Surface Water and Groundwater Sources

for Drinking Water

Konstantina Katsanou and Hrissi K. Karapanagioti

Abstract Raw water is groundwater, surface water, or rainwater that has not received
any treatment in order to be suitable for drinking. Its quality must be good enough to
produce when treated a safe and acceptable drinking water, and it must come from a
source that can consistently provide sufficient required quantity.
Polluted or contaminated water sources can contain chemical or microbiological
hazards which can lead to sickness and require treatment before consumption. In
many cases it is better to protect the quality of the raw water providing sustainable
management than to treat it after it has become deteriorated.

Keywords Aquifer, Artificial recharge, Municipal water supply, Protection,

Quality deterioration, Water treatment

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Water Cycle and Climate Change
3 Drinking Water Sources
3.1 Surface Water
3.2 Groundwater
4 Deterioration Issues
4.1 Surface Water
4.2 Groundwater
5 Treatment
5.1 Surface Water
5.2 Groundwater

K. Katsanou
Laboratory of Hydrogeology, Department of Geology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
e-mail: [email protected]
H.K. Karapanagioti (*)
Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
e-mail: [email protected]

A. Gil et al. (eds.), Applications of Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) in Drinking Water
Treatment, Hdb Env Chem, DOI 10.1007/698_2017_140,
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

6 Water Resource Management and Protection

6.1 European Regulations-Legislation and Protection Measures
6.2 Artificial Recharge
7 Discussion and Conclusions
References

1 Introduction

The saline water of the oceans comprises approximately 97% of the global water
supply. The remaining 3% is freshwater, out of which nearly 69% is captured in
glaciers, 30% is hosted in karst and porous aquifers, and the rest is in surface water
reservoirs such as lakes, rivers, streams, and marshes.
Freshwater is the basic substance of life on earth and is increasingly in short
supply. According to [1], 75% of the European and 33% of the global population
use groundwater as their primary source of drinking water. Yet, in many countries,
both the quantity and quality of this resource have been compromised by human
activities. Nowadays, water scarcity affects 88 developing countries that are home
to half of the world’s population [2].
Surface water is any source of water that is open to the atmosphere and is subject
to run off from the land. Hence, it is very likely to contain microorganisms that can
cause sickness and in some cases more serious, even fatal, illnesses. In some areas,
a substantial portion of the surface drinking water is derived from bank filtration
that carries a diverse chemicals’ and pathogens’ load [3] and requires purification.
On the other hand, groundwater is covered by soils and sediments and is
considered to be less vulnerable than surface water. Its abstraction though requires
drilling and pumping equipment that is not always available or sustainable espe-
cially in developing countries.
As the population increases, the groundwater abstraction is expected to rise in
the coming century, while available sites for surface reservoirs become limited.
The most important step in providing an area with safe drinking water is the
selection of the best available source water. The more protected source waters are
the easier and the cheaper to be transformed into safe drinking water [4].
The availability of freshwater varies both spatially and temporarily. The renew-
able fraction of the earth freshwater is usually found in the form of surface water and
displays an uneven distribution. Groundwater is more evenly distributed, though
much of it is nonrenewable, fossil water.
The water use in a particular region is determined not only by the natural
groundwater availability but also by the population and the land use of an area, as
well as economical factors.
In the developed countries, the municipality is obliged by law to supply the
consumers with high-quality water, while in the developing countries, this is not
always valid. Hence, the economy of a community defines attitudes and funding
toward water development and treatment.
The local climate also plays a significant role due to influences on evaporation
rates and practices such as lawn watering and cooling requirements. Additionally,
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

cultural values, actions, policies, and laws of national governments also have an
impact on water use. Finally, the issue of ownership of the resource which is linked
to government influences can be an important factor.
Municipal water supply systems include facilities for storage, transmission,
treatment, and distribution. The design of these facilities depends on the quality
of the water, the particular needs of the user or consumer, and the quantities of
water that must be processed. In certain cases, seawater can also be used as a
drinking water source through the process of desalination.
The objective of this chapter is to present the drinking water sources, their
characteristics, conventional treatment schemes, and protection with respect to
sustainable use.

2 Water Cycle and Climate Change

The only naturally renewable source of freshwater globally is precipitation (about

110,000 km3/year). Out of the precipitation occurring over land, a large fraction
(70,000 km3/year) moves back to the atmosphere through evaporation and tran-
spiration from plants [5]. Infiltration rates vary depending on land use, the char-
acter, and the moisture content of the soil, as well as the intensity and duration of
precipitation.
In case that the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate of infiltration, overland
flow occurs. About 26% of this part of the cycle (18,000 km3/year) can be used by
humans.
Worldwide, the total annual runoff, including soil infiltration and groundwater
replenishment, is estimated to be 41,000 km3/year. Geographical remoteness and
seasonal issues such as floods limit the total annual accessible runoff to 12,500 km3/
year [6].
Therefore, it is estimated that about 54% of the accessible runoff and 23% of the
total renewable resource (precipitation over land) are currently appropriate for
human use in some form.
Although globally groundwater is not very significant in volume, it is a critical
source of water that can cover the human needs, because it is part of the limited
budget of freshwater. From the perspective of long-term sustainability, it is the
renewable resource that is most critical. However, it can also be viewed as a
nonrenewable resource because the rate that may be withdrawn can be higher than
the rate that it is replenished.
Climate change leads to atmosphere warming, which in turn alters the hydro-
logic cycle. This, depending on the area, results in changes to the amount, timing,
form, and intensity of precipitation, the water flow in watersheds, as well as the
quality of aquatic and marine environments.
Climate change can also change groundwater level and temperature and poses
another risk to groundwater and water supply that is not yet well understood, though
it needs attention to find solutions for adaptation.
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

Although several scenarios have been developed to predict the potential impact
of climate change, there is still no general consensus on the quantitative effects.
However, it is broadly accepted that many semi- or even arid areas will become
drier, resulting in less groundwater recharge. In humid zones, recharge is expected
to increase due to a higher number of extreme precipitation events. Efforts are being
undertaken so as to better understand the climate change mechanisms on a regional
and even local scale and hence to be able to determine mitigating measures.

3 Drinking Water Sources

The freshwater drinking sources are summarized in Fig. 1. Although water is a

single resource, to understand the quality and the accessibility of the different
formations, each geological water occurrence will be discussed separately. Thus,
surface water will be discussed as lake water and river water and groundwater as
springwater and well water.

3.1 Surface Water

Surface water is accumulated on the ground or in a stream, river, lake, reservoir, or

ocean. The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a lake or river is called
catchment area (Fig. 2). The volume of water depends mostly on the amount of
rainfall but also on the size of the watershed, the slope of the ground, the soil type
and vegetation, and the land use. Any changes in the water level of a lake are
controlled by the difference between the input and output compared to the total
volume of the lake.

Fig. 1 Freshwater drinking sources

Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

Fig. 2 The occurrence of rivers, springs, and boreholes in a catchment area

Surface water is often used for large urban water supply systems, as rivers and
lakes can supply a large, regular volume of water. For small community supplies,
other forms of water supply, such as wells or spring-fed gravity systems, are
generally preferred to surface water. This is because the cost of treatment and
delivery of surface water is likely to be high and operation and maintenance less
reliable.
The advantages of the use of surface water as a resource for domestic water
supply are many. Surface water, among others, is easy to be abstracted by direct
pumping and can be treated after use and put back into a river. However, surface
water is seasonal and will always need treatment.

3.1.1 Lakes

Lakes have numerous features, such as catchment area, inflow and outflow, nutrient
content, dissolved oxygen, pollutants, pH, sedimentation, type, etc. The most
significant inputs are precipitation onto the lake surface, the runoff carried by
streams from the lake catchment area, the aquifers, and artificial sources from
outside the catchment area. The most significant outputs are evaporation from the
lake surface, surface water and groundwater flows, and any water extraction for
human activities. The water level of a lake displays fluctuations related to climate
and water abstraction variations.
The majority of lakes globally contain freshwater. Their water composition
varies depending on many factors. Freshwater lakes are important natural resources
that, among others, also serve as drinking water sources. However, they face
various water-quality deterioration problems due to the impact of human activities,
i.e., pollution, agriculture and fishery activities, and climate change [7, 8].
Based on their type, lakes can be classified into tectonic, landslide, saline,
volcanic, glacial, and others such as karst lakes, while based on their nutrient content,
they can be classified into oligotrophic, mesotrophic, eutrophic, and hypertrophic.
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

Oligotrophic lakes are characterized by clear waters that display low concentra-
tions of plant life, while hypertrophic ones are characterized by waters excessively
enriched in nutrients, poor clarity, and algal blooms due to an over-enrichment of
nutrients. Such lakes are of little use to humans and have a poor ecosystem due to
decreased dissolved oxygen. Variations in nutrient enrichment are influenced by
environmental changes and anthropogenic activities.

3.1.2 Rivers and Streams

Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Their flow is a function of many factors
including precipitation, runoff, interflow, groundwater flow, and pumped inflow
and outflow. The discharge of a river varies seasonally and among the years. In
many countries, rivers and streams have a wide seasonal variation in flow which
affects their water quality.
The chemical composition of the river water is complex and depends on the
inputs from the atmosphere, the geology of the catchment area, and the human
activities. It has a large effect on the ecology, and it also affects the uses of the river
water. In order to determine the river water chemistry, a well-designed sampling
and analysis is required.
During dry seasons and drought periods, springs feeding small watercourses in
river headwater areas are the main source of downstream waters [9]. When the
average discharge of a river cannot serve the water supply throughout the year, a
dam is built to block the flow of water. Gradually with time, an artificial lake is
formed. The construction of a dam for its abstraction is expensive and environ-
mentally damaging that may trigger earthquakes. Moreover it requires sufficient
precipitation and large river catchment while such reservoirs will eventually silt up.

3.2 Groundwater

Groundwater is a major source of drinking water worldwide and is hosted in aquifers.

Hydrological recharge of aquifers hugely varies geographically and strongly depends,
among other factors, on climate, geology, soil type, vegetation, and land use [10]. Ground-
water is recharged from precipitation, which is complemented by natural infiltration by
surface water or by artificial recharge. On a global scale, 20% of the irrigation water and
40% of the water used in industry are derived from groundwater [11].
Groundwater within an unconsolidated rock moves only a few centimeters a day,
i.e., about 10 m/year. Its velocity largely depends on the steepness of the aquifer
slopes and the permeability of the rocks. In consolidated rocks the water velocity
can be many times higher. A typical example is the karst formations.
Groundwater occurs in aquifers under two different conditions, the unconfined
and the confined. In an unconfined aquifer, the water only fills the aquifer partly,
and its upper surface of the saturated zone may rise and decline. On the other hand
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

in a confined aquifer, the water completely fills the aquifer that is overlain by a
confining bed. The recharge of the saturated zone occurs by percolation of water
from the land surface through the unsaturated zone.
The advantages of the use of groundwater as a resource for domestic water
supply are many. In most inhabited parts of the world, there is a large amount of
groundwater, and despite that the abstracted volumes are huge, they are often
readily supplemented. Another advantage is that the upper soil layers act as a filter
against physical, chemical, and biological deterioration which is effective both in
terms of quality and cost. Finally, groundwater use often brings great economic
benefits per unit volume compared to surface water because of ready local avail-
ability, high drought reliability, and a generally good quality requiring only minimal
treatment [12].
The movement of pollutants in an aquifer is defined by the hydraulic character-
istics of the hosting soils and rocks. Substances dissolved in water move along with it
unless they are tied up or delayed by adsorption. Thus, the movement of pollutants
tends to be through the most permeable zones; the farther their point of origin from a
groundwater discharge area, the deeper they penetrate into the groundwater system
and the larger the area that is ultimately affected [13].
Groundwater exploration utilizes hydrogeological mapping, hydrogeophysical
prospecting, investigation drilling, pumping tests, and groundwater regime obser-
vation, but also remote sensing, isotopic studies, shallow seismic prospecting, and
velocity logging are also being applied in groundwater exploration [14].

3.2.1 Springs

The physical outlets of an aquifer are known as springs. Springs occur mainly in
mountainous or hilly terrains, in locations where the water table meets the ground
surface (Fig. 2).
In the past, the community water supplies were often based on springs, and they
still comprise a source of water, because springwater usually displays a high natural
quality and its intake is relatively easy (Fig. 3). Springs can be classified as artesian,
gravity, perennial, intermittent, tubular, seepage, and thermal springs.

3.2.2 Boreholes and Wells

Groundwater can be obtained from an aquifer by drilling a well or a borehole below

the water table. The water level in boreholes or wells drilled into unconfined
aquifers stands in the same position as the water table in the surrounding aquifer.
The water level in boreholes drilled into confined aquifers stands at some height
above the top of the aquifer but not necessarily above the land surface. If the water
level in a borehole stands above the land surface, the well displays artesian flow,
where water rises to the surface without pumping (Fig. 4). Pumping water out of an
aquifer lowers the water level near the well.
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

Fig. 3 Intake of water from a spring in a remote mountainous area in Greece

The “safe yield” of an aquifer is the volume of water that can be withdrawn
without depleting the aquifer, i.e., the water that is renewable. In case that a higher
volume is withdrawn, a number of undesirable effects can occur (see Sect. 4). A
groundwater source of drinking water, such as a borehole, can be used as safe water
supply after no or very little treatment. Even a dug well that pumps shallow water and
is subject to weather can be treated effectively with relatively simple equipment.

4 Deterioration Issues

As already mentioned, freshwater ecosystems are important natural resources for

the survival of living organisms of the biosphere and are under pressure from a
range of stressors, including changes in land use, pollution, agriculture, climate
change, and human activities [15, 16]. In many regions, the increasing economic
development and human migration also stress water resources and water quality.
More than half of the world’s population live adjacent to water bodies and carry
out activities that increase aquatic stressors such as anthropogenic eutrophication
and algal blooms [17]. The problems most frequently encountered in the operation
of supply wells are related either to declines in yield or to deterioration in the
quality of water (Fig. 5).
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

Fig. 4 A borehole with artesian flow

Groundwater overexploitation has caused large and continuous decline of

groundwater levels, which in many cases results in the arrival of water from
different directions to a well or borehole that may contain a large concentration
of any substance.
In urban areas, groundwater overexploitation leads to land subsidence. In coastal
areas, the intensive groundwater use is not simply limited to subsidence. It can also
lead to the deterioration of groundwater quality. When freshwater heads are
declined by withdrawals through boreholes, the freshwater-saltwater interface
shifts until a new balance is established. Seawater can migrate kilometers toward
the inland [18]. Since seawater intrusion takes a long time to remedy and often is
irreversible, immediate actions should be taken for its prevention or mitigation.
Intensive overexploitation of groundwater globally has already created serious
environmental problems. Therefore, the analysis of the influence of exploited
groundwater on the environment and the allowable withdrawal of a well field should
be determined beforehand.
In aquifers, water moves slower than in surface water systems, and the time for
contaminant infiltration depends on the type of the contaminant, the characteris-
tics of the aquifer, and the length of the flow path. This can last from a number of
years up to centuries. As a consequence, there is a great deal of time for intimate
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

Fig. 5 Deterioration issues

contact between the water and soil and rock material, which results in changes of
the chemical composition of water that may involve almost any substance soluble
in water.
The arrival of water containing dissolved chemicals, which are naturally occur-
ring or human-introduced ones, in an undesirably large concentration will deterio-
rate the water quality of a borehole. The most commonly observed increases in
concentration involve NaCl and NO3
. Additionally, the growing number of
chemicals that is applied in manufacturing processes increases water-related risks.
Hazardous substances include herbicides, pesticides, and inorganic and complex
organic substances. Deterioration in physical quality has to do with changes in
appearance, taste, and temperature of water that may originate from rock particles
of variable sizes.
Deterioration in biological quality is related to the appearance of bacteria and/or
viruses associated with human, animal, and food processing wastes. It normally
indicates a connection between the land and the water surface.
Each water source has a unique set of contaminants. Groundwater contains
pesticides, chemicals, and nitrates, while surface water mostly contains bacteria
and other microorganisms as well as other suspended particles. Groundwater and
surface water recharge each other, and this interconnection between the two sources
of drinking water may lead to exchange of contaminants.
Human health can be harmed in case that contaminants and pathogens end up
in drinking water. The World Health Organization has estimated that contami-
nated drinking water causes 502,000 diarrheal deaths each year [19]. The deteri-
oration in water quality does not only impact human health but also has economic
consequences [20].
Groundwater from deep aquifers is protected from pathogen contamination by
the covering soil layers. Although groundwater is better protected than surface
water, shallower groundwater sources, or groundwater that can be influenced by
surface water, are still vulnerable to fecal contamination [21].
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

4.1 Surface Water

4.1.1 Lakes

Eutrophication has become a worldwide environmental problem [22, 23]. Recently,

studies have shown that lake eutrophication could accelerate in response to the
effects of anthropogenic activities and climate change [24]. Water in lakes, bogs,
and swamps may gain color, taste, and odor from decaying vegetation and other
natural organic matters.
It can also be polluted by (a) runoff of soils and farm chemicals from agricultural
lands, (b) waste from cities, (c) discharges from industrial areas, (d) leachate from
disposal sites, and (e) direct atmospheric pollutants such as rain, snow, or dust.
The interaction between lakes and groundwater systems has been studied with
numerical models and on the field [25], with attention paid to the place of a lake
within a local, intermediate, or regional groundwater system.

4.1.2 Rivers and Streams

Chemical composition of rivers in higher topographical areas where the water

volume is smaller is affected by fewer rock types and can reflect the local geology,
and in particular cases, their quality can be poor. In the absence of any pollution
source, the river water quality is similar to the rain and springwater.
However, as a river flows to lower topographic areas, its water accumulates fine
soil particles, microbes, organic material, and soluble minerals. In populated areas,
the quality of surface water as well as groundwater is directly influenced by land use
and human activities. According to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [26],
the most common source of river pollution is agriculture.
In wet periods, especially at their beginning, there is a high risk of fecal contam-
ination, as feces are washed into the river. However, along with the increase in flow,
there is a higher dilution rate, and thus, wastewater will be diluted, so the health risk
decreases [4]. In dry periods, the silt load is often lower than in wet ones, but the
dissolved solids are much more concentrated.

4.2 Groundwater

Nowadays, groundwater resources are facing qualitative and quantitative problems.

