BIOMOLECULES

1. Give some examples of Biomolecules

carbohydrates, proteins, Nucleic acids, enzymes etc.
2. What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce such units on
hydrolysis
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided
into following three groups.

(i) Monosaccharides (ii) Oligosaccharides (iii) Polysaccharides

A carbohydrate that Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide Carbohydrates which
cannot be hydrolysed units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides.They yield a large number
further to give simpler are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, of monosaccharide
unit of carbohydrates tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of units on hydrolysis are
is called a monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis. calledpolysaccharides.
monosaccharide.
Eg: Glucose, Fructose, Eg: Sucrose, maltose . Eg: starch, cellulose,
Galactose, ribose, glycogen.
deoxy ribose
3. Classify the following Maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose
Monosaccharides:Galactose, fructose
Disaccharides: Maltose, lactose
4. What is the meaning of statement- Glucose is an aldohexose.
Glucose is an aldohexose means that it contains six carbon atoms and aldehyde group.
5. What are reducing sugars?
Reducing sugars are carbohydrates that reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s
reagent. All monosaccharides and disaccharides, excluding sucrose, are reducing sugars
Eg: Glucose, Fructose
❖ In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e.,aldehydic or ketonic groups are free, these
are reducing sugars.
6. What are non- reducing sugars?
Reducing sugars are carbohydrates that cannot reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent. Eg sucrose,
starch
❖ In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e.,aldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded,
these are non-reducing sugars
Structure of Glucose
1. Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.
2. On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all the six carbon atoms are linked
in a straight chain.

3. Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give
cyanohydrin. These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group
(C = 0) in glucose.

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4. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising
agent like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.

5. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which confirms the presence
of five –OH groups. Since it exists as a stable compound, five –OH groups should be attached to different
carbon atoms.

6. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic
acid. This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.
Open structure of glucose
▪ Glucose is correctly named as D (+) – Glucose
▪ OH group of 3rd carbon atom on the left side.
▪ It is aldose because CHO (aldehydic group) is present
▪ D’ before the name of glucose represents the
Configuration whereas ‘(+)’ represents dextrorotatory
nature of the molecