the screen.

Therefore operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that coordinate all
activities among computer hardware devices.

EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. DOS (Disk Operating system). This refers to several single user operating systems that were
developed in the early 80s for personal computers. The two more widely used versions of DOS
were PC-DOS and MS-DOS both developed by Microsoft.

2. Windows 3.x refers to early three versions of Microsoft windows: Windows 3.0,
Windows 3.1 and 3.11

3. Windows 95 is a true multitasking operating system that does not require DOS to run.

Advantages:
 An improved graphical user interface.
 Most programs run faster under the OS.
 Supports a more efficient form of multitasking
 Supports networking plug and play, longer file names and e-mail.
 Take advantage of 32-bit processors.

4. Windows NT workstation
5. Windows 98 is an upgrade to Windows 95 operating system.

55
 Advantages
 More integrated with Internet.
 Includes the active desktop interface options.
 Provide faster system start up and shut down.
 Better file management.
 Supports new multimedia technologies such as DVD and WEB TV.
 Supports the Universal serial bus.
 Like Windows 95, 98 can also run 16 and 32 bit software.

6. Windows 200 professional is an upgrade of Windows NT operating system.

7. Windows ME (Windows Millennium) is an update version of windows 98. For the consumer
that that uses a computer to surf the internet or for entertainment, windows millennium is
designed mainly for home users.

8. Windows XP home is an upgrade of windows millennium. Added features of windows XP

home edition includes internet explorer 6, acquire, organize and share digital pictures, download,
store and playback high-quality music through windows media player.

9. Windows XP professional is an upgrade of windows 200 professional.

Added features include
1. All the capabilities of windows XP home edition.
2. Remotely access a computer, its data and its files from any other computer anywhere.
3. Support for secured wireless network access.
4. Simpler administration of groups of users of computers.

10 Mac OS was the first commercially successful user interface.

11. Windows NT server is designed for client server networks. The server uses a version called
NT server.

12. UNIX. Is a multi-user, multitasking operating system developed in the early 1970s by
scientist at Bell laboratories. A weakness of UNIX is that it has a command line interface and
many of its commands are difficult to remember.

13. Linux. Linux is a popular, free UNIX like multi-tasking operating system. Some versions use
command line interface while others use graphical user interface. The two most popular GIUs
available for Linux are GNOME and KDE

56
14. Windows CE is a scaled-down windows operating system designed for use on wireless
communication devices and handheld computers.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

(a) Memory management. It allocates and assigns items to areas of memory called buffers,
while they are being processed to monitor carefully the contents of these items in memory, and to
clear these items from memory when they are no longer required by the CPU.

(b) User-interface. Operating system gives an environment that allows users to interact with the
programs while they are running.

(c) Spooling of print jobs. With pooling, the print jobs are placed in a buffer instead of being
sent immediately to the printer. As soon as the print jobs are placed in a buffer, the CPU is
available to process the next instruction and the computer can be used for other tasks.

(d) Configuring devices. In the past, installing a new device often required setting switches and
other elements on the motherboards. O.S includes BIOS (Basic Input Output System) to manage
essential peripherals such as keyboards, disk drives, screens, etc. Most of the operating systems
today support plug and play and can configure devices automatically.

(e) Monitoring system performance. A performance monitor is a program that access and
reports information about various system resources and devices. The information in such reports
helps a user identify problems with the resources.

(f) Administering security. The multi-user system requires each user to log on. Both successful
and unsuccessful log on attempts are often recorded in a file so the system administrator can
review who is using or attempting to use the computer. Some operating systems allow the user to
assign passwords to files so that only authorized users can open them.

(g) Managing storage media and files. Most operating systems include a file manager program
that performs functions related to storage and file management.

(h) Allocating resources on a network such as disk space. The operating system coordinates
some network communication and allocates resources such as disk space.

(i) Scheduling CPU processing cycles. It is used to monitor the system performance whereby it
can display reports that help the user to troubleshoot.

57
A File manager. This is a program that performs functions related to storage and file
management.
Functions of a file manager
1. Formatting and copying disks.
2. Displaying a list of files on a storage medium.
3. Checking the amount of used space on a storage medium.
4. Copying, renaming, deleting, moving and sorting files.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Based on the number of computers, an operating system can act as an interface. Two types of
operating systems have been identified namely:

(a) Single User systems. An operating system, which act as an interface for only one user. It
is therefore a single user system. Ideally all standalone machines (Computers which are
not connected to any other) use this operating system. An example is MS DOS.

(b) Multi-User systems. The concept of multi-user systems is exactly the opposite of the
single user. A computer system, when act as an interface for more than one user becomes
a multi-user environment system.

Depending on the look of the operating system interface, an operating system interface, an
operating system can either be character based or graphical user interface based.

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

Graphical user interface allows the user to use menus and visual images such as icons, buttons and
other graphical objects to issue commands. Examples; Windows 95, 98, 2000, NT etc. Basic
components of GUI system include desktop, Menu bar etc.

Advantages of GUI
 It is user friendly because it is easy to learn and work with.
 There is no need to type and memorize any command language.
 The interface is similar for any application.
 You are provided with a coloured screen with icons each representing a program. A mouse
may be used.

Disadvantages of GUI
 It requires a faster memory as well as a faster processor.
 It also occupies more disk space to hold all files for different functions.
 It is difficult to automate functions for expert users.
58
COMMAND LINE INTERFACE
With a command line interface, a user types keyboard or press special keys on the keyboard to
enter data and instructions. The set of commands a user uses to interact with the computer is
called command language. Examples are DOS, UNIX, and Linux etc.

Advantages of Command Line Interface

 A command line interface takes up little memory and normally does not require very fast
processor.
 Operation is fast because commands can be directly through the keyboard.
 Many commands can be grouped together as batch file so that repetitive tasks can be
automated.

Disadvantages of Command Line interface

 A command language has to be learnt and memorized.
 You are provided with a virtually empty screen with a blinking cursor where commands
are keyed and the computer executes them by pressing the enter key.

UTILITY PROGRAMS
These are also called Service programs. A utility program is a form of system software that
performs a specific task, usually related to managing a computer, its devices or its programs.
Popular types of utility programs include:
- File viewer.
- File compression utility.
- Diagnostic utility.
- Disk scanner.
- Disk defragmenter.
- Un-installer.
- Backup utility.
- Anti-virus utility.
- Screen saver.

(a) File Viewer. This is a utility that displays and copies the content of a file. An operating
system’s file manager often includes a file viewer.

(b) File compression utility. Reduces or compresses the size of a file. A compressed file
takes up less storage space on a hard disk or floppy disk, which frees up room on the disk
and improves system performance. Compressed files sometimes are called Zipped Files
because they usually have a zip extension. A compressed file must be unzipped or restored
to its original form before being used.
59
 (c) Diagnostic utility. A diagnostic utility complies technical information about a computer’s
hardware and certain system software programs and prepares a report outlining any
identified problems. Windows XP includes Dr. Watson as a diagnostic utility.

(d) Disk scanner. This is a utility that detects and corrects both physical and logical problems
on a hard disk of floppy disk and searches for and removes unwanted files.
A physical problem is one with the media, such as scratch on the surface of the disk.
A logical problem is one with the data such as a corrupted file allocation table (FAT)
Two disc scanner utilities included with windows are scan disc and disc clean up.

(e) Disk defragmenter. This is a utility that organizes the files and unused space on a
computer’s hard disk so that data can be accessed more quickly and programs can run
faster. When the contents of a file are scattered across two or more non-contiguous
sectors, the file is fragmented. The process of defragmentation is reorganizing the disk so
the files are stored in contiguous sectors.

(f) Uninstaller. This is the utility that removes an application as well as any associated
entries in the system files.

(g) Backup utility. This allows a user to copy or back up selected files or the entire hard disk
onto another disk or tape.

(h) Antivirus utility. This is a program that prevents, detects and removes viruses from a
computers’ memory or storage devices. Popular antivirus programs include Norton, Avira,
Avast, Kaspersky Etc.

(i) Screen saver. A screen saver is a utility that causes the monitors screen to display a
moving image or blank screen if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time
period.

Applications of screen saver program

 Screen savers were originally developed to prevent a problem called Ghosting in which
images could be permanently etched on a monitors screen.
 Screen savers can also be used for reasons of security. It prevents unwanted on lookers
from accessing information or data on your computer screen.
 Business. (Advertisement on the screen)
 Entertainment. Digital photos can be put on your screen as moving pictures.

60
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

This is a medium used by man to write instructions that command the computer hardware to
perform particular tasks. These instructions are written in different languages depending on the
place of a manufacturer.

Language is a media to communicate between human beings. Similarly the language used for
communicating between human beings and the computer is called computer language or
programming language.

Although there are many different computer languages, most fall under one of the four categories.
These groups are known as levels of languages because they can be arranged hierarchically.

The highest level is occupied by languages that make it easy for people who are not necessarily
programmers to develop computer applications. Going from the lowest to the highest, the
classifications are:

(a) Machine language. This consists of binary numbers that represents instructions, memory
locations and data so they can be processed by a specific model. Its own machine language
is the only language that can be directly used by a computer. All instructions in a machine
code are represented in the binary format. An example of a machine code is
1010000000000001001 a 16-bit machine code.

(b) Assembly language. This consist of mnemonic symbols that stand for zeros and ones of
machine language e.g. the above code would be written as LOAD S Assembly language
was more meaningful that series of codes.

(c) High-level language. These are statements in form of instructions or commands given to a
computer to generate a considerable amount of machine code. Object codes are used to
translate these languages so that they can be used by all computers of the same make.
Programming languages help in writing software that can be understood more easily than
machine language. Some of the high level languages are;

(i) BASIC (Beginning All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). This was developed in
1964 by John Kemeny and Thomas Kutz to teach students how to use computers. It is very
easy to learn. It uses very common English words so a basic program can be understood by
even a non-programmer. Today is a common language on micro-computers.

61
 (ii) FORTRAN. (FORmula TRANslation). This was developed in 1956 to provide an
easier way of writing scientific and engineering applications because of its simplicity,
conciseness, standardization, efficiency and numerical precision. It is usually used in
business application.

(iii) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language). It came into use in the early 1960’s.
It has wide spread application in businesses, commercial data and is noted for its ability to
handle the input and output of large volumes of alphabetical data, its machine
independence and its English like statements.

(iv) PASCAL. Was developed in early 1970 specifically for computer scientists. Though
it was developed by Nicklaus W at a Technician University in Zurich. It was named in
remembrance of the inventor of the “Mechanical calculator”.

(v) ADA named in honor of lady Augusta Lovelace worked with Charles
Babbage at Cambridge University in English during the first half of the 19th
Century on the first commercial computer.

(vi) ALGOL. It is an abbreviation for Algorithmic language. It is suitable for both

scientific and engineering computations.

(vii) PL/M (Programming Language Microcomputer) was developed purposely for use
with Intel microcomputers. It has a compiler.

(viii) LOGO was developed for educational use in which children can explore and develop
concepts through programming the movement of a “turtle” or pen. It has no commercial
purpose.

(d) Application generators attempt to make it easy as possible for users to tell the computer
what they want instead of having to specify exactly how to it.
4GLs was designed to meet the following objectives
 Enable quick and easy amendments and alterations
 Make language user friendly.
 Allow non-professional end users to develop their own solutions.
5GLs. This type of languages is used in intelligent knowledge based systems (IKBS) such
as Robots. Unlike 4GLs which manipulate data, numbers, 5GLs manipulate various facts
and rules to reach a conclusion. Therefore, they “think” just like human beings and
because of this they are extremely use in artificial intelligence projects like the recent mars
explorations.
62
OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP)

The current state of the art in programming technology is object oriented programming (OOP). It
Uses objects which combine data and behaviour. Examples include Visual Basic (C++)

What makes the language good?

 Suitability of the problem.
 Clarity and simplicity.
 Efficiency
 Availability
 Consistency
The above are the criteria to be used when choosing a programming language and then the
platform whether windows or DOS based.

WEB DEVELOPMENT LANGUAGES

Web pages are used for creating websites on the Internet where all sorts of advertising can be
done. The most common used languages for creating web pages on World Wide Web are written
using Hyper Text Markup languages (HTML) and JAVA

HTML is one of the main language used to create web pages for the internet and intranet. This
language allows programmers to compose text (Also known as ASCII), data, pictures, sound,
animations and video for screen display.

JAVA in an OOP that resembles a simplified form of C++. Java codes displays graphics,
accesses the network with users via an asset of capabilities known as classes.

N.B. Debuggers: These are programming tools which help programmers to detect, locate and
remove routine, syntax or logical errors from a program being written.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software refers to programs that perform specific tasks for users. Most application
software is available as packaged Software that can be purchased in retail stores or on the web.

A Cross-platform application is one that runs identically on multiple operating systems. They
often have multiple versions each corresponding to different operating system.

63
An application service provider (ASP) is a third party organization that manages and distributes
software and services on the web.

FORMS OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Software is available in a variety of forms.

(a) Packaged Software. It is commercial software, which is copyrighted and designed to meet
the needs of wide variety of users.
(b) Custom software. This is a tailor-made software which is developed at a user’s request to
perform specific functions.
(c) Freeware. This is copyrighted software provided at no cost to users.
(d) Shareware. Is copyrighted software that is distributed free for a trial period and payment
is required for using the software beyond trial period.

(e) Public Domain software. This is a free software donated for public use and has no
copyrighted restrictions.

COMMON EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE;

(1) Word Processing software
(2) Spread sheet software
(3) Database software
(4) Presentation software
(5) Software suit
(6) Integrated software
(7) Computer aided design software
(8) Desktop publishing software
(9) Project management software
(10) Personal information managers
(11) Accounting software
(12) Pointing and Image editing software
(13) Video and Audio editing software
(14) Multimedia authorizing software
(15) Web page authoring software
(16) Personal finance software
(17) Educational software
(18) Reference software
(19) Entertainment software
(20) Communications software
(21) Utilities programs
64
 CHARACTERISTICS OF APPLICATION PACKAGES

(a) They are targeted to a wide range of users with a popular and common objective.
(b) It is user friendly. Many of them have graphic user interface in windows environment
which makes it easy to learn and use.
(c) It is designed for power and flexibility. This ensures that most of the capabilities of the
packages is addressed irrespective of the hardware.
(d) The software should be machine independent. The packages are designed to work on a
range of computer systems and data can be transferred form one computer to another
cheaply.

1. WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

Word processing software also known as word processor is used to create, edit, format and print
documents that contains text and graphics.

Creating a document involves entering text or numbers, inserting graphics and performing other
tasks using an input device such as a keyboard or a mouse.

Editing is the process of making changes to the existing content of the document. Common
editing features include: Inserting, Deleting, Cutting, Copying, Pasting etc.

Formatting involves changing the appearance of a document. Different levels of formatting

include; character formatting, paragraph formatting, section formatting, document formatting etc.

Undo allows actions that have been performed to be reversed such that if some text was
accidentally deleted, then the action can be undone. (Ctrl + Z)

Saving is the process of copying a document from the memory to storage medium such as the
floppy disk or hard disk. Any document that has been saved exists as a file which is a name
collection of data, instructions or information. Each file has a file name.

Printing is the process of sending a file to a printer to generate output on a medium such as a
paper. A user can choose to print a document either in portrait (vertical) or landscape (horizontal)
orientation A4 is the most popular sized paper used in Uganda.

Examples of word processing documents include,

Letters, Memos, Reports, Mailing labels and newsletters.
Many word processing software utilities are also capable of creating web pages.
65
POPULAR FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

(a) Word wrap. This allows a user to type continuously without pressing the enter key at the
end of each line.
(b) Replace. This allows the user to substitute existing characters, words or phrases with new
ones.
(c) Spell checker. This allows a user to check the spelling of a whole document at one time or
to check and even correct the spelling of individual words as they are typed (i.e. auto
correct)
(d) Grammar checker. Reports grammatical errors and suggests way to correct them.
(e) Thesaurus. This suggests alternative words with the same meaning (synonyms) for use in
the document.
(f) Mail merge. This creates form letters, mail labels and envelopes. Used when similar
letters have to be sent to several people. The names and addresses of each person can be
merged with one single standard document and then printed out.
(g) Automatic page numbering numbers the pages automatically in a document
(h) Tables allow the user to organize information into rows and columns.
(i) Multi-columns. This arranges text in two or more columns that look like or similar to
newspaper columns or magazines.
(j) Clip Art gallery allows a user to insert drawing s, diagrams and photographs into a
document.
(k) Mathematical formulae typesetting. This allows a user to typeset complex mathematical
formulae with in the program.

Popular word processors include;

- Microsoft word
- Lotus WordPro
- Corel WordPerfect
- Word pad
-
ADVANTAGES OF WORD PROCESSING OVER ORDINARY TYPEWRITTER

(a) Easy and fast to make changes to the document.

(b) Has many features to create documents that look professional and visually appealing.
(c) Documents can be previewed before being printed.
(d) Documents can be saved for future use for editing.
(e) Convenient to create and for letters and mailing labels.

66
2. SPREAD SHEET SOFTWARE

Spreadsheet software is used to organize data in rows and columns and performs calculation on
the data. Before the advent of computers, cash flows and budgets required for business planning
had to be done by hand. These days, there is no excuse for not having good information.

Using spread sheets

- Sales can be recorded.
- Invoices produced and statements compiled.
- Researchers can compile and analyze their results.
- Teachers can easily create tables of figures and manipulate then quickly as
required.

A spreadsheet document is often called a worksheet. On each worksheet, data is organized

vertically in columns and horizontally in rows. Each column is identified by a letter (i.e. A, B, C)
and each row is represented by a number (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4…)

A cell is the intersection of a column and a row. Each cell has unique cell address e.g. A1, A2,
D6 etc. to define its location on the worksheet. The upper-left most cell is generally identified as
A1.

For relative addressing, the cell addresses e.g. (B1+C1) will be self-adjusted when the formula is
moved or copied to another cell e.g. (C2+C2)

A cell can be empty or contain a label, a value (i.e. a number or a formula). Labels are text that
identify the data and help organize the worksheet. Values are numbers to be used for
calculations.

BASIC MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS USED IN SPREAD SHEETS INCLUDE

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

( ) Parentheses =B2*(C4+D5)
* Multiplication =B2*C4
/ Division =B2/C10
+ Addition =(B2+C4)
- Subtraction =(B2-C4)
% Percentage =C5*60%
^ Exponential =C5^2

67
Spreadsheet programs normally have enormous functions which are predefined formulae to
perform common calculations.

ABS (number ) Returns the absolute value of a number

INT(number ) Round to the nearest integer
Mathematical

LN(number ) Calculate the natural logarithm of a number

LOG(number base) Calculates logarithm of a no. to a specified base
ROUND(number, no. Round to a specifies number of digits
of digits)
SQRT(number ) Square root of a number
SUM(range) Calculates the total of range of numbers.
AVERAGE(range) Calculate the average value
COUNT(range) Counts how many cells in the range have entries
Statistical

MAX(range) Returns the maximum value

MIN(range) Returns the minimum value
STDEV(range) Calculate the standard deviation
IF(logical test, value, if Performs a test and returns one value if the test of the
Logical

true, value if false) result is true and another value if the result is false

FV(rate, no. of periods, Calculate the future value of investment.

payment)
Financial

NPV (rate, range) Calculate the net present value of investment.

PMT (rate, no. of
periods, present value Calculates the periodic payment for annuity.
PV(rate, no. of periods, Calculates the present value of investment
payment
RATE(no. of periods,
payment, present value Calculates the periodic interest rate of an annuity.
DATE Returns the current date
Date &
Time

NOW Returns the current date and time

TIME Returns the current time

Popular features of spread sheets

(a) Adjusting columns. This allows the user ability to adjust columns
(b) Data sorting. Allows the user ability to sort data accordingly e.g. descending , ascending
(c) Printing. Allows the user to print the entire worksheet, portions of a worksheet and
several worksheets.

68
 (d) Charting. Allows the user to display data in graphical rather than a numerical form.
Popular chart types include; line charts, bar charts, pie charts etc.
Popular spreadsheet software
 Microsoft Excel
 Lotus 1-2-3
 Corel Quattro Pro
 VisiCalc
 Super Calc

ADVANTAGES OF SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE

(a) Easy to make changes and corrections to data on the worksheet.

(b) The rest of the worksheet is recalculated whenever data on the worksheet changes.
(c) Operation is very fast with the help of built-in functions and macros.
(d) Calculation is always accurate, provided that data and formulae entered are correct.
(e) Easy to create different kinds of charts or to change chart types.
(f) Information on charts is updated automatically whenever related data on the worksheet
changes.
(g) Electronic spreadsheets are much longer than manual worksheets. Manual worksheets are
limited by size.
(h) Electronic spread sheets can perform mathematical, statistical and financial calculations
quickly and accurately.
(i) They can be stored and retrieved for repeated use for example on diskettes, discs, e.t.c
rather than searching through endless filing cabinets.

3. DATABASE SOFTWARE

A database is a collection of data organized in a way that allows access, retrieval and use of the
data. Common database papers include;
 Telephone books
 Dictionaries
 Recipe books
 Television guides
Computerized databases in Uganda include;
 Flight information
 Phone inquiry system
 Database system in public libraries.

69
A database software or a database management system (DBMS) allows a user to create, access
and manage a database.
Most PC databases consist of a collection of tables organized in rows and columns.

A record is a row in a table that contains information about a given person, product or event (an
individual entry in a table)

A field is a column in a table that contains specific piece of information with in a record. ( is a
piece of information in a record)

The data type of a field specifies the type of data that the field can contain. Common data types
include;
(a) Text type which may hold letters, numbers or special characters.
(b) Numeric type which may hold numbers only.
(c) Currency type which may hold dollars and cents amounts.
(d) Date type which may hold months, day and year information.
(e) Memo type which may contain text of any type or length.
(f) Boolean type which may hold value that is either true or false.
(g) Ole object (Object linking and embedding) objects, graphics and other binary data. Filed
capacity is up to a gigabyte or limited by available disk space.

Lookup Wizard
When the value that you need exists in another table or from a list of static values, you use the
lock up wizard to help you establish a link to the table or to define the combo box that will
display the list of values on a form or report.

Validation This is the process of comparing the data entered with a set of predefined rules and
values to check if data is acceptable.

MANIPULATION OF DATA IN DATABASES INCLUDE

(a) Sorting is to organize a set of records in a particular order.

(b) Tables are the most important objects in a database. Tables are used for data entry and
edit. In a table, each record is displayed as a row and each filed is displayed a s a column.
(c) Querying is to use a specific set of rules (i.e. criteria) for retrieving data from the database.
(d) Queries. Are used to locate specific record with in the table or ask questions to your
database. You might want to extract records that meet specific selection criteria (e.g.
employees who will earn above a certain amount of salary in the accounts department.
When you run a query, the results are arranged in columns and rows like a table
70
 (e) Forms. Provide alternatives to tables of data entry and viewing records. With forms, you
arrange the fields as required on the screen. You can design your form to look like the
printed forms (invoices, order from e.tc...) that you use.
(f) Reports. Are used to produce various printed outputs e.g. summaries of data in your
database. Using reports, the same database can produce for instance a list of one
publisher’s books in a specific category.

N.B
1. A Flat file database is made up of only one table.
2. A relational database can take information from two or more tables and combine
them into a new table or report.

What a good database should be?

A DBMS should make efficient use of computer resources, be fast, interface smoothly with
existing facilities, be acceptable, provide easy access to authorized users, preserve data integrity
and ensure privacy of data.

ADVANTAGES OF DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

(a) Reduction of data redundancy. Storing most of data in one place means less
duplication and less required place.
(b) Enhancement of data integrity. Because data are centralized, fewer updating errors
occur and greater accuracy can be maintained.
(c) Ensured data independence. Data are entered, stored, modified and accessed by
methods that are not affected by application programs. Also changes made to data
structures usually do not require changes in programs that access the database.

(d) Improvement of access to data. Data systems allow users to query that database
directly without necessarily using an application program.

(e) Facilities of data sharing and integration. Database systems offers users the ability
to combine or to cross-reference data in many different ways.

(f) Centralization of security. It is easier to limit access to information if it is grouped

together instead of being kept in several scattered files. Many databases must be protected
and kept private.

71
 (g) Reduction of costs. Data entry, storage and development of new application programs
are all made more economical. By eliminating the duplication of data, many organizations
can realize substantial savings.

DISADVANATAGES OF DATABASE MAGAMENT SYSTEM

(a) Complexity. Database systems include sophisticated software packages that may require
special hardware. They are difficult and time consuming to develop.
(b) Initial expense. Primary, because of their complexity and efficiency, database systems can
be expensive to set up.
(c) Vulnerability. Data in a database may be more susceptible to sabotage, theft or
destruction. Although in one sense, databases are protected because of centralized security
measures, in other senses, they are vulnerable because all eggs are in one basket.

4. PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

Presentation software is used to create presentations, which can communicate ideas and other
information to a group of audience. The presentation can be viewed as a slide show which
usually displays on a large monitor or on a projection screen.

Popular presentation software

- Microsoft power point
- Corel presentation
- Lotus freelance Graphics

Features of presentation software

- Several “Auto” features that makes it easier for you to perform your work e.g
auto correct to correct typing errors, auto clip art provide clip art suggestions.
- Style checker.
- Ability to present on screen presentation in colour.
- Using the new animation effects tool bar.
- Presentation conferencing
- Meeting minder

72
Advantages of Presentation software

(a) Presentation software usually provides a wide variety of presentation formats and lay outs
for the slides.
(b) Multimedia components such as slip art images, video clips and audio clips can be
incorporated into the slides.
(c) The timing of slides can be set so that the presentation automatically displays the next slide
after a predetermined period of time.
(d) Special transition effects can be applied between each slide.
(e) The presentation can normally be viewed and printed in different formats e.g outline
format, audience handout format and notes page format.

5. SOFTWARE SUIT

A software suit is a collection of individual application software packages sold as a single

package. A software suit usually includes application software; a word processor, a spreadsheet
software, a database software and a presentation software.
Popular software suits include;
 Microsoft office
 Lotus smart suit
 Corel WordPerfect suit

Advantages of Software suits

(a) A software suit normally costs significantly less than purchasing each of the application
separately.
(b) Ease of use because applications within a suit usually use a similar interface and share
common features

6. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN SOFTWARE

Computer aided design software (CAD) is mainly designed for creating engineering, architectural
and scientific drawings. Popular CAD software includes;
 Auto desk
 Auto CAD and
 Microsoft Visio technical

73
7. DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE (DTP)

Desktop Publishing software (DTP) is used to design and produce complicated documents that
contain text, graphics and brilliant colours. It is ideal for the production of high quality colour
documents such as newsletters, catalogues, textbooks and annual reports.

Popular DTP software include

 Microsoft Publisher
 Adobe page maker
 Adobe in Design
 Quark Xpress
 Broderbund Print Shop pro.

DTP combines word processing and graphics to produce high quality documents with a laser
printer. Components of a desktop publishing systems include; a powerful microcomputer,
graphics display, mouse, Laser printer, Scanner, Desktop publishing software such as page maker,
Microsoft publisher, Print shop e.tc.

8. MULTIMEDIA AUTHORING SOFTWARE

This combines text, graphics, animation audio and video into an application. Multimedia is widely
used in video games, electronic newspapers and magazines, electronic books and references,
simulations, virtual reality and computer based training.

VIRTUAL REALITY (VR) is the use of a computer to create an artificial environment that
appears and feels like a real environment. Virtual reality software users usually have to wear
specialized headgear, body suits and gloves to enhance the experience of the artificial
environment.

COMPUTER BASED TRAINING (CBT). This allows students to learn and complete exercises
with instructional software. Interactive CBT software often called course ware, is usually
available on CD ROMS, DVD ROM or shared over a network. CBT that employs the
technologies of the Internet and World Wide Web is called Web Based Training (WBT)

Advantages of Computer Based Training

(a) Students can learn at anytime and anywhere provided a computer system is available.
(b) Students can receive instant feedback for their actions.
(c) Students can learn at their own pace.
74
 (d) There are rich educational resources on CD ROMS and the internet.
(e) Teachers can present subject matter and explain abstract concepts more clearly with
multimedia.
(f) Teachers can show experiments that are difficult to perform or dangerous in nature through
simulations software.
(g) Advanced instructions can be given to students in areas where the teacher may not be
qualified.

Disadvantages of Using IT in Teaching and learning

(a) Face to face interaction between students and teachers may be reduced.
(b) Students can only follow what the CAL packages are predefined to offer.
(c) Initial investment cost of this project is not affordable by many schools.
(d) It benefits schools which have trained perfectly in English since the CD’s come in
American English.
(e) To run this kind of project, there has to be power.

9. COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE

This consists of programs that help to establish a connection to another computer or network and
manage the transmission and information between computers and other devices.

Software related to communications includes;

- E-mail software
- Web browser
- Newsreader
- Instant messenger
- Video conferencing

75
COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

What is Data Communication?

This refers to one computer transferring data, instructions and information to another computer or
some other computers. The basic model for data communication consists of:

(a) A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instruction or information
e.g. computer A which sends signals to another computer B.

(b) A communications device that converts data, instructions or information from the sending
device into signals that can be carried by a communications channel e.g. Modem which
converts digital signals into analog signals.

(c) A communications channel or a path over which signals are sent e.g. a standard telephone
line along which the analog signals are sent.

(d) A communications device that receives the signals from the communications channel and
converts them into a form understood by the receiving device e.g. Modem B, which
converts the analog signals back into digital signals.

(e) A receiving device i.e. computer B that accepts the signals from computer A.

(f) Communications software which consists of programs that manage transmission of data,
instruction and information between computers.

USES OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS

1. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol). Commonly refers to the communications protocols,
technologies, methodologies and transmission techniques involved in the delivery of
multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as Internet.

2. Voice mail. This functions like an answering machine and allows a caller to leave a voice
message, which is stored in the voice mail box.

3. Fax (facsimile machine). It transmits and receives messages over telephone lines.

4. E-mail. (Electronic Mail). This is the transmission of messages via a computer network
such as a local area network or the internet. The message can be a simple text, or can

76
 include an attachment such as a word processing document, graphical image, an audio clip
or a video clip.
5. BBS. A Bulletin Board System is a computer that maintains a centralized collection of
electronic messages.

6. Instant messaging. Real time communication service that notifies a user when one or more
people are online and then allows a user to exchange messages or files with them.

7. Chat rooms. This is a location on an internet server that permits users to chat with each
other by typing lines of texts on the computer. Some chat rooms support voice chats and
video chats. To start a chat session a user must connect to a chat server through a chat
client program on his or her computer. Most web browsers also include a chat client.

8. Newsgroups. Also called a discussion group, is an online area where users conduct written
discussions about a particular subject.

9. Internet telephony. This is a web based telephone service that allows a user to talk to others
for just the cost of the internet connection.

10. Video conferencing. A video conference allows users / participants to collaborate as if they
were in the same room.

11. Groupware. This is a software application that helps groups of people to work together and
share information over a network. Groupware enables members of a work group to
communicate, manage projects, schedule meetings and make discussions.

12. Telecommunicating. This is a work arrangement where employees can work away from the
standard workplace of the company, but communicate with the office using some kinds of
communication technology.

Advantages of telecommunication include;

 Reduces time and expenses of travelling to and from work.
 Eliminates travelling during unsafe weather conditions.
 Allows a flexible work schedule for employees.
 Provides a convenient, comfortable work environment for disabled employees or
those recovering from injury or illness.
 Reduces air pollution caused by vehicles to and from work.
 Employers reduce costs due to less office space and furniture required.

77
 Disadvantages of telecommunication include;
 Reduces human face-to-face interactions among working staff.
 Work has to stop if any component of the communications system fails to work.
 Leisure time at home may be replaced by work.
 Data security maybe jeopardized.

13. Global Positioning System. (GPS). Consists of one or more earth-based receivers that
accept and analyze signals sent by satellites in order to determine the receiver’s
geographical location.

Uses of GPS.
 To locate a person or an object.
 To ascertain the best route between two points.
 To monitor the movements of a person or an object.
 Create a map.
 Many cars and ships use GPS to provide directions and weather information to a
destination.

14. Wiki. This is a website which allows its users to add, modify or delete its content using a
web browser usually with the help of a simplified mark-up language or a rich-text editor.
Wikis are powered by wiki software. They serve different purposes such as knowledge
management and note taking.

DATA SIGNALS.
When data is sent over a physical medium, it needs to be first converted into
electromagnetic signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as a
file on a disk.

Digital signals. These are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses.
Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.

Analog signals. These are in continuous wave form in nature and are represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.

Forms of Data Transmission.

1. Digital Transmission.
This is the sending of information over a physical communication media in the form of
digital signals. Analog signals must therefore be digitized first before being transmitted.
78
 2. Analog Transmission.
This is the transmission method of conveying voice, data, image signal, or video
information using an analog modulation method such as frequency modulation (FM)
which modulates the frequency of the carrier or amplitude modulation (AM) which varies
the amplitude of the carrier signal.
 Analog transmission can be conveyed in many different fashions:
 Twisted-pair or coaxial cable
 Fiber-optic cable
 Via air
 Via water. Etc.

MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

There are three modes of transmission. Namely:

Simplex Transmission. In simplex transmission, data flows in one direction, from the sending
device to the receiving device. It is used only when the sending device does not require a
response from the receiving device. Examples include: Security systems, fire alarms, temperature
sensors, printing systems, pagers.

Half-Duplex Transmission. In half duplex transmission, data can flow in either direction, from
the sending device to the receiving device and back but only in one direction at a time. Examples
include: Fax machines, radio calls, credit card verification systems, Automatic Teller Machines.
(ATM)

Full-Duplex Transmission. In full duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the
same time. A regular telephone line supports full duplex transmission so that both parties can talk
at the same time. It is used for most interactive computer applications and for computer-to-
computer data transmission.

Direction of Data Transmission

How data is to be transferred between two devices is decided by the transmission mode the
devices are using. Binary data i.e. 1s and 0s can be sent using the following direction modes
different modes.

Parallel Transmission. Here the binary digits are arranged into groups of fixed length. Both
sender and receiver are connected in parallel with equal number of data lines. Both devices
distinguish between high order and low order lines. The sender sends all the bits at once on all the
lines. This is because data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or data frame, hence a
complete group of bits (data frame) is sent at ago.
79
Advantage of parallel transmission is speed and disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to
the number of bits needed to send in a parallel form.

Serial Transmission. Here, bits are sent one after the other in a queue manner. Serial
transmission requires only one communication channel as opposed to parallel transmission where
communication lines depends upon bit word length.

NOTE:
 Synchronous Transmission. Synchronous transmission sends data in blocks. Start and
stop bit patterns called sync bytes are transmitted at the beginning and end of the blocks.

 Asynchronous Transmission. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte (or

character) at a time. It is also called start-stop transmission, where a “start” bit represents
the beginning of a character and a “stop” bit represents its end.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT.
When signals travel through a medium, they tend to deteriorate. This may have many reasons:

1. Attenuation. When a signal passes through a medium, it tends to get weaker as it covers
distance. It loses strength, and this is attenuation. For the receiver to interpret, the data signal must
be sufficiently strong.

2. Dispersion. As signals travel through the media, they tend to spread and overlap. The amount
of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.

3. Delay Distortion. Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the
speed (velocity) and frequency does not match, there are possibilities that the signals reached the
destination in arbitrary (random) fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach
earlier than the previously sent bits.

4. Noise. Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signals is said to be noise in

signals, which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be characterized in one
of the following classes:
 Thermal noise: Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce
noise in the media. Up to a certain level thermal noise is unavoidable.
 Intermodulation: When more than one frequency shares a medium, their interface can
cause noise in the media. Intermodulation noise occurs when one of the two different
frequencies sharing a medium has excessive strength, or the component itself is not
functioning properly. This makes the resultant frequency not to be delivered as expected.
80
  Crosstalk: This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the medium. This is
because the signal in one medium is affecting the signal in another medium.
 Impulse: This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances like lightening,
electricity short-circuits or faulty components. Digital data is mostly affected by this sort of
noise.

Terms Used in Data Communication

Bandwidth: This is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium such as network
cables can carry at a given period of time per second OR
This is the measure of how much information / bits can flow from one place to another per
second.

Latency: This is a measure of time delay experienced between communication terminals in a

given time.

Broadband Transmission: This is a signaling technology that sends signals simultaneously over
a range of different frequencies as electromagnetic waves. The bandwidth of a broadband system
can carry multiple simultaneous data signals. The signals travel in one direction at a time so
broadband system can generally either transmit or receive but not both simultaneously. They
transmit signals at a much faster speed. Two widespread applications of broadband transmission
are;
 Digital subscriber lines
 Cable television networks.

Baseband Transmission. This is a signaling technology that transmits only one signal at a time.
(Opposite of broadband transmission)

Packet: This is a maximum-fixed length block of data for transmission. A packet also contains
instruction about its destination.

Packet switching: This is a technique for dividing electronic messages into packets for
transmission over a wide area network to their destination through the most convenient routes.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The term Transmission media refers to the physical or non-physical (wireless) link between two
or more devices / computers in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination.

A transmission medium consists of material or techniques of carrying one or more signals.

81
Physical transmission medium use wire cables and other physical material to send
communication signals.
Wireless transmission medium sends communication through the air or space using radio
waves, microwaves and infrared signals.

The media over which information between two computer systems is sent comes in two forms,
namely;

Guided Media: All communication wires / cables fall under this type of media such as fiber
optics cables, coaxial cables. In this media, the sender and receiver are directly connected and the
information is sent (guided) through it.

Unguided Media: Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is
connectivity between the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air, and anyone
including the actual recipient may collect the information.

Communication Using Cables. (Guided Media)

This is data communication media where data signals are transmitted through physical pathway.
There are several types of network cables, but the most common ones are twisted pair cables,
coaxial cables and fiber-optic cables.

1. Twisted Pair Cable. This consists of one or more twisted wires bundled together. Each
twisted pair wire consists of two separate insulated copper wires of diameter 0.4mm – 0.8mm that
are twisted together (to reduce crosstalk noise and minimize electromagnetic fields around the
wires). It is the cheapest, most common media for both analog and digital signals. Twisted Pair
cable transmits voice and data signals. They are of two types.

Fig: A twisted pair cable

(a) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). This cable has a metal wrapper around each twisted
pair wire to further reduce noise. STP cables are used in environment susceptible to
noise, such as local area network.

(b) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP). This cable doesn’t have this metal wrapper for
shielding noise. UTP cables are commonly used in telephone networks and data
communication between computers because it is inexpensive and easy to install.

82
Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable
1. Data cannot be easily distorted due to reduced noise interface.
2. Twisted pair wire is cheap and readily available.
3. Easy and convenient to install.
4. Used in transmission of data and voice signals.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

1. It suffers high attenuation and is susceptible to noise.
2. Low speed on data transmission between devices compared to other cables.
3. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
4. Limited to short distances.

2. Coaxial Cable. A coaxial cable is a high quality communication line that consists of a single
copper wire conductor surrounded by at least three layers;
- A non-conducting insulating material.
- A woven or braided metal outer conductor.
- Plastic outer coating.

Fig: Coaxial cables

It is insulated more heavily than twisted-pair. It is not susceptible to electrical interferences and
transmits data faster over longer distances. Cable TV wiring often uses coaxial cable because it
can be cabled over long distances than twisted-pair cable. Coaxial cable is used to transmit voice,
video and data signals.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

1. It is very stable even under high loads.
2. It has a large bandwidth (up to 1GB per second).
3. It can be cabled over long distances.
4. It is more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference compared to twisted pair
cable.
5. Can transmit much more data at a time i.e. it can carry voice, data and video signals
simultaneously.

83
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables
1. More expensive than a twisted pair cable.
2. Not easy to install.
3. Need boosters to transmit data.
4. They are bulky, thick and hard to work with.

3. Fiber Optic Cable. This consists of dozens of hundreds of smooth thin strands of glass or
plastic that use light to transmit signals. Each strand called an optical fiber is as thin as human
hair. An insulating glass cladding and a protective coating surround each optic fiber. Each optic
fiber can carry several hundred thousand-voice communications simultaneously. Fiber optic
cables are used by many local and long distance telephone companies, cable TV and in high
traffic networks or as the main cable in the network.

Figure: Fibre optic cable

Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping. (Less susceptible to noise)
2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. It can be used for long distances because it suffers low attenuation.
4. Better security for signals during transmission.
5. Smaller size and much thinner and lighter than wire cables.
6. Can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because it doesn’t generate electrical
signal.
7. Carry significantly more signals than wireless cables.

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable

1. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled. (More fragile than
other wire based communication devices)
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.

Communication Using Wireless (Unguided Media)

This is a type of communication medium that is used to transport data signals from one point to
another without any physical connections. Examples of wireless connections include;
84
  Micro-wave systems.
 Satellite transmissions.
 Antenna.
 Radio communication.
 Infrared transmitter.

Advantages of a Wireless Connection

1. Wireless network is flexible in operation compared to wired networks i.e. devices can be
moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless network can span a large geographical area.
3. Adding new computer devices to a wireless network is easy compared to a wired network
where you may need to first dismantle the system.
4. Wireless communication can take place via satellite. Even in a very remote area connection
is possible.
5. Setting up a wireless network can be much cost effective in the long run compared to
cabling.

Disadvantages of a Wireless Connection

1. Initial cost of setting up a wireless connection is very high.
2. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
3. Wireless networks are susceptible to interference from light and electronic devices because
they use radio signals and similar techniques for transmission.
4. Wireless connections are less secure compared to wired / cabling connections.

1. Communication Satellites. These receive microwave signals from earth based

communications facilities, amplify the signals and retransmit the signals back to the
communications facilities. The earth based stations use large dish shaped antennas to transmit
and receive data from satellites. The transmission to the satellites is called uplink and the
transmission from the satellite is called a down link.

85
Communication satellites are usually placed about 22,300 miles above the earth’s equator and
moves at the same rate as the earth.

Applications of communication satellite

 Television.
 Radio broadcast.
 Video conferencing.
 Paging and global positioning systems.

Advantages of Communications Satellites

1. Lots of data can be sent simultaneously
2. Allow high quality broadband communication across continents.
3. Covers a large geographical area for data transmission.

Disadvantages of communication satellite

1. The fee to launch a satellite is extremely expensive.
2. The infrastructure needed to access satellite communications is also expensive.

2. Microwaves. These are radio waves that provide a high-speed transmission of both voice
communications and data signals. Microwaves transmission involves sending signals from one
earth based microwave station called a terrestrial microwave to another. It is fast (up to 4,500
times faster than a dial-up modem) but it limited to line of sight transmission, which means that
the micro wave must transmit a straight line with no obstructions such as buildings between
microwave antennas. To avoid obstructions, microwaves stations are often located on tops of
buildings, towers or mountains to avoid possible obstructions.

Advantages of microwaves
1. Provides high-speed communication transmission.
2. No need to install cable.
3. Lower installation and maintenance costs.

Disadvantages of microwaves
1. Limited to line-of-sight transmission.
2. May be affected by temporary atmospheric disturbances.

3. Infrared Transmitter. This is a wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared
light waves. Infrared requires a line-of-sight transmission as that required by microwaves.
Computer devices such as a mouse, printer, digital camera which have an IrDA port may transfer
86
data from one device to another using infrared light waves. Infrared is an alternative to short-
range broadcast radio communication such as Bluetooth.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES

These are devices that enable two or more computers to exchange items such as data, instructions
and information with each other. The primary function of a communication device (e.g. a
modem) is to convert or format signals so that they become suitable for the communications
channel or a receiving device.

Common Types of Communications Devices are;

1. Dial-Up Modems. A modem is a communications device that converts between analog and
digital signals. The word modem is derived from a combination of words Modulation and
Demodulation.

 Modulation is to convert digital signals into analog signals

 Demodulation is to convert analog signals into digital signals.

A modem connected to a sending computer converts the computers digital signals into analog
signals (i.e. modulation) which can travel over a communications channel e.g. a telephone line.

Another modem at the receiving end converts the analog signals back into digital signals (i.e.
demodulation) that can be understood by the receiving computer.

A modem can be external or internal.

External Modem is a standalone device that attaches to a serial port on a computer with a cable
to a telephone outlet with a standard telephone cord.

87
Internal Modem is an expansion card that can be inserted into an expansion slot on a computers
motherboard; and the modem then attaches to a telephone outlet with a standard telephone cord.

Most personal computers modems transmit data between 28.8kbps and 56kbps

Most modems today are also fax modems because they send computer prepared documents as
faxes and also receive faxes.

2. ISDN and DSL Modems

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a set of standards for digital transmission of data
over a standard telephone line. With ISDN, the same telephone line that could normally carry
only one signal can now carry three or more signals at once using a technique called
Multiplexing.

ISDN requires that both ends of the connection have an ISDN modem. ISDN lines also require a
special ISDN telephone for voice communications.

Advantages of ISDN lines

1. Provides faster transfer rates than dial-up Modems.
2. Faster web page downloads and clearer video conferencing.
3. Produce very clear voice conversations.

DSL (Digital Subscriber Lines). Provides high speed connections to the internet over a regular
copper telephone line. The user must have a special network card or DSL modem to connect to
digital subscriber line. It is much easier to install and can provide much faster data transfer rates
than ISDN.

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line). Is a type of DSL that supports faster transfer
rates when receiving data (i.e. downstream rate) than when sending data (i.e. upstream). ASDL
is ideal for internet access because most users download more information from the internet than
they upload.

3. Cable Modems.
A cable modem sends and receives data over the cable television (CATV) network. Cable
modems can transmit data at speeds (500kbps to 2mbps) much faster than dial-up modems or
ISDN. It can also be integrated with a set-to-box to provide faster viewing of multi-media
websites.

88
4. Network Interface Cards.
A network interface card (NIC) or LAN adapter is an expansion card that enable a computer or
device to connect to a network. The Ethernet card is the most common type of network card. The
transfer rate on Ethernet network can be 10mbps, 100mbps or 1,000mbps.

Fig: Network Interface Card.

5. MULTIPLEXER. A Multiplexer is a communication device that combines two or more input

signals from various devices into a single stream of data and then transmits over a single
transmission medium.
A multiplexer increases the efficiency of communications and reduces the need for and the cost of
using separate transmission media. Both the sending end and receiving ends need a multiplexer
for data transmission to occur. At the sending end, a multiplexer combines separate data
transmission into a single data stream and then compress the data and sends it over a
communications channel. At the receiving end, the multiplexer separates the single stream of data
into its original parts.

6. A HUB. A hub is also called a concentrator or multi-station access unit. It is a device that
provides a central point for cables in a network. It allows devices to be connected to a server.

7. A REPEATER. This is a device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies
it and retransmits it over a medium. As signals travel over a long distance, it undergoes a
reduction in strength, an occurrence called Attenuation.

89
Repeaters are used in both copper wire cables carrying electrical signals and in fibre optics
carrying light. Repeaters are also used extensively in broadcasting, where they are known as
translators or booster.

8. BRIDGE. A bridge is a device that connects two LANS using the same protocol, such as the
Ethernet. Bridges are uses to connect similar networks over a wide area communication links.

Fig: A Bridge

Advantages of bridges
1. They are self-configuring.
2. Primitive bridges are often inexpensive. (Cheap)
3. LANs interconnected are separate and physical constraints such as number of stations,
repeaters and segment length don’t apply.

Disadvantages of bridges
1. Bridges are more expensive than repeaters.
2. Bridging of different MAC protocols introduces errors.
3. They do not limit the scope of broadcasts.
4. Because bridges do more than repeaters by viewing MAC address, the extra processing
makes them slower than repeaters.

9. GATEWAY. A gateway is a combination of hardware and software that connects networks

that use different protocols.

10. ROUTER. A router is an intelligent communication device that sends routes (packets) /
communication traffic to the appropriate network using the fastest available path.

90
11. SWITCH. This is a device used to store address of every device down each cable connected
to it. By delivering each message only to the connected device it was intended for, a network
switch conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub. It is
more intelligent.

COMPUTER NETWORKS

What is a computer network?

A network can be defined as the inter-connection of computers using transmission media for the
purpose of communicating and resource sharing.

Two or more computers are linked in order to share resources. Some of the shared resources can
include software programs, printers, fax machines, modems, storage devices, communication
links etc.
The computers on a network can be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites
or infra-red light beams.
A network can relatively small or extensively large.

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING COMPUTING DEVICES

1. Resource sharing.
A resource in the network environment means any component that can be attached to the network
for access by users.
Hardware sharing  Sharing of expensive peripheral devices such as printers, scanners, fax
machines among many users of a company.
Program and data sharing  In most organizations, people use the same software and need access
to the same information, which could be expensive to have a copy of software for each employee.
Access of same data on a shared storage device hence updates are easily made and accurately

2. Better communication.
Remote communication refers to transmission of data signals between two communication
devices at different geographical locations. Through remote communication, people can share
ideas and give freedom to network users who can work from home just if they were in their
offices. (Telecommunicating)

91
3. User access control.
Computers can be managed centrally with the same software installed on each one of them. It is
easy and convenient to monitor users. For example websites visited or documents printed, this can
be done using software running on the server.

4. Cost effective.
Networks are cost effective and cheaper in the long run although the initial purchase and lying
down of components maybe expensive.

5. Flexible access.
Computer networks enable people to access their information from connected devices throughout
the organization. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom and, save part of it on a
public access area of the network, then go to the media center after school to finish their work.
Students can also work co-operatively throughout the network.

6. Work-group computing.
Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For
example, educators located at various schools within a country could simultaneously contribute
their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or website.

7. Storage and security of information.

Today data is backed up on a networked storage device shared by users to avoid data loss.
Computer network is reliable because data is transferred with minimum error from source to
destination.

8. Distributed processing facility.

Distributed processing refers to run the same program or databases on different networked
computers. With this mode of data processing, processing load is shared equally hence no time
wastage and incase of failure of one computer, it does not affect operation of other terminals.

DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING COMPUTING DEVICES

1. High initial cost.
A network is expensive to install. Large campus networks can carry large price tags. Cabling,
network cards, routers, firewalls, wireless access points and software can get expensive and the
installation would certainly require the services of technicians.

2. Server fail.
Although a network server is liable to failure than any other computer, when the file server goes
down or fails, the entire network may bring work to a standstill.
92
3. Requires Administrative time.
Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. This is so important
for the smooth running of a network. Users may use up too much storage space and this may
cause problems on the network.

4. Security and compliance.

Network security is crucial. Strong security measures are needed to restrict access to the network.
A great deal of attention must be paid to network services to ensure all network content is
appropriate for the network community it serves.

5. Risks and threats.

There is an increased risk of data corruption. Since many users use the system, there is a greater
chance of data being damaged. Wide Area Networks are vulnerable to hackers and viruses.

6. Maintenance and repair.

Cabling can be expensive to install and replace. The technical skills needed to manage a network
are much higher than working in a standalone computer.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common classification is
according to size.

1. LOCAL AREA NETWORK. (LAN)

A LAN is a group of connected computers and devices within the same geographical area. (Same
office / building or school computer laboratory) that share a common communication link for
purposes of communicating and sharing resources.

A wireless LAN is a local area network that uses no physical wires but wireless media such as
radio waves.
A network operating system is the system software that organizes and coordinates the activities of
a LAN.

LAN Terminology

Node / Work-station: A single device, such as a personal computer, connected to a network at a

single location. Nodes are also called stations or workstations.

93
Personal Computers (PC): Another name for a micro-computer. A P.C is a computer that is self-
contained. It’s usually used by one person at a given time.

Protocol: This is a pre-defined standard or set of rules by which a function or service is

performed.

Server: A personal computer or specialized device that provides and manages access to shared
network resources, such as hard-disks and printers.

Terminal: A device that allows input and output of data to a computer. The term is most
frequently used to describe a device that has a keyboard for data entry and either or monitor for
displaying data.

KINDS OF A LAN
Two kinds of LAN are peer to peer and client/server network.

(a) PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK

 Each computer on a peer-to-peer network can share hardware, data or information located
on any other computer on the network.
 Each computers stores files on its own storage devices.
 Each computer on the network contains both the network operating system and application
software.
 A peer-to-peer network is a simple, inexpensive network that generally connects less than
10 computers together.
 Ideal for home and small business.

Fig: Illustration of a peer-to-peer network

94
Advantages of peer-to-peer network
1. Less expensive to implement.
2. Does not require additional specialized network administration software.
3. Does not require a dedicated network administrator.

Disadvantages of peer-to-peer network

1. It does not scale well to large networks and administration becomes unmanageable.
2. Each user must be trained to perform administrative tasks.
3. Less secure.
4. All machines sharing resources negatively impact the performance.

(b) CLIENT / SERVER NETWORK

 A client/server network has one or more computers acting as a server while the other
computers (i.e. clients) on the network can request services from the server.
 A client/server network typically provides an efficient means to connect 10 or more
computers together.
 Most client/server networks have a network administrator who is in charge of the network.
 A large LAN may have several servers to perform different tasks. For instance;
(a) File server: This is a server that stores the programs and data files shared by users on a
LAN. It acts like a disk drive but in a remote location, whereby network users store files or
retrieve files on the server as if they were using their own hard disk.
(b) Print servers: A print server coordinates the printing on the network. However, in
small networks both file and print management functions are performed by the file server.
(c) Database servers: Is a computer on a LAN that stores data. Unlike file servers, it does
not store program files.
(d) Other servers: All kinds of servers can be installed on the network e.g. the fax server
connected to a facsimile machine. A LAN user can create a document on a fax server
which in turn facilitates transmission of the document via the fax machine.

Advantages of client/server network

1. Provides for better security.
2. Easier to administer when the network is large because administration is centralized.
3. All data can be backed up on one central location.

Disadvantages of client/server network

1. Requires expensive specialized network administrative and operational software.
2. Requires expensive, more powerful hardware from the server machine.
3. Requires a professional administrator.
4. Has a single point of failure, User data is unavailable if the server is down.
95
COMPONENTS OF A LAN
Local area networks are made up of several standard components.

I. Connecting or cabling system. LANs do not use a telephone network, instead they use
some other cabling or connection system either wired or wireless. Wired connection may
be twisted pair wiring, coaxial or fibre optic cable. Wired connection may be infrared or
radio wave transmission. Wireless network are especially useful if computers are portable
and moved often. However, they are subject to interference.

II. Microcomputers with interface cards. Two or more computers are required along with
network interface cards. A network card which is inserted into expansion slot in a micro-
computer enable the computer to send and receive messages on the LAN. Now days,
newer computers come with network cards already embedded in the motherboard.

III. Network Operating Systems. The network operating system software manages the
activity of the network. Depending on the type of a network, the operating system may be
stored on a file server or on each microcomputer on the network. Examples of network
operating systems include: Novell’s Netware, Windows NT, XP, Vista, Windows Server
2003 / 2008, UNIX, Linux etc.

96
 Functions of a Network Operating System. (NOS)
1. It provides access to network resources.
2. It enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other efficiently.
3. It responds to request from application programs running on the network.
4. It supports network services like network card drivers and protocols.
5. It is used to implement security features.
6. It records and fixes errors in the network communication.
7. It monitors the operation of the network.

IV. Other shared devices. Printers fax machine, scanners, storage devices and peripherals
may be added to the network as necessary and shared by all users.

V. Bridges and gateways. A LAN many stand-alone but it may also connect to other
networks either similar or different in technology. Hardware and software devices are used
as interfaces to make these connections.
Note:
A Bridge is an interface that enables similar networks to communicate.
A gateway is an interface that enables dissimilar networks to communicate such as a LAN with a
WAN.

2. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

This is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town, city or suburb. The MAN size
typically covers a radius of between 5  50 km.
It is a larger network compared to a LAN that usually spans several buildings within a city or
town.

3. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

This is a network that covers a large geographical area such as one that connects the district
offices of an enterprise across the country or across several countries in the world. It is not
restricted to geographical location.
The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is Internet

WANS are designed to:

 Operate over a large geographical area
 Allow access over a serial interfaces operating at a slow speed.
 Provide full time and part-time connectivity.
 Connect devices separated over wide, even global areas.

97
Computers are often connected to a WAN via public networks such as the telephone system or by
dedicated lines or satellites. A WAN can be made up of two or more LANs connected together.

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A Communication protocol is a set of rules and procedures for exchanging information among
computers on a network.

Protocols define how the communication channel is established, how information is

transmitted and how errors are detected and corrected.
Different kinds of computers can communicate with each other using the same protocol.

N.B: Without protocols, communication wouldn’t have been possible

PROTOCOLS USED IN COMMUNICATION

(a) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). TCP manages the transmission of data by
breaking it into packets. It then provides routing information for sending the packets along
the fastest available path to the recipient’s computer and then reassembles the data at the
receiving end.
98
(b) Ethernet. Ethernet is a LAN protocol that allows computers to contend for access to the
network. It uses a coaxial cable that carries radio frequency signals between computers at
a rate of 10 megabytes per second.
It is relatively in-expensive and easy to maintain and install. Sometimes it is more efficient
and economical to use a bridge to connect two separate LANs instead of creating one large
LAN that combines the two separate LANs.

(c) Token Ring. Token ring is a computer LAN arbitration scheme in which conflicts inn
transmission of messages are avoided by granting of tokens, which give permission to send
data to other computers.

(d) IP (Internet Protocol). Internet protocol is a method by which data is transmitted from
one computer to another over the internet. It employs the use of a four part numerical
address which every computer has to send information e.g. 326.478.570.888

(e) HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). HTTP is used for information exchange on the
World Wide Web (WWW). It defines how messages are requested, formatted and
transmitted over the Internet and what actions an HTTP server (browser) should take
response on various messages.

(f) FTP (File Transfer Protocol). File transfer protocol is a communication protocol that
sends data and files and folders over the Internet.

(g) TELNET. Telnet provides a fairly general bi-directional 8 bit oriented communication
facility. Its primary goal is to allow a standard method of interfacing terminal devices to
each other.

(h) IPX (Inter-network Packet Exchange). IPX is a networking protocol that interconnects
networks that use Novell’s network clients and servers.

(i) SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange). SPX is the protocol for handling packet sequencing
in Novell Netware network. It prepares the sequence of packets that the message is divided
into and manages the reassembling of received packets.

(j) ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode). ATM is a dedicated connection switching

technology that organizes digital data into 53 bytes cell units and transmits them over a
physical medium using digital signal technology.

99
 (k) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). This a protocol used in sending and receiving of
E-mail messages. It works with POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)  a protocol used
by e-mail clients to retrieve messages from remote servers and IMAP (Internet Message
Access Protocol)

(l) DNS (Domain Name System). This translates network addresses such as IP addresses
into terms that can be understood by humans such as domain names and vice-versa.

(m) DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). It automatically assigns internet

addresses to computers and users.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

A network topology is the configuration or physical arrangement of the devices in a

communications network. It is the way computers and other devices have been arranged.
Network topology maybe physical or logical.

Physical Topology: Refers to placement of the network’s various components, including device
location and cable installation.

Logical Topology: Shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design.
Logical Topology is divided into two categories;

(i) Ethernet Topology: Is wen all computers listen to the network media when one computer is
sending data.

(ii) Token Ring Topology: This uses a token which is used to exchange data from one P.C to
another. Token is viewed as an envelope where data is placed in it and is addressed to a
particular P.C on the network, and then returns in the ring.

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

1. POINT-TO-POINT TOPOLOGY.
This is the simplest topology which consists of a permanent link between two end-points.
Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony.
Here, two computers are connected using a networking cable.

2. RING (CIRCULAR) TOPOLOGY.

This consists of a cable forming a closed ring or loop, with all the computers and devices in a
network.
100
 Data transmitted on a ring network travels from device
to device around the entire ring in one direction only. If
a device on a ring network fails, all devices before the
failed device are unaffected but those after the failed
device cannot function.

Advantages of Ring Topology.

1. Growth of the system has minimal impact on performance.
2. No collision occur (one direction only) so that the speed of data is high.
3. Can span a larger distance than a bus. This is because each node acts as a repeater on the
network.
4. All stations have equal access.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology.

1. If the cable fails, the whole network goes down.
2. More difficult and expensive to install and troubleshoot the ring.
3. Because all stations are wired together, to add a station, you must shut down the network
temporarily.

3. BUS TOPOLOGY.

This is a network that consists of a single

central cable that connects all computers and
devices together. The physical cable that
connects the computers and other devices is
known as the bus or the backbone. Data,
instructions and information in a bus can be
transmitted in both directions.

Advantages of a Bus Topology.

1. Less costly and easy to install.
2. Computers and devices can be attached and detached any point on the bus without
disturbing the rest of the network. I.e. extending the network is very easy.
3. Failure one device usually does not affect the rest of the bus network.
4. Requires less cable length.
5. Well suited for temporary networks. (quick set-up)
101
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology.
1. Limited cable length and number of stations.
2. If the bus fails to work itself, the complete network shuts down.
3. If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing along the cable increases, data
collision occur and the network slows down. I.e. Performance degrades as additional
computers are added.
4. Maintenance costs maybe higher in the long run.
5. Difficult to identify problem (trouble-shoot) when the entire network is down.
6. Terminators are required at both ends of the back bone cable.

4. TREE TOPOLOGY.

Here computers are connected in form of tree on a

network. It looks like a combination of a star and a
bus topology. One advantage of this topology is that
there is point-to-point wiring of individual segments
and it is supported by several hardware and software
vendors. On the other hand, it’s more difficult to
configure.

5. STAR TOPOLOGY.

Star networks are one of the most common computer

networks. In this, all computers and devices connect to a
central computer thus forming a star. The central
computer that provides a connection point for devices in
the network is called the Hub or Switch.

Advantages of a Star Topology.

1. Easy to install and maintain.
2. Computers and devices can be added to or removed from the network with little or no
disruption to the network.
3. It is reliable because each device connects directly to the hub. If one device fails, only that
device is affected.

102
 4. Good performance. Data packets are sent quickly as they do not have to travel through any
unnecessary nodes.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology.

1. If the central device such as a hub fails, the entire network is shuts down.
2. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
3. Expensive to install. I.e. costs of hubs or other strong central computers.

6. MESH TOPOLOGY.

In a mesh topology, all the work-stations in a

network are inter-connected to one another
thereby forming a mesh of cables.

7. HYBRID TOPOLOGY.

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two

or more topologies in such a way that the
resulting network does not exhibit any of the
standard topologies.
Networks can use a combination of these
topologies. Hybrid networks are a combination
of star, ring and bus networks. They include:

 Extended star topology

 Hierarchical Topology
For example a small college campus might use a bus network to connect buildings and star and
ring network with in certain buildings.

N.B
FDDI (Fibre Distributed data Interface) is a newer and higher speed network capable of
transmitting 100megabits per second. A FDDI network uses fibre optic cable with an adaptation
103
or ring topology. The FDDI network is being used for such high speed-tech purpose as electronic
imaging, high-resolution graphics and digital video.

CONSIDERATIONS WHEN CHOOSING A NETWORKTOPOLOGY

1. Cost of installation.
2. Number of computers and other devices.
3. Architecture of the building to be used.
4. Purpose of the network.
5. Distance of connectivity.
6. Ease in accessing the network / speed of the network.
7. Length of the cable needed.
8. Future growth of the organization and the expansion of the network.

COMMUNICATIONS CHANNELS

A Communications channel is the communications path between two devices. It is composed of

one or more transmission media

The width of the communications channel is called The Bandwidth. The higher the bandwidth,
the more data and information the channel can transmit.

For analog signals, bandwidth is expressed in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second. Foe digital signals,
bandwidth is expressed in bits per second (bps)

FACTORS AFFECTING DATA TRANSMISSION RATE OF A NETWORK

(a) Transfer rate. This is the speed of transmitting data and information. Transfer rates are
usually expressed in bits per second (bps), kilobytes per second (kbps) or megabytes per second
(mbps). The transfer rate of a transmission medium depends on the mediums bandwidth and its
speed. The following contributes to the transfer rate of a network.

(b) Network topology. Since data travels in both direction in a bus network, if data collides, then
it as to be sent again, and slow the network down (like for bus topology). On the other hand, start
networks have fewer collisions and usually run faster

(c) Capacity of hardware. Hubs, switches and network interface cards have their own maximum
speeds.

(d) The server. Amount of Ram and the speed of the hard disk of the server computer also matter
a lot.
104
(e) Location of software and files. Storing software on the workstation hard disks reduce
network traffic and speed up performance.

(f) Communication Protocols. The protocol in your communications software will specify how
receiving devices will acknowledge sending devices a matter called handshaking. Protocols will
also specify the type of electrical connections used, the timing of message exchange, error-
detection technique and so on.

(g) Direction of data transmission. (Transmission modes). In simplex, data can travel in only
one direction e.g. traditional TV antenna. There is no return signal.
In half duplex, data travels in both directions but only in one direction at a time. It is seen with
police and marine radios in which both parties must take turns talking. It is also a common
transmission method with computers. In full duplex, data is transmitted back and forth at the same
time. An example is two people on a telephone talking and listening simultaneously. Full duplex
is used frequently between computers in communication system.

Transfer rates of various connection lines to the Internet

Types of lines Transfer rates

Dial up Up to 56kbps
ISDN Up to 128kbps
ADSL 128kbps to 9mbps
Cable TV
T1 1.544mbps
T3 44mbps
ATM 155mbps to 622mbps

(a) A Dial-up Line. This is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone lines
for communication. Using a dial-up line to transmit data is similar to using the telephone to make
a call.

Advantages of dial-up lines

1. It cost no more than making a regular telephone call.
2. Computers at any two locations can establish a connection using modems and the
telephone network.

Disadvantages
1. The user cannot control the quality of the connection because switching the telephone
company’s switching office randomly selects the line for connection.
105
(b) ISDN (Integrated services Digital Network) is a set of standards for digital transmission of
data over standard copper telephone lines. It requires both ends of the connection to have an
ISDN Modem.

(c) DSL (Digital subscriber lines) provides high speed connections to the internet over a regular
copper telephone line

(d) ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber line) is a type of DSL that supports faster transfer
rates when receiving data (i.e. downstream rate) than when sending data (i.e. upstream rate)

(e) Cable TV network also provides high speed internet connections fro users equipped with
cable modem.
(f) A T-carrier line is a digital line that carries multiple signals over a single communication line
using the multiplexing technique. T1 line can carry 24 separate signals at a transfer rate of
64kbps each for a transmission rate of 24mbps. A t3 can carry 672 individual signals at a
transmission rate of 43mbps. The internet backbone also use T-3 lines

Advantages
1. T-carrier lines provide very fast transfer rates.

Disadvantages
1. T-carrier lines are so expensive that only medium to large companies can afford the
investment.

(g) ATM (Asynchronous Transfer mode). This is a dedicated connection switching technology
that organizes digital data into 53 bytes cell units and transmits them over a physical medium
using digital signal technology.

TRANSFER RATE
This is the speed of transmitting data and information usually expressed in bits per second (bps)
and kilobytes per second (kbps) or megabits per second (mbps)

Transfer rates of various communications media.

Type of transmission media Transfer rate

Twisted 10 Base-T (Ethernet) 10mbps
Pair 100 Base-T (Fast Ethernet) 100mbps
cable 1000 Base-T (Gigabit Ethernet) 1000mbps
Token ring 4-16mbps
106
 Coaxial 10 Base 2 (Thin wire Ethernet) 10mbps
Cable 10 Base 5 (Thick wire Ethernet) 10mbps
Fibre optic 10 Base F (Ethernet) 10mbps
cable 10 Base Fx (Fast Ethernet) 100mbps
FDDI(Fibre Distributed Data Interface) 100mbps
Broadcast radio Up to 2mbps
Micro wave 45 mbps
Communication satellites 50mbps
Cellular radio 9,600bps to 14.4kbps
Infrared 1-4mbps

The width of the communications channel is called Bandwidth. The higher the bandwidth,
the more data and information the channel can transmit.

THE INTERNET

The Internet is a world-wide collection of networks linked together. The internet is a largest wide
area network in the world.
The internet has its roots in networking project called the ARPANET that became functional in
1969 started by the Pentagon’s Advanced Research Agency (ARPA)

The goal of the project was to build a network that;

 Allowed scientists at different locations to share information and work together on military
and scientific projects and
 Could function even if part of the network were disabled or destroyed by a disaster such as
a nuclear attack.

The ARPANET became functional in September 1969, linking Scientific and academic researcher
in the United States.

In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) connected its huge network of five
supercomputer centers called NSFnet to the ARPANET and this configuration of complex
networks and hosts became known as the Internet.

The NSFnet served as the major backbone on the internet until 1995 and then returned its status to
a research network.

107
Today a variety of corporations provide networks to handle the internet traffic. These networks
along with telephone companies, cable and satellite companies and the governments, all
contribute towards the internal structure of internet.

The internet remains a public cooperative and independent network. However, the World Wide
Web Consortium (W3C) is a group that overseas research and sets standards and guidelines for
many areas on the internet.

People have different reasons for connecting to the internet and most of them connect to the
internet through an Internet Service Provider.

FUNCTIONS / USES / ADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET

1. Communication and Collaboration. The exchange of electronic messages with business

associates and friends (sending and receiving electronic mail messages), transmit
documents and data and participate in electronic conference e.g. via yahoo messenger.

2. Research / Access information. With the internet, you can browse a lot of information
through website search e.g. www.google.ug. A variety of information regarding academics,
sports and entertainments is available on the internet. It functions as a valuable resource of
information.

3. Entertainment. Internet functions as a popular medium of entertainment. A variety of

interactive video games, short video clips, sound and music clips are all available on the
internet.

4. Business. Internet provides various business facilities such as E-banking, E-commerce

where by many companies today use internet to sell and buy goods and services on.

5. E-Learning. Internet provides a distance education and home schooling through a process
known as virtual reality. Learning through interaction with special programs on the
computer is called electronic learning. You can also conduct voice transmission and join
discussions with people and friends all over the world.

6. Mass Media. With internet, you can expect to get latest news were by most of the major
root sites are updated throughout the day. Some of the news sites include BBC, CNN,
Aljazeera, Sports Zone, Bukedde, New Vision etc.

108
 7. Downloading. It is possible for a user to download software, pictures, movies or any other
sort of data that is of use from internet to personal disks from other computers elsewhere in
the world.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET

1. Theft of Personal Details. While using the Internet, there is high probability that your
personal data like name, address and credit card number may be accessed by conmen /
artists and used for fraudulent purposes.

2. Moral Decay. With internet, many people are exposed to pornographic material that is
harmful to children. There are numerous pornographic sites available which have bad
influence on the mental health of the children.

3. Spamming. Spamming denotes distribution of unsolicited e-mails in large numbers. They

are meaningless and they unnecessarily block the whole system.

4. Virus Attack. Computer viruses can be obtained from given downloads from the internet.
These are harmful to the computer system as may cause the system to crash.

5. Hacking / Unauthorized Access. Information on the internet can be hacked into and
tampered with by hackers, which is a short-coming of using internet.

6. Internet Addiction. Some psychologists believe that internet addiction is a true

psychological disorder with definable symptoms. The symptoms are comparable to any
addiction, loss of relationships or jobs and significant time consumption.

7. Cyber Bullying. While using Internet, there are instances where users are bullied by other
people which is inappropriate and disadvantageous to internet usage.

CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

There are three requirements
 An access device e.g. a personal computer with a modem.
 A physical connection e.g. a telephone line.
 An internet service provider (ISP). The ISP offers options in three categories;
Use of a telephone line, Use of a server and Use of a protocol.

109
AN INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that supplies connections to the internet usually
for a monthly fee. Users may connect to their ISP through a LAN or through dial-up-access. A
dial-up access is a slow speed technology.

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING AN INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER

1. Services offered. When choosing an ISP, one should ensure that the ISP supports the
services you want to access on the internet. Some ISPs do not supports all services
available on the internet.

2. Costs for internet access. It is important to ask the ISP for the detailed fee structure.
(Setup costs and other requirements). Some ISPs charge depending on the services
accessed, amount of time spend on the internet, standard fee per a given period say a month
etc. Most ISPs offer a flat rate fee for a certain number of hours.

3. Type of communication offered. This refers to the modes by which your computer
connects to the ISP for the internet access. Some ISPs offer some of the methods and not
others. Find out whether the mode of connection you are interested in is supported by the
ISP.

4. Technical support. It is good to know how much (if any) support you can expect from the
ISP. Find out whether it is free or charged, whether it is available on phone and for how
long. Some local ISPs send a service technician to your house when you have a problem
installing software, dialing into their systems etc.

5. Security. Security is very important to protect your activities on your system. If you do
not want someone to access your e-mail box, ask for the ISP how they manage security and
whether they support any kind of encryption, firewalls, virus guards etc.

6. Software. If you are using an online service provider, you may need special software to
access their systems. Although this software is free, you need to learn them. Some
systems don’t work well with common application packages. Check with the ISP and find
out whether your applications work.

7. Speed of ISP. There is need to inquire about the speed of the ISP modem and also check
whether it matches with the speed of the computer(s), otherwise data transfer maybe be
slow.
110
 8. Time in service. It is important to know the time the ISP has been in the business so that
you get to know the reliability of the given ISP.

EXAMPLES OF ISPs
Africel Airtel
Uganda Telecom. (UTL) Vodafone
Mobile Telephone Network. (MTN) Smart Network Etc.
The internet uses an IP address system to send data to a computer at a specific destination.

An IP (Internet Protocol) Address is a number that uniquely identifies each computer or device
connected to the internet. Each IP address consists of four groups of umbers, each separated by a
period (e.g. 216.200.47.93)

The number in each group is between 255. In general, the first portion of each IP address
identifies the network and the last portion identifies the specific computer.

A DOMAIN NAME
This is the text version of an IP address, which makes all the numeric IP address easier to
remember and use. A domain name e.g. www.facebook.com is a text version of an IP address
(e.g. 216.200.47.93)

INTRANET
Intranet is a small version of the internet used within an organization. It is a private computer
network that uses the protocols of the Internet. Intranet uses TCP/IP protocols, supports
multimedia web pages and is accessible via a web browser. Intranet generally makes company
information accessible to employees and facilitates working in groups.

An intranet that extends to authorize users outside the company is called an EXTRANET.

To prevent unauthorized access to data and information, an intranet or extranet is often protected
by a Firewall.

A Firewall is a general term that refers to both hardware and software used to restrict access to
data and information on a network.

A HOME NETWORK
A home network connects all computers and devices together at home or in a home office.
Common types of networks are;
 Ethernet network
111
  Home PLC
 Phone line network
 Home RF network

(a) Ethernet. This is a LAN protocol that allows personal computers to contend for access to the
network.

(b) A home PLC (Power Line Cable). This is the network that uses the same lines that bring
electricity and power into the house. The advantage is that, it requires no additional wiring
because data simply transmits through existing power lines in the house.

(c) A Phone Line Network. This a network that uses existing telephone lines in a house. The
phone line network does not interfere with voice and data transmissions on the telephone lines
(i.e. the sender can talk on the telephone and use the same line to connect to the internet.)

(d) A home RF (Radio Frequency) network. This uses radio waves, rather than cables to
transmit data.

Advantages of a Home Network

1. All computers in the house can be connected to the internet at the same time.
2. Each computer can access files and programs on the computers in the house.
3. All computers can share peripherals such as scanner or a printer.

SERVICES OFFERED BY THE INTERNET

 The World Wide Web.

 E-mail Communication.
 Remote Access / Telnet.
 E-commerce.
 E-banking.
 Voice Telephony.
 File Sharing.
 Streaming Media.
 Electronic Discussion Forum.
 Internet Relay Chat. (IRC) Etc.

112
1. THE WORLD WIDE WEB.

The World Wide Web (WWW) also called the web consists of a worldwide collection of
electronic documents. Each of these documents on the web is called a Web Page. The WWW
emerged in the early 1990’s but has grown rapidly to become the most widely used service on the
Internet.

A web page can contain text, graphics, animations, audio (i.e. multi-media elements), as well as
built-in connections called hyper links to other documents.
Some definitions to note as regards WWW include;

(a) A Hyper-Link.
This is also called a link. It is a built-in connection to another related web page or part of a web
page. A link can be a word, a phrase or an image. The shape of the pointer usually changes to a
small hand with a pointing index finger when it is pointed on a link.

(b) A Home Page.

Is a starting page or a table of contents for a website and normally has a name called index.html or
index html.

(c) A Website.
This is a collection of related web pages. E.g. www.facebook.com

(d) A Web Browser.

This is a software program used to access and view web pages. Examples of web browsers
include;
 Internet Explore.
 Netscape navigator.
 Mozilla Firefox.
 Google Chrome.
 Opera. Etc.
Today’s browsers also support push technology in which web based content is downloaded
automatically to the computer at regular intervals or whenever the site is updated.

Each web page has a unique address called Uniform Resource Locator (URL) which tells the
browser where to locate the document.

113
(e) A Web Server.
This is a computer that delivers web pages requested by users. Multiple websites can be stored on
the same web server.

(f) A Web Master.

This is the individual for developing web pages and maintaining a website.

(g) Surfing the Web.

This is the activity of jumping from one web page to another.

(h) Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

This is the unique address of a web page which tells the browser where to locate the document.
The URL tells the browser where to locate the web page.
A URL consists of a protocol, a domain name and sometimes the path to a specific web page or
location on the web page. For example;

URL: http://www.facebook.com/internet/data
Protocol: http
Domain name: www.facebook.com
Path: internet/data

N.B: http stands for hyper-text transfer Protocol, which is a standard that enables pages to
transfer on the web.
The URLs of several Internet search engines are listed below.

Search engine URL

Excite www.excite.com
Google www.google.com
Hotbot www.hotbot.com
Lycos www.lycos.com
Yahoo www.yahoo.com
Webcrawler www.webcrawler.com

(i) Web Publishing.

This is the development and maintenance of web pages. The four steps to web publishing are;
 Planning a website.
 Analyzing and designing a website.
 Creating a website.
 Deploying a website.
114
(j) A Search Engine.
A Search engine is a software program that can be used to find websites, web pages and files on
the internet. To find a website, a user just enters a word or a phrase called the keywords or search
text. Examples of search engines include Google, Yahoo, Hotmail etc.

(k) Multi-Media.
This refers to using computers to integrate text, graphics, animation, audio and video into one
application. A web page contains text graphic, animations, audio and video (i.e. multimedia
elements) as well as built in connections called hyperlinks to other documents.

(l) A Graphic.
This is a digital representation of information such as drawing, a chart or photograph. Graphics
were the first media to enhance the originally text based internet. Common graphical formats on
the web are JPEG and GIF.

N.B
1. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) which uses compression techniques to reduce file size.

2. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) which is a graphical image using compression
techniques to reduce the file size. It often used for scanned photographs, artwork and other
images that include smooth transition of colours.

(m) Animation.
This is the appearance of motion that is created by displaying a series of still images in rapid
sequence.

(n) Streaming.
This is the process of transferring data in a continuous and even flow, which allows users to
access and use a file before it has been transmitted completely. An electronic music instrument
such as a keyboard, synthesizer or drum machine is connected to a computer. The frequency or a
pitch and other musical data received is converted to digital data that can be read and stored by the
computer. The computer can in turn send signals back to the electronic music instrument.