In many cases, the groundwater abstraction rates for many large aquifers worldwide
significantly exceed the natural renewal rate [27–29].
Growing industrialization, waste deposition, and the exponentially increasing
production and use of synthetic chemicals, which are often released into the envi-
ronment, put groundwater resources under growing pressure [30].
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

The chemical composition of groundwater also reflects the geology of the area
that has been in contact. If the groundwater is in contact with limestone, then, the
water is expected to be hard and to contain high concentrations of calcium and
carbonates. In general though, the water quality does not differentiate significantly
enough to be a concern to humans or any other living organisms and ecosystems.
The human activities are mainly responsible for groundwater quality degradation.
Groundwater pollution most often results from overuse of fertilizers and pesticides,
improper disposal of wastes on land, industrial and household chemicals, garbage
landfills, wastewater from mines, oil field brine pits, leaking of oil storage tanks,
sewage sludge, septic systems, etc.
Groundwater can be also contaminated by overpumping in coastal regions that
triggers seawater intrusion, a widespread and serious problem in many parts of the
world, especially in the Mediterranean region.
There are cases though where pollution sources are absent, while groundwater
does not lie within the potable regulations. These waters are mostly found in areas
with recent volcanic activity, where groundwater displays higher temperatures than
the groundwater of the surrounding watershed area and higher residence time and
salt content than the freshwaters. Moreover, in many coastal areas worldwide,
particularly in karst areas, natural seawater intrusion may exist.

4.2.1 Springs

The most vulnerable water supplies are those hosted in unconfined and karst
aquifers, where pollutants can readily diffuse into groundwater supplies. In case
that springs are used for water supply, special attention should be paid to any
variation of their water temperature during the day and coloration of their water
shortly after rain, which indicate that the aquifer layer is not deep enough or that
there is direct infiltration of surface water through the topsoil, and thus, the spring is
extremely vulnerable to contamination.

4.2.2 Boreholes and Wells

Deterioration in water quality may result either from changes in the biological,
chemical, or physical quality of water in the aquifer or changes in the well. The
monitoring of the biological and chemical quality of water of wells that supply
domestic needs is important, in order to spot any differentiations in their water
quality. Especially before using a new well for public supply, it should be clarified
first that its water quality meets the potability standards. Otherwise treatment is
required.
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

5 Treatment

In all cases, drinking water should be free of microbes or be disinfected before it is

consumed. In addition, surface water should be treated for the removal of suspended
solids and algae. Groundwater may not need additional treatment if it is springwater.
Springwaters often do not even need disinfection. However, depending on the
formations groundwater passes through, it may need softening or iron and manga-
nese removal or removal of other substances such as arsenic or chromium. The
following sections describe the conventional treatment methods that are mostly
described in [31]. Recent advances in disinfection are critically reviewed and
presented in [32].

5.1 Surface Water

If drinking water originates from surface water, it requires treatment that needs
substantial infrastructure, i.e., water treatment plants.

5.1.1 Lake Conventional Treatment

The most common treatment for lake or dam water is a combination of coagulation,
flocculation, sedimentation, sand filtration, and disinfection. Coagulation, floccu-
lation, and sedimentation are complimentary processes needed for the removal of
stable colloid particles that are light enough to be suspended and will take a long
time to settle due to gravity only. If these suspended solids are microalgae, more
sophisticated treatment is necessary, and expensive membranes are employed.
Coagulation is a chemical process that requires the addition of coagulants which
are usually salts in the form of powders. They are used to neutralize the surface of
colloids, in other words to destabilize their solution and allow their flocculation.
Colloids repulse each other due to common surface charge since they usually
originate from the same geological formation. Once their surface charge is neutral-
ized, then, they flocculate due to gravity forces forming bigger particles that settle
much faster by gravity. Sand filtration usually follows the sedimentation tank and is
used to remove the finer flocs that did not settle or the destabilized particles if no
sedimentation tank is present.
Disinfection is used to deactivate microorganisms in water and keep the water
supply safe throughout the pipelines of the municipality. In some countries for
surface water, sand filtration is mandatory before disinfection since attached
microbes to suspended particles are more persistent than suspended microbes.
Thus, disinfection would not be as effective in the presence of suspended particles.
Some industries use pressure filters, ion exchange, and ultraviolet radiation to
remove solids and alkalinity and to disinfect. This way they avoid the addition of
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

any chemicals that could create a taste and odor problem. However, these processes
are more expensive and more energy intensive.