Some websites use streaming audio on the web which allows a user to listen to the sound as it
downloads to the computer. Two accepted standards for streaming audio on the web are;
Windows media player and Real audio

N.B: MPEG is a popular video compression standard defined by the (Moving Picture Experts
Group) (MPEG)
115
2. ELECTRONIC MAIL COMMUNICATION. (E-mail)
This is the sending and receiving of messages electronically over the internet. It is similar to
sending a letter by post because each person has a unique address.
E-mail or electronic mail is the transmission of messages via a computer network such as a local
area network or the Internet. E-mail software creates, sends, receives, forwards, stores, prints and
deletes e-mails.

An E-mail Address. This is a combination of a user name and a domain name that identifies one
specific user who sends or receives e-mail.
A user name or User ID. Is a unique combination of characters that identifies one specific user
e.g. for the e-mail address [email protected] katumbarich is a user name, and
yahoo.com is the domain name.

Most e-mail programs allow users to create an address book which contains a list of names and e-
mail addresses. Most ISP’s provide their users with mail box which stores their e-mails on a
special server called a mail server.

When an e-mail arrives at the recipient’s mail server, the e-mail transfer to a POP or POP3 server
until the recipient retrieves it with his or her e-mail software.
A domain name: (e.g. www.nkpublishinghouse.com) is the text version of an IP address e.g.
(216.200.47.93). The components of a domain name are also separated by periods.

Every domain name contains a top level domain (TLD) abbreviation that identifies the type of
organization that is associated with the domain.

TLD Abbreviations Type of Domain

.com Commercial organizations, business and
companies
.co Company
.org Non-profit organization
.net Network providers / Host networks
.edu Educational institutions
.gov Government agencies
.mil Military organizations

The Internet Corporation for assigned names and Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for
assigning and controlling TLDs
For international websites outside the United States, the domain name also includes the country
code.
116
 Country code Country name
Hk Hong Kong
Cn China
Tw Taiwan
Uk United Kingdom
Au Australia
Jp Japan
Ug Uganda
Ke Kenya

The Domain name system (DNS) is the system on the internet that stores the domain names and
their corresponding IP addresses.

The DNS server translates the domain name into its associated IP address, so that data can route
to the correct computer.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC MAIL OVER ORDINARY MAIL

1. Speed of delivery. E-mail is much faster than mail delivered by traditional postal system.
The message can be sent in any part of the world in a matter of minutes.

2. Cheap / less costly. Apart from the fixed monthly subscription fee to Internet Service
Provider (ISP) for internet services, E-mail services are completely free.

3. Ability to send to multiple recipients. The message can be sent simultaneously to a group
of people without extra charge unlike in the traditional postal mail where a sender is
charged per letter.

4. Feedback. Data transmitted is confined to its destination hence user is convinced of his /
her messages unlike ordinary mail where sender is uncertain.

5. Available at any time. One can access the E-mail anywhere at any time of the day, unlike
traditional mail with specific operation time.

6. Attachments. It supports multi-media attachments such as big documents, video, music,

graphics etc. large files such as spreadsheets and graphics can be sent as attachments.

117
 7. Automated mails. It is possible to send automated E-mails with certain text. In such a way
it is possible to tell the sender that you are unavailable at a given time. These are called
auto responders.

DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC MAIL

1. Expensive. In case of initial cost of setting up the network and internet. It is more
expensive than traditional mail which requires buying a stamp for postage.

2. Needs a medium to be delivered. E-mail can only be accessed through a computer device
that is connected to a network or internet.

3. It does not support sending of parcels. Physical items cannot be sent with E-mail while
with postal, one can.

4. Spamming. With E-mail communication, one is bound to receive unsolicited for messages
which may disrupt the user’s data and information.

5. Computer viruses. Dangerous and malicious attacks can be sent through E-mail. These
may cause system breakdown.

6. Hacking / Cracking. With E-mail communication, there is possibility of computer hackers

getting into unauthorized information of a given person or organization.

TERMS IN RELATION TO E-MAIL

 To: It is a field (textbox) in the e-mail header where the sender types in the correct e-mail
address of the recipient. E.g. [email protected]

 From: It is a field with the e-mail address of the sender. At all times the sender does not
need to write his address, instead the receiver automatically sees it in his inbox showing the
source of the e-mail.

 Subject: This gives the major topic being talked about in the message. It gives a summary.
E.g. Wedding Meeting.

 Message Body: This is where the body of the message is written. E.g. I hope to meet you
at equatorial tomorrow at 4:00pm. Please, don’t betray me. I will be with my sister to
receive you. Thank you.

118
  Date: The date when the message was delivered will appear in the recipient’s and sender’s
file copy. E.g. December 28 2016, 4:35:17 pm.

 CC: This is short form of Carbon Copy. Enables copies of the e-mail message to be sent to
the third party while acknowledging other recipients.

 BCC: This is short form of Blind Carbon Copy. Enables copies of the e-mail message to
be sent to the third party without acknowledging any other recipients (if present)

 Attachments: This is where additional files, photos, videos and sounds are sent together
with the e-mail. They are sent in form of attachments.

 Signature: This is where personalized information goes. It normally goes to the end of
every created e-mail. E.g.
Kalule Markson
0777012360
“I will always work harder”

PARTS OF AN E-MAIL ADDRESS

An e-mail address has three parts. For example [email protected]
Username / user ID: The first part of an e-mail address is the username. In the above case, the
username is leonardclarke. You set the username with your internet provider or e-mail service. It
might be a form of your name or nickname, and it must be unique with no other person owning
the username.

The second part of the e-mail address is the @ symbol which separates the username from the
Domain name.

Yahoo. This is the domain name. (The name of the computer that handles your mail). The
computer is also called a server. Your ISP or e-mail service has a particular name for their server
– like aol.com for America Online or yahoo.com for those who go through the yahoo service.
Hotmail.com is an example of a free web-based e-mail service.

com. This is the domain type that identifies the type of institution offering a particular service,
meaning commercial institution.

119
3. REMOTE ACCESS / TELNET (Terminal Emulation)
The internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily,
wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security,
authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.

4. ELECTRONIC COMMERCE. (ONLINE SHOPPING)

Electronic commerce (E-commerce) is a financial business transaction that occurs over an
electronic network such as the internet. Online shopping and banking are two popular types of E-
commerce that uses either electronic money (e-money) or electronic data interchange (EDI)

Electronic Money. This is a means of paying for goods and services over the internet.

EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) is a set of standards that control the transfer of business data
and information among computers both within and among companies.

E-commerce business can be grouped into three basic models:

(a) Business-to-Consumer (B2C)  E-commerce consists of the sale of goods to the general
public.
(b) Consumer to Consumer (C2C)  E-commerce occurs when one consumer sells directly to
another, such as in an online auction.
(c) Business to Business (B2B)  E-commerce consists of businesses providing goods and
services to another r business.

ADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE
1. Transactions can occur instantly and globally, thus save time for participants on both ends.
2. Transactions can occur 24 hours per day.
3. Businesses have access to millions of people over internet connects.
4. Businesses have the ability to gather customer information, analyze it and react if
appropriate.
5. Information can be exchanged and be available quickly.
6. Distribution costs for information is reduced or eliminated.
7. Manufacturers can buy and sell directly avoiding the cost of middleman.
8. Feedback can be immediate.
9. Customers can compare prices easily.

5. ELECTRONIC BANKING. (ONLINE BANKING)

It is now possible to bank your money in the bank by the use of computers without you going
physically to the bank and this has helped avoid congestion.
120
Online banking is a banking service via the internet whereby customers of the bank can access
their accounts using the web instead of visiting the bank’s branches.

ADVANTAGES OF ONLINE BANKING

1. Customers can access their accounts at any time.
2. Customers can meet their bills automatically such as water bills, electricity bills by direct
debit in advance.
3. Low charges encountered by customers since the cost of banking services are much less.
4. There is immediate reply of messages or complaints sent by the customer without visiting
any branch.
5. It completely reduces congestion at the bank branches.

NOTE: On the other hand, the disadvantage is that thieves may obtain your banking details by
phishing, which is sending a customer an e-mail asking for his / her bank details as if it has been
sent by the bank.

6. VOICE TELEPHONY.
VoIP stand for Voice over Internet Protocol. This has become easy to use and it is much cheaper
or even free than normal calls especially for long distances.

7. FILE SHARING.
A file can be E-mailed by the internet using an attachment in the e-mail. A computer can also be
put on to a shared location on a shared network. This means people who are in the company or
organization have access to it. This can save giving out lots of paper photocopied to lots of
colleges in a work place.

8. STREAMING MEDIA.
Radio and television broadcasters provide internet “feeds” of their live audio and video streams.

9. ELECTRONIC DISCUSSION FORUM.

This is a place that people who have the same interests can share ideas and talk among each other,
similar to a chat room.

10. INTERNET RELAY CHAT. (IRC)

This is a protocol for real-time Internet text message (chat) or synchronous conferencing. It is
normally designed for group communication.

121
SOCIAL IMPACTS OF COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COMPUTER CRIMES

Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology to gain
an illegal or unauthorized access to a computer system with intention of damaging, deleting or
altering computer data.
OR
A Computer crime refers to any crime that involves the use of a computer and a network.

Computer crimes include the following;

1. Hacking.
A hacker is a person who intentionally breaks codes and passwords to gain unauthorized entry to
a computer system and information.
The most vulnerable computers to this crime are the networked computers, where hackers can
work remotely.
2. Cracking.
Cracking refers to the use of guesswork over and over again by a person until he/she finally
discovers a weakness in the security policies or codes of the software. It is aimed at damaging the
system.

3. Trespass.
Trespass is of two types, namely;
(i) Illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware, software and backed up
data is kept.
(ii) Accessing information illegally on a local or remote computer over a network.

4. Tapping.
This involves the sending of an intelligent program on a host computer that send him information
from the computer. Another way to spy on a network using special programs that are able to
intercept messages being sent and received by the unsuspecting computer.

5. Piracy.
Piracy means making of illegal copies of the copyrighted software, information or data. Software,
information of data are protected by the copyright law.
There are several ways of reducing piracy which include the following;
(i) Use license and certificates to identify originals.
(ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
122
(iii) Set installation passwords or keys that detect illegal installation of the software.
(iv) Enact laws that protect the owners of data and information against piracy.

6. Fraud.
Computer fraud is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the
intention of gaining money or information.
Fraudsters can either be employees of the company or outsiders who are smart enough to defraud
unsuspecting people. Some fraud may involve production and use of fake documents.

7. Sabotage.
This is the illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of crippling service delivery or
causing great loss to an organization.
Sabotage is usually carried out by disgruntled employees or those sent by competitors to cause
harm to the organization.

8. Alteration.
This is the illegal changing of data and information without permission with the aim of gaining or
misinforming the authorized users.
Alteration is usually done by people who wish to hide truth. To avoid this, do not give data
editing capabilities to just anybody without vetting.
Alteration of data compromises the qualities of good data like reliability, relevance and integrity.

9. Phishing.
This is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames, passwords and credit
card details by disguising as a trustworthy source.
Phishing is carried out through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through
fake websites.

10. Cyber stalking / Cyber bullying.

The use of communication technology mainly the internet, to torture other individuals is known as
cyber stalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to data and equipment fall
under the class of cyber stalking activities.

DETECTION AND PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES

Below are some of the measures that can be taken to detect, prevent computer crimes and seal
security loopholes.

123
1. Data Encryption.
Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a cipher text, which cannot be easily
understood by unauthorized people.
The message to be encrypted is called plain text document, after encryption it is sent as cipher
text on the network up to its destination and then decrypted.
Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back into its original form, so it can be
understood.
The message is encrypted using a particular order called algorithm or key and it is sent to the
receiver as cipher text. The receiver receives it and decrypts it using a reverse algorithm to the one
used during encryption called a decryption key to get the original plain text document, thus
without the decryption key nobody can be able to reconstruct the initial message.

2. Firewalls.
A firewall is a set of related programs, located at a network gateway server that protects the
resources of a private network from users of other networks.
OR A firewall is a device or software system that filters the data and information exchanged
between different networks by enforcing the host network access control policy.
The main aim of a firewall is to monitor and control access to and from protected networks.
People who do not have permission cannot access the network.

3. Log files.
A log file is a recording of everything that goes in and out of a particular server / computer. This
is because each user is assigned with a username and password or account.
The information system administrator can therefore easily track people who accessed the system,
when and what they did on the system.

4. Audit trial.
A record showing who has accessed a computer system and what operations he or she has
performed during a given period of time.
Audit trials are useful both for maintaining security and for recovering lost transactions.

COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer Security refers to precautions taken to keep computers and the information they contain
safe from unauthorized access.

FORMS OF COMPUTER SECURITY

 Data security. Safe guarding data and information during transmission and on storage
medium.
 Physical security. Protections of computers and other IT equipment.
124
SECURITY PROPERTIES
1. Confidentiality. Information about system or its users cannot be learned by an attacker.
2. Integrity. The system continues to operate properly, only reaching states that would occur
if there were no attacker.
3. Availability. Actions by an attacker do not prevent users from having access to use of the
system.

Definitions of Key Terms

1. Risk - Event or action that causes loss of or damage to computer system.
2. Vulnerability. This is a point where a system is susceptible to attack.
3. Attack - A vulnerability that has been compromised and exploited to cause harm to a
computer system
4. Threat - a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security and thus
cause possible harm

Threats to Computer Security

We have two categories of these threats;
• Hardware threats.
• Software threats.

Examples of Software Threats

Malware: Describes any program that is intended to cause harm or convey information to others
without the owner’s permission. These include;
1. Viruses. A computer virus is malicious program that can replicate itself and spread from
one computer to another. Or Harmful programs that instruct your computer to perform
destructive activities, such as erasing a disk drive.
2. Trojan horse. Programs that appear to serve some useful purpose or provide
entertainment, which encourages you to run them.
3. Worm. A self-replicating program that is self-contained and does not require a host
program. The program creates a copy of itself and causes it to execute; no user intervention
is required (Worms can spread by copying themselves from disk to disk or by email).

Hardware Threats
Examples of hardware threats include;
 Accidental damage
 Electrical Sparks
 Floods
 Fire
 Windstorm
125
  Earthquake

Examples of Attacks
1. Denial of Service attack (DOS). A denial-of-service (DoS) or distributed denial-of-
service (DDoS) attack is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to
its intended users. Here, a hacker compromises a system and uses that system to attack the
target computer flooding it with more requests for services than the target can handle. This
is done using the DoS software.

2. Back door attacks. This is a method of bypassing normal authentication, securing illegal
remote access to a computer, obtaining access to plaintext, and so on, while attempting to
remain undetected.
3. Spoofing – This is a technique used to gain unauthorized access whereby the intruder
sends messages to a computer with an IP address indicating that the message is coming
from a trusted host.

4. Man-in-the-Middle – This is where by an attacker sniffs packets from the network,

modifies them, and inserts them back into the network.

126
WAYS TO PROTECT YOUR PERSONAL COMPUTER

1. Use of antivirus program. This is a software that identifies and removes computer viruses.
E.g. AVG anti-virus, avast, F secure, Mcafee virus scan, norton, avira. Most also protect
against worms and trojan horses.

2. Use of passwords alongside Usernames. A User Name is a unique combination of

characters that identifies user. A Passwords is a private combination of characters
associated with the user name that allows access to computer resources.

3. Use of Biometric devices. These ones authenticate person’s identity using personal
characteristics like: Fingerprint, hand geometry, voice, and iris.

127
 4. Using a Firewall. A firewall is a software program or piece of hardware that blocks hackers
from entering and using your computer. OR Security system consisting of hardware and/or
software that prevents unauthorized intrusion.

5. Encryption. Process of converting plaintext (readable data) into cipher text (unreadable
characters). This Safeguards against information theft. Encryption makes the file in
transmission unreadable if a user has no key for decrypting them.

6. Data Backup. Refers to the copying and archiving of computer data. Data can be backed up
on the internet. This is referred to as online backup.