5.1.2 River and Stream Conventional Treatment

River water follows similar treatment schemes as lake water for the removal of
suspended solids and for disinfection. Although river water is most commonly
pumped from the river sources or from the river banks, it still requires treatment
for suspended solids.

5.2 Groundwater

If drinking water originates from groundwater, it is usually treated on site of the

point it is collected, e.g., on the well.

5.2.1 Spring Conventional Treatment

If the spring is protected, springwater can be of high quality and may not require
any treatment, not even disinfection. However, in order to be safe, usually munic-
ipalities disinfect springwater in order to keep it safe during transportation through
the pipelines of the distribution system.

5.2.2 Borehole and Well Conventional Treatment

For groundwater originating from boreholes or wells, the most common treatment
scheme is a combination of softening, aeration, and disinfection.
Softening is a chemical process used for the removal of hardness that is due to
calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals dissolved in groundwater. Hardness is
associated with scaling in the pipelines or in machines that heat water.
Aeration is also a chemical process used for oxidation and, thus, formation of
less soluble species and precipitation of iron and manganese. It is also possible to
use an oxidation medium such as potassium permanganate or chlorine to help metal
precipitation.
Disinfection, also a chemical process, is used to deactivate microorganisms in
water and keep the water supply safe throughout the pipelines of the municipality.
The most common disinfection method is chlorination that requires the mixing of
water with chlorine gas or with sodium hypochlorite. Chlorine is hydrolyzed and
hypochlorite acid is formed. Chlorine is effective for the disinfection from bacteria
and is also persistent in the supply pipeline without requiring the addition of another
disinfectant. Ozone and UV are also used and are effective disinfectants. However,
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

they require the addition of chlorine in water before it is transported through

pipelines. The use of chlorine as a disinfectant could be a problem since chlorine
has strong taste and odor.
Other methods to get water free from salts are distillation, ion exchange, and
membrane filtration. Conventional distillation requires high amounts of power and
wasting lots of water for cooling. Solar distillation is friendlier to the environment
but requires space and sun shining. Ion exchange requires the use of specific resins
that remove both anions and cations. They still require water softening to avoid fast
consumption of the resins by hardness and frequent regeneration of resins. Mem-
brane filtration requires high pressure to push water through the membrane.
If water is polluted, it may require additional treatment before it can be con-
sumed. Toxic metals present in groundwater due to pollution or to natural minerals
can be removed by sorbent materials that will strongly bind them. However, in
many countries, it is considered preferable to change water supply than try to treat a
polluted one. In places where water supplies are scarce, in-house water filters are
commonly used employing ceramic pots and sorbent filtering media (e.g., activated
carbon, zeolites, biosorbents, bone chars, etc.).

6 Water Resource Management and Protection

Although water sources, mostly the surface ones, are treated before entering the
households, their treatment costs and the risks posed to public health could be
reduced by investing on their protection.
In Europe, 20% of surface water is at serious risk from pollution; 60% of the cities
overexploit their groundwater resources, while 50% of wetlands are endangered
[33]. There is a constantly increased demand for water that has as consequence that
nearly half of the European population live in “water-stressed” countries, where
abstraction of freshwater is extremely high.
The trends of deterioration of water quality and decrease of urban groundwater
supplies are being corrected by water allocation projects and protection measures.
For urban water pollution control, urban sewage and industrial wastewater will be
treated and reused increasingly.