7. Disable file and printer sharing on Internet connection.

PHYSICAL MEASURES / CONTROLS / TECHNIQUES OF SECURING COMPUTERS

1. Surveillance cameras. (CCTV)
2. Multiple locks.
3. Security guards.
4. Fencing- walls or Burglar proofing.
5. Smoke detectors/ Alarms.
6. Uninterruptible Power Supply. (UPS)
7. Fire Extinguishers.
8. Air Conditioning.

COMPUTER SECURITY RISKS

A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to computer
hardware, software, data or information. Some breeches to computer security are accidental, but
some are planned. Some of the more common computer security risks include;

1. Computer virus
2. Unauthorized access to computer systems.
3. Hardware theft and software theft.
4. Information theft and information piracy.
5. System failure / Power failure.

1. COMPUTER VIRUSES
A computer virus is a program that copies itself onto other programs and spreads through multiple
computers. Viruses are often designed to affect or infect a computer negatively by altering the
way it normally works without the knowledge or permission of the owner.
128
TYPES OF VIRUSES

(a) Boot sector virus. This executes when a computer starts up because it resides in the boot
sector of a floppy disc or the master boot record of a hard disk.

(b) File virus. This attaches itself to program files, and is loaded into memory when the
program is run. They infect executable files with the following extensions: *.COM, *.EXE,
*.DRV, *.SYS, *.BIN, *OVL. They activate each time the infected file is executed by
copying themselves into other executable files.

(c) Macro virus. This uses the macro language of an application (e.g. word processor or
spread sheet) to hide the virus code.

(d) A logic bomb. This is a virus that activates when it detects a certain condition. This may
be activated by a date, a change to a file, or a particular action taken by a user or a
program.

(e) A time bomb. This is a kind of logic bomb that activates on a particular date. This hides
on the victim’s disk and waits until a specific date before running.

(f) A worm. This copies itself repeatedly in memory or on a disk drive until no disk space
remains, which makes the computer stops working. Worms normally move around and
infect other machines through computer networks. An entire LAN can become totally
clogged with copies of a worm, rendering it useless. Worms are normally spread over the
internet via e-mail message attachments and through internet relay chat channels.

(g) A Trojan horse. This is a program that hides within or looks like a legitimate program
but executes when a certain condition or action is triggered.

(h) A polymorphic virus. This modifies its program each time it attaches itself to another
program or file, so that even an antivirus utility has difficult in detecting it. It can change
itself each time it is copied, making it difficult to isolate.

(i) Cluster virus. This type of virus makes changes to a disk file system. If any program is
run from the infected disk, the program causes the virus to run as well. The technique
causes the illusion that the virus has infected ever program on the disk.

(j) PDA virus. This type of virus has the ability to communicate with other devices and run
programs, to cause digital mayhem. Their effects vary from harmless flashing of an
129
 unwanted message or an increase in power consumption, to the deletion of all installed
programs.

(k) Companion virus. A companion virus is the exception to the rule that a virus must attach
itself to a file. The companion virus instead creates a new file and relies on a behaviour of
DOS to execute it instead of the program file that is normally executed.

RISKS POSSED BY VIRUSES

The range of threats posed by viruses can be broadly classified into:

(a) DESTRUCTIVE VIRUSES

Massive destruction Attacks the formats of disks whereby any program or damage
will be unrecoverable.
Partial destruction Erase and modification of a specific portion of a disk affecting
any files stored in that location
Selective destruction Erase and modification of specific files or file groups.
Random destruction Randomly changing data on data or in memory during normal
program execution or changing key stroke values or data from
input/output.
Network saturation Systematically using up memory or space to impede
performance or cause the system to crash

(b) NON DESTRUCTIVE VIRUSES.

These viruses do not cause any destruction but are annoying. They usually display messages,
change display colours, change key stroke values (e.g. changing the effect of shift keys and
delete characters displayed.

VIRUS SYMPTOMS
The presence of a virus can be indicated if one or more of the following symptoms appear on your
computer. Any evidence of these or similar events should be an immediate cause for concern to
isolate the PC at once and investigate.
 Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical messages appearing on screens.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk access seeming excessive for simple tasks.
 Less memory available than unusual.
 Access lights turning on for non-referred devices.
 Computer hard drive space is reduced.
 Application programs will not load.
130
  The number of hard drive bad sectors steadily increases.
 A message appears that hard drive cannot be detected or recognized.
 Strange sounds come from the computer.
 Failure of the computer to boot up.
 Some viruses take control of the keyboard and occasionally substitute a neighboring key
for the one actually pressed. Another virus “swallows” key presses so that nothing appears
on the screen.

The spread of computer viruses is accelerated by the increased use of networks, internet and e-
mail. Viruses are activated in three basic ways:
 Opening an infected file.
 Running an infected file.
 Starting a computer with an infected floppy disk.

SOURCES OF VIRUSES
Research has shown that viruses can be introduced into computer systems from a variety of
sources. Some of the most common sources are;

(a) Contact with contaminated systems. Any diskettes used on a contaminated system could
become contaminated as well. If the same diskettes are used on another system, then the
virus will spread.

(b) Pirated software. The use of pirated software introduces the risk that the software may be
contaminated by virus code or mended to perform some other destructive function which
may affect your system.

(c) Fake games. Many people like playing games on computers and for the same reason,
games programs spread very fast. These games keep infecting the systems as they installed.
It can take less than 2 hours for a game to spread to Australia, South America and Europe.

(d) Freeware and shareware. Both freeware and shareware programs are commonly
available from Bulletin Board systems (BBS). Such programs should be treated with care.

(e) Updates of software distributed via networks. Software distributed via networks is fairly
obvious targets for virus programmers as they provide a built in method for widespread and
anonymous.

131
PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT VIRUS INFECTION

1. Install an antivirus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for detecting and
removing viruses.
2. Never start up a computer with a floppy disk in the drive.
3. Ensure that the e-mail is from a trusted source before opening or executing any e-mail
attachment.
4. Scan all floppy disks and file for possible virus infections before opening them.
5. Back up data on a regular basis to avoid massive data loss.
6. Write-protect the recovery disk.

AN ANTI-VIRUS UTILITY
This a program that prevents, detects and removes viruses from a computer’s memory or storage
devices. Some examples of anti-virus programs include; Norton Antivirus, MacAfee anti-virus,
Dr. Solomon, Avira, Avast, AVG, SMADAV etc.
An antivirus utility scans for programs that attempt to modify the boot program, the operating
system and other programs that are normally read from but not modified. It normally look for
virus signatures to identify a virus.

A Virus signature or virus definition is a known specific pattern of virus code.

N.B: A BACKUP. This is a duplicate of a file, program or disk that can be used if the original is
lost, damaged or destroyed. Backed files should be kept in a fire proof and heat proof safe or
offsite.

Although an Anti-virus is necessary and important, it can have the following limitations:
 Some anti-virus packages can slow down the speed of your P.C or network.
 Anti-virus software can require a great deal of hard disk and memory.
 Anti-virus checks must be run regularly. Again, ideally you should run your anti-virus
software daily as internet access and email can potentially cause problems.
 Anti-virus software needs to be updated regularly. This is because new viruses and
malware are developed and anti-virus vendors will also develop counter measures to deal
with them.

2. UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or a network without permission. This is where a
computer or its data is used for unapproved or possibly illegal activities.
A Cracker or a Hacker is someone who tries to access a computer or a network illegally.

132
Examples of unauthorized use of computers
 An employee using a company computer to send personal e-mail.
 Someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing an unauthorized transfer.

WAYS TO PREVENT UNAUTHORISED ACCESS

One way to prevent access and unauthorized use of computers is to utilize access controls.
Access control is a measure that defines;
 Who can access a computer?
 When the user can access the computer?
 And what actions the user can take while accessing the computer?

It is usually implemented using a two phase process.

(a) Identification verifies whether the user is a valid one.
(b) Authentication verifies that the user is really the one he or she claims to be.

Four methods of identification and authentication exists, which include;

 User-names and passwords.
 Possessed objects.
 Biometric devices.
 Callback system.

PASSWORD. A password is a combination of characters associated with a user name that

allows a user to access a computer or a network. Passwords should be easy to remember, but not
too obvious so that others can guess it easily. Longer passwords provide greater security than
shorter one.

Do use;
 At least 8 characters if supported by the system.
 A combination of mixed case letters and digits.
 A password that can be typed easily without looking at the keyboard.

Do not Use;
 Your name, birth day, ID card number or telephone number
 A password of all digits or all the same letter.

133
 Tips for safeguarding your password
 Do not share your password with others.
 Do not write your password down.
 Change your password frequently.

POSSESSED OBJECTS. A possessed object is any item that a user must carry to gain access to
a computer or computer facility. Examples of possessed objects include; badges, cards, keys etc.
Possessed objects are often used in combination with personal identification numbers.
A personal Identification number (PIN) is a numeric passwords, either assigned by a company
or selected by a user. PINs provide an additional level of security.

BIOMETRIC DEVICES. A biometric device authenticates a person’s identity by verifying

personal characteristics e.g. finger prints. It translates a personal characteristic into a digital code
that is compared with a digital code stored in the computer. Examples of biometric devices
include;

 A finger print scanner, which captures curves and indentations of a finger print.
 A hand geometry system, which can measure the shape and size of a person’s hand.
 A face recognition system, which captures a live face image and compares it with a stored
image.
 A voice recognition system, which compares a person’s live speech with the stored voice
pattern.
 A signature verification system, which recognizes the shape of a handwritten signature of
a person.
 An iris recognition system, which reads patterns in the tiny blood vessels in back of the
eye, which are as unique as a finger print.

Advantages of Biometric devices

1. Personal characteristics are unique and cannot be forgotten or misplaced.

Disadvantages of Biometric devices

1. Most of the biometric devices are expensive.
2. A finger print scanner might reject a legitimate user if the user cuts his or her finger.
3. Hand geometry readers can transmit germs.
4. A signature might not match the one on a file when the person is nervous.
5. A voice recognition system might reject a legitimate user with a sore throat.

134
CALL BACK SYSTEM. A call back system connects the user to a computer only after the
computer calls the user back at a previously established telephone number. To initiate a callback
system;
 The user calls the computer and then enters the correct user name and password.
 The computer instructs the user to hang up and then calls the user back.

3. HARDWARE THEFT
This is the act of stealing computer equipment. The act of defacing or destroying computer
equipment is known as Hardware Vandalism.
Precautions to prevent hardware theft.
1. Use physical access controls, such a locked doors and windows.
2. Use cables to lock the equipment to desk cabinet or floor.
3. Install alarm systems for additional security.
4. Never leave a handbook computer or handheld computer unattended in a public place.
5. Use passwords, possessed objects and biometric devices as a method of security.
6. Back up all the files stored on the computer regularly.

4. SOFTWARE THEFT
Two common forms of software theft are;
(a) Physically stealing media (e.g. floppy disk or CD ROM) that contains software; and
(b) Software piracy, which contains the most common form of software theft.

Information theft: This refers to someone stealing person or confidential information from
others.

Reasons for Information theft

 A company may want to learn about a competitor.
 An individual steals credit card number to make fraudulent purchases.

Prevention
 Implement access control to computers and networks
 Use encryption techniques.

N.B. Information Privacy refers to the right of individuals or organizations to deny or restrict
the collection and use of information about them.

5. SYSTEM FAILURE / POWER FAILURE

A System failure is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can also cause hardware,
software, data and information loss.
135
Common causes of system failure
1. Aging hardware
2. Natural disaster e.g. fires, floods, storms or earthquakes
3. Electrical power variations. Electrical power variations can cause loss of data or
equipment. A single power disturbance can damage multiple systems in a computer
network.

Electrical Power disturbances include:

1. Noise is any unwanted signal, usually varying quickly, which is mixed with the normal
voltage entering the computer.
2. An under voltage occurs when the electrical supply drops i.e. below 220 volts in Uganda
3. An over voltage or power surge occurs when incoming electrical power increases
significantly above the normal 220 volts.

A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipment against under voltage and over
voltage. Many users also connect an Uninterruptible power supply to the computer for
additional electrical protection.

COMPUTER AND HEALTH RISKS

Prolonged computer usage can lead to healthy risks such as;

(a) Repetitive stress injury. This is a kind of musculoskeletal disorder of the muscles,
nerves, tendons, ligaments and joints. Repeated and forceful bending of the wrist can
cause carpal tunnel syndrome or tendonitis of the wrist.
Tendonitis is the inflammation of a tendon due to some repeated motion or stress on
that tendon.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is inflammation of the nerve that connects the forearm
to the palm of the wrist.
(b) Eye strain
(c) Lower back pain
(d) Muscle fatigue
(e) Emotional fatigue

Factors causing these disorders

1. Prolonged typing.
2. Prolonged mouse usage.
3. Continual shifting between the mouse and the keyboard.

136
Precautions to prevent these types of injuries include;
1. Take frequent breaks during the computer session to exercise the hands and arms.
2. Place the wrist rest between the keyboard and the edge of the desk.
3. Place the mouse at least six inches from the edge of the desk.

Precautions to prevent such risks

1. Pay attention to the sitting posture.
2. Take a break to stand up, walk around or stretch every 30 minutes to 60 minutes.
3. Place a display device about an arm’s length away from the eyes with the top of the screen
at eye level or below.
4. Adjust the lighting in the room.
5. Ensure that the work space is designed ergonomically.

ERGONOMICS.
This means incorporating comfort, efficiency and safety into the design of items in the work
place. Some keyboards have built-in-writ rests

Most display devices have a tilt and swivel base and controls to adjust the brightness, contrast,
positioning, height and width of images.

Most CRT monitors today also adhere to MPR II standard which defines acceptable levels of
electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic (EMR) is a magnetic field that travels at the speed of light. It is the greatest on
the sides and back of the monitor. EMR only travels a short distance (i.e. a user should sit at an
arm’s length from the monitor. However, no solid evidence to prove that EMR poses a health
risk.

137
COMPUTER ETHICS

Computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information
systems. Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are;
 Unauthorized use and access of computer systems.
 Software piracy
 Information privacy
 Intellectual property rights
 Codes of conduct

(a) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems. Unauthorized access is the use of a
computer or a network without permission.
(b) Software piracy. Software piracy refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of
copyrighted software. Software piracy is the most common form of software theft.
Purchasing a software only provides a consumer with a license agreement or the right to
use the software.

A single-user license agreement or end-user license agreement is the most common type of
license included with software packages purchased by individual users. It usually permits a
consumer to install the software only on one computer and make one copy for back-up. However,
the consumer is usually not permitted to;
 Install the software on a network.
 Give away copies of the software to others, rent or lease the software.

A software site license gives the buyer the right to install the software on multiple computers at a
single site. (E.g. a school computer laboratory)

A network site license allows network users to share a single copy of the software which resides
on the network server.

Risks of software piracy

1. Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.
2. No technical support for the software can be received.
3. Drive up the software cost for all legal users.

(c) Information privacy. Information piracy refers to the right of individuals or organizations
to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them.

138
 (d) Information accuracy. This becomes an important issue when it is necessary to access
information by other people or companies such as that one on the internet. Inaccurate
input can result in erroneous information and incorrect decisions made based on that
information. Never assume that information provided on the web is always correct.

(e) Intellectual property rights. Intellectual property (IP) refers to work created by
inventors, authors and artists.
Intellectual property rights are the rights to which creators are entitled for their work.
A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish and sell
their materials.
A trade mark protects a company’s logos and brand names

(f) Codes of Conduct. A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether
a specific action is ethical or unethical.
Sample IT Codes of Conduct
 Computers may not be used to harm other people.
 Users may not interfere with others’ computer work.
 Users may not meddle in others computer files.
 Computers may not be used to steal.
 Computers may not be used to bear false witness.
 Users may not copy or use software illegally.
 Users may not use others’ computers resources without authorization.
 Users may not use others output.
 Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration and respect
for other people.

THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET

Some technological advancements and trends are recognizable and can be predicted. It is easy to
predict that the computers and related equipment will get faster in memory, smaller and cheaper.
Computer technology will find new application and manufacturers will strive to make computing
easier and cheaper. As costs decline and performance and ease of use rises, LAN’s play a bigger
role in corporate information systems.

Possible future trends in computer capabilities, physical size, price and software.

(a) Future computer capabilities. On the capabilities fronts, computers are going to
evolve. They;
139
 o Are going to have more powerful, smaller processor and faster access to memory.
o Will have operating systems that will handle real time data analysis and object
oriented.
o Will have improved user interfaces that offer users easier and more intuitive access
to information.
o Will have multi-media applications that will be fully incorporated into some
information systems because data is easy to interpret when presented as a
combination of sight, sound and motion.

(b) Physical size. Most hardware components will get smaller and faster. This means
computers will become smaller and do more.

(c) Price. As technology advances, the price of computers will go down. Every sphere of
ife will be permeated by computers, which will be common even among people of
average earning.

(d) Software. Software development will also develop to allow users easily operate
computer systems. To facilitate document, the best programming and operating systems
are moving towards object-oriented system. OS will play an integral part in giving the
user more control over how data are linked and shared. New operating systems will
focus on object linking, message passing and data sharing.

(e) Artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence is the process of building computer

systems that simulate human thought processes and actions. The goal of artificial
intelligence is not to replace human intelligence which is not replaceable; rather it is to
help people to become more productive. In the past, computers used calculating power
to solve structured problems. This field of artificial intelligence is moving in the
mainstream of data processing.

Artificial intelligence attempts to develop computer systems that can mimic or simulate
human thought processes and actions. This include reasoning and learning from past
actions. True artificial intelligence that corresponds to human intelligence is still a long
way off. However, several tools that emulate human problem solving and information
processing have been developed. Many of these tools have practical applications for
business. They include expert systems, natural language processing, artificial neural
network and robots.

140
Expert systems. Expert systems are computer programs that essentially emulate the
knowledge of human experts skilled in a particular field for example of a geologist or a
medical doctor. They have both textbook knowledge and tricks of trade that an expert
acquires after years of experience as a result of the programs that can be really
complicated.

Areas of application
 Finance/Business planning
 Teaching field. They complement teachers’ knowledge e.g. typing tutor,
project planning and monitoring.
 Special areas. Act as substitute for retiring human experts.

Natural language processing. Natural language processing is the capacity of

computers to “understand” human language and translate it into actions upon which
to act. For instance, you could create a list of students from a data base by typing
print a list of students with outstanding balance of greater than 100,000. It is
expected in future, language processing software will understand language from a
speaker and translate it into any other language upon which to act.

Artificial Neural Networks. Present computers and super markets are relatively
slow because of the build in structural limitations. The processor and the main
memory are physically separated. Although joined by communication links, the
processor spends most of its tie waiting for data to come from or go to memory.
The arrangement is known as the Von Neuman Architecture after its originator John
Von Neuman. With the scheme known as Neutral networks however, a computer
will have a scheme resembling those in human brain and nervous system. It is
believed that data will be transmitted to and from the processor at many times the
speed of the old arrangements. This type of network is expected to help in image
recognition, handwriting and speech recognition.

Robots. Robots is the field of study concerned with developing and building
robots. Robots are machines that are used in factories and can be programmed to do
more than one task. Robots are used in the manufacturing industry mainly to reduce
costs and increase productivity. They are excellent in executing repetitive tasks that
human beings find boring. Robots do not get tired. They are also ideal to replace
human beings on hazardous jobs. They are different types of robots which include;

(i) Industrial Robots. These are used in factories to perform certain assembly
tasks. Examples are machines used in automobile plants to do welding,
141
 painting, loading and unloading. In the garment industry, robot pattern cuts
and create pieces of fabric for clothing.
(ii) Perception Robots. Some Robots imitate human senses e.g. a robot with
television camera or vision system can be used for guiding machine tools for
inspecting products and for identifying and sorting parts. Other types of
perception robots rely on the sense of touch for example those used on
micro-computer assembly lines to put parts in place.

(iii) Mobile Robots. Some robots act as transporters e.g. mail mobiles which
carry mail to offices following a pre-programmed route.

POSSIBLE FUTURE TRENDS OF THE INTERNET

 The internet will continue to expand and change in several ways; faster
connections, more users, new multimedia, virtual reality services and cloud
computing facility (saving data files and documents on the internet)
 More interactive services such as multimedia newspapers, livestock market
tickers, automatic notification of when pre-destined events take place anywhere
on the internet.
 Internet as universal as a radio and television today.
 Learning will become any time anywhere.
 Impact of information technology to the society, morally unemployment vision,
laxity and entertainment.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION AND COMMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
Information and communications technology (ICT) has created new job titles such as;
 Computer operators.
 Computer technicians.
 System analysts
 Computer programmers
142
  Software engineers
 Information system manager
 Database administrator
 Computer trainer
 Website administrator
 Computer graphics designer
 Network administrators
This section explains some responsibilities of these professionals who are generally called
information technology workers.
a) Computer Technician. Given that all computers regular maintenance, upgrading as well
emergency repairs, demand for computer technicians continue to grow as more and more
computerize their work place and homes.

Responsibilities of a computer technician

1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2. Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage media
e.t.c working properly.
3. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
4. In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and creating
some computer components such as motherboards, storage devices etc.
b) System Analyst. The is a person who is responsible for analyzing a company’s needs or
problems then designs and develops a computer based information system. A good
information systems analyst is one who has the following attributes.
o Good problem solving skills, creativity i.e. must have experience in solving
problems.
o Good communication skills; the analyst must be able to communicate clearly and
precisely both in writing and in speech.
o He/she must be able to talk to different groups of people e.g managers, operators,
attendant and general public.
o Must have business knowledge; the analyst must be well trained in relevant areas of
computer science such as hardware, software and programming knowledge.

Responsibilities
1. Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making
recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
2. Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
3. Coordinating training for users of the new system.

143
c) Computer Programmer. Large organizations like insurance companies, banks,
manufacturing firms and government agencies hire programmers to work together with
system analyst in order to;
1. Write in-house applications programs or system programs
2. Customize commercial application package to suite the organization needs.
3. Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed or customized for the organization.

d) Software Engineer. A software engineer is one who is skilled in software development

and technical operation of computer hardware.

Responsibilities
1. Developing system and application software.
2. Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
3. Maintaining and updating the software to meet day to day requirements while overcoming
challenges.

e) Computer Engineer. Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with more
efficient and communication technology almost daily. Since computers are electronic
devices, hardware designers must be good in electronic engineering in order to be able to;

1. Design and develop computer components such as storage devices, motherboards and other
electronic components.
2. Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
3. Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices such as
robots.

f) Information System Manager. The information system manger controls, plans, staffs,
schedules and monitors all activities of the ICT department in the organization. Using
computerized management information systems (MIS), the manager can test the impact
that an alternative course of action might have on the business.

Other responsibilities
1. Making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time in order to
support business planning, control and decision making processes.
2. Preparing budgets for the department.
3. Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date.
4. Managing the human resource within the department.

144
g) Computer Trainer. Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology,
there is a high demand for qualified ICT trainers. Some of the responsibilities of an ICT
trainer are;

1. Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs.

2. Developing training reference materials.
3. Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
4. Advising learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field f ICT.
5. Preparing learners for ICT examinations.

h) Database Administrator. The major purpose of computerizing organizations or

institutions is to store data in an organized way for easy access, retrieval and update. The
organization requires a person who should be responsible for updating records in an
information system database. For this reason, a database administrator is responsible for;

1. Designing and developing database application for the organization.

2. Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
3. Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting unnecessary
records.

i) Website Administrator/ Web Master. Internet is one of the areas of information and
communication technology that has drawn the interests of most people. These people are
able to exchange messages, search for information and business through the internet.

Business organizations, educational institutions and individuals put information on the

internet by developing websites. Most organizations hire the services of a web developer
who is given the role of a company’s web administrator also referred to as a web master.

Responsibilities
1. Developing and testing websites.
2. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the websites to meet new demands by
the users.
3. Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing security measures
4. Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from internet websites.

145
COMPUTER BASED TRAINING

This allows students to learn and complete exercises with instructional software. CBT is also
known as computer aided instruction (CAI). Related concepts include computer aided learning
and computer aided assessment.

Interactive CBT training software, often called courseware is usually available on CD ROM,
DVD-ROM or shared over a network.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER BASED TRAINING

1. Students can learn at anytime and anywhere provided a computer system is available.
2. Students can receive instant feedback for their actions.
3. Students can learn at their own pace.
4. Materials provided by WBT can always be up-to-date.

ADVANTAGES OF DISTANCE LEARNING

1. Save time and money for traveling to school.
2. Students can learn and complete their coursework at home and at any time that fits their
schedules.

146
A bit. This is a binary of either 0 or 1 and it represents the smallest unit of data the computer can
handle.

A byte is eight bits grouped together as a unit and it provided enough different combinations of 0s
and 1s to represent 28 = 256 individual characters that include numbers, letters and symbols.

A server. Is a computer that controls access to the hardware and software on a network and
provides a centralized storage area for programs, data and information.

A workstation. This is a computer connected to a server.

Access time: This is the amount of time it takes the processor to read data, instructions and
information.

An operating system. This a set of computer instructions, called a computer program, that
controls the allocation of computer hardware such as memory, disk drives, printers, CD drives and
provides the capability for you to communicate with the computer.

Analog signals. Consists of a continuous electrical wave that varies within a predefined range e.g
human speech.

Bridge: is device that connects two LANS using the same protocol such as the Ethernet.

Bus: This is an electric channel that allows various devices inside and attached to the system unit
to communicate with each other.

Communications protocol. This a set of rules and procedures for exchanging information
among computers on a network.

Coprocessor: This is a special processor chip or circuit board that assists the processor in
performing specific tasks.

Cursor: Is a rectangular blinking bar on the screen showing the position where text should go or
be placed.

Data bus. A data bus carries accrual data that is being processed.

147
Debuggers: These are programming tools which help programmers to detect, locate and remove
routine, syntax or logical errors from a program being written.

Decoding. This is the process of translating the instruction into commands the computer can
execute.

Demodulation. This is the process of converting analog signals into digital signals.

Desktop. This is the main graphical user interface (screen) that contains icons or folders. It is a
work you see your programs.

Digital signal. This consists of individual electrical pulses that represent the bits grouped together
into bytes e.g. signals generated by a personal computer.

Dump terminal. This is a device with a keyboard and monitor but has no processing power.

E-mail. This is the transfer of electronic messages from one geographical location to another
using computers and related computerized devices.

Encryption: This is a process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent
unreadable access.

Ethernet. This is a LAN protocol that allows personal computers to contend for access to the
network.

Fetching: This is the process of obtaining an instruction or data item from memory.

File Allocation table (FAT) is a table of information that the operating system uses to allocate
files on a disk.

File. Is a collection of data or information that when saved has a name called the file name.

Firewall. Is a general term that refers to both hardware used to restrict access to data and
information on a network.

Firm ware: Refers to ROM chips that contain permanently written data, instructions or
information recorded by the manufacturer.

148
Gateway: is a combination of hardware and software that connects networks that use different
protocols.

Hot plugging or hot swapping: This allows a user toad or remove devices while a computer is
running.

Hub: is a device that provides a central point for cables in a network

Icon. This is a small picture that represents a program or object.

Icon: An icon is a little picture on your screen. Typical icons on the desktop include; my
computer, recycle bin, my documents etc.

Information technology. This includes all types of computing and networking techniques to
process data into information.

Integrated CPU: This combines functions of a processor, memory and a video card on a single
chip.

Internet. This is a global network connecting millions of computers. The Internet is the world’s
largest information highway connected by wires, cables and signals through wireless technology.

Internet. This is a worldwide collection of networks linked together.

Interrupt request (IRQ) is a communication line between a device and the processor. Most
computers have 16 IRQs numbered 0 through 15.

Intranet. This is a smaller version of the internet used with in an organization.

IRC stands for Internet Relay Chatting

Lower case. This is composed of small letters.

Mechanical computers. These are computers composed of movable parts and axles.

MMX technology: MMX (Multimedia extensions) technology is a set of instructions built into
the processor that allows it to manipulate and process multimedia data more efficiently.

Modulation. This is the process of converting digital signals into analog signals.
149
MP3 is a popular technology that compresses audio to about one tenths of its original size.
Multi-tasking: This allows a single user to work on two or more applications that reside in
memory at the same time.

Multimedia. Is a carefully integrated use of text, graphics, audio, animation and video to convey
messages.

Multiplexer: is a device that combines two or more input signals from various devices into a
single stream of data and then transmits it over a single transmission medium.

Multiprocessing involves the coordinated processing of programs by more than one processor.

Network topologies refer to the configuration or physical arrangement or the devices in a

communication network.

Pipelining: With pipelining, the CPU begins executing a second instruction before it completes
the first instruction, which results in faster processing.

Programming languages: These are sets of instructions which tell the software engineer what
operations to do during the software development process e.g. Basic, COBOL, C, C++, etc.

Protocol is a set of rules and procedures for exchange of information among computers.

Query is a request for specific data from the data base.

Real time processing: is one that processes data without significant delay e.g. anti-missile
defense systems, air plane landing control system, flight simulation systems, and electronic funds
transfer systems etc.

Registers: These are high-speed storage locations that temporarily hold data and instructions.

Repeater: is a device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies it, and
transmits it over the medium.

Router: is an intelligent communication device that sends (routes) communication traffic to the
appropriate network using the fastest available path.

150
Save as: This is a command used to effect the process of saving documents from the temporal
storage to a permanent storage or from one drive to another when changing a name of a document.

Search Engine. This is a software program that can be used to locate websites, web pages or files
on the internet. E.g. Google, excite etc.

Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which employees work away from a company’s

standard work place, and often communicate with the office using some type of communication
technology.

Upper case. This is composed of capital letters.

User ID is a unique combination of characters that identifies a user.

Window. This is a user interface you use to manipulate a computer program. The window has
title bar so that you can minimize, maximize and close the window.

Important websites

1. http://www.teacherclick.com

2. http://www.homeandlearn.co.uk

3. http://www.free-training-tutorial.com

4. http://www.internet4classrooms.com

5. http://www.wiseowl.co.uk

151
REVISION QUESTIONS

1. (a) What is output?

(b) Discus the different output devices known to you.

2. (a) Mr. Mugisha wants to set up a computer laboratory at school and has
purchased some computers already. He now wants to purchase software to
install in his computers. How do you advise him?
(b) Discus the bus network topology plus the advantages and
disadvantages accompanying it.

3. Protocols are very important factors without which communication may

not be possible. Discus the different protocols involved in
communication.

4. You are given an assignment to create, design and present a polio

awareness presentation. How do carry the above?

5. “Computers have changed today’s ways of life” Discus.

6. Computers are required both as a tool and as an occupation”. Discus.

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of internet in business

today?

8. Explain briefly five advantages and five disadvantages of using

computers.

9. (a) What is a computer virus?

(b) Explain how viruses are spread.

10. “A world without computers is no world at all” Discus.

11. What are the merits and demerits of learning using internet over using
a textbook learning?

12. Moses a village boy exclaimed “Spreadsheet programs are useless”. As

a student of computer studies, convince him otherwise.
152
13. “Computers have destroyed our culture” What are your arguments for against this statement?

14. Outline what you expect the role of computers in future.

15. Information technology has done more good than harm to education.
Give your arguments in favour and against this statement.

16. Explain why a school should have a website.

17. (a) Explain the different forms of secondary storage.

(b) Describe the characteristics of each of the above forms of storage.
18. Give your arguments in favour and against the impact of computers in our
society today.

19. The Headteacher of your school wishes to buy computers for the school. As a
student of computer studies, what type of computers would you advise the
headteacher to buy and for what benefits are they to your school.

20. Suggest reasons why there is an increase in the use of computers in most
organizations in Uganda today.

21. “Total data security is not possible today” Outline areas where this has been
achieved and challenged.

22. A computer system comprises of hardware, software, user, data and

communication. Describe the importance of each component.

23. “The internet is a harmful tool to man”. What is your opinion?

24. Suggest ways in which computers can be used in business and industry in
Uganda.

………….xxxxx…………

153