6.1 European Regulations-Legislation and Protection

Measures

In 1998, the Council Directive (98/83/EC) was introduced and included essential
potability standards [34]. This Directive requires member states to monitor the
quality of water intended for human consumption regularly, by using a “sampling
 K. Katsanou and H.K. Karapanagioti

points” method, providing regular information to consumers, and reporting the

results every 3 years to the Commission.
In 2000, the European Union adopted the Water Framework Directive (WFD,
2000/60/EC). According to it, member states have had to build river basin man-
agement plans (RBMPs), which were finalized after extensive public consultation.
They are aiming to protect each 1 of the 110 river basin districts and are valid for
6 years. The overall targets of the RBMPs are to accelerate water-saving techniques
to alleviate the crisis of urban water shortage, to protect groundwater resources in
the overexploited areas, to improve the coordination between socioeconomic
development and environmental improvement, and to seek sustainable utilization
of groundwater resources.
According to the WFD, protection zones have been established for both surface
water and groundwater resources in important water supply regions. They comprise
of three different zones:
• An “immediate” proximity protection area: This area is generally small and
encloses the well itself. It belongs to the municipality or the utility and is fenced.
Its purpose is to protect the well itself from direct pollution.
• A proximity area: Its purpose is to protect the well, allowing a sufficient reaction
time in case of pollution from nearby point source pollution. The criterion of
50-day water transit is generally applied to define the limits of this area. Its size
varies according to the hydrogeological characteristics of the area and the
volume of abstraction. In this area there are limitations in the use of the soil,
such as banning of manure, pesticides, road construction, etc., which are derived
by hydrogeological study of the area.
• A distant area: Its purpose is to protect the catchment area of a water source. In
this area, whose extent may vary from place to place, the use of soil is only
subject to recommendations.
In 2006 a new directive aiming to protect groundwater from contamination
(GWD, 2006/118/EC) was published. It stems from the European Water Frame-
work Directive of 2000 [35] and sets Community Quality Standards for groundwa-
ter with respect to the major contaminants, nitrates and pesticides. It also creates the
framework for setting any other Groundwater Quality Standards.
The Groundwater Directive [36] is based on a mixed regime that is in compli-
ance with Groundwater Quality Standards and measures to prevent hazardous or
limit nonhazardous substance emissions to the groundwater.
According to it, the member states are responsible for the establishment of certain
Groundwater Quality Standards based on the local or regional conditions [37].
Moreover, in 2007 the Commission launched the Water Information System for
Europe (WISE), an instrument for the collection and exchange of data and infor-
mation within Europe and for the monitoring of pollutants released to surface
waters or within the aquatic environment [38].
Surface Water and Groundwater Sources for Drinking Water

6.2 Artificial Recharge

The overexploitation of groundwater is controlled by increased infiltration and

extensive use of artificial recharge. Artificial recharge can be used to increase the
availability of groundwater storage and reduce saltwater intrusion in coastal aqui-
fers, where pumping and droughts have severely affected the groundwater quality.
Stored water from artificial recharge can be used not only for drinking but also for
industrial and agricultural water supplies.
In coastal areas, it can protect groundwater from saltwater intrusion.
In certain areas, artificial recharge can be used to provide protection from land
subsidence caused by drought and aquifer overexploitation [39].

7 Discussion and Conclusions

Groundwater plays an important role for urban water supplies. Nowadays that there
is recognition of the vertical dimension of hydrologic connectivity [40] and consent
that many surface water ecosystems depend on groundwater at different levels,
conservation and management of this linked resource are even more important [41].
For the efficient and sustainable exploitation, management, and remediation of
groundwater resources, it is important to know the water and contaminant flow
patterns and the way they interact with the geological formations.
Assessment and monitoring of water resources and their quality are generally a
routine in developed countries. However, this is not always the case in developing
or in remote areas where vulnerable communities are hugely affected by poor water
quality [42]. Areas that suffer from limited availability or accessibility of water
resources may also be at greater water risk [43] especially if limited water resources
are undermined by natural and anthropogenic contamination, climate change, or
other factors as poverty, remoteness, insufficient water management, and lack of
treatment [44–46].
Certain measures for groundwater protection such as reduction in water con-
sumption, enhancement of artificial recharge use, pollution control, and holistic
management of groundwater resources are already taken [47].

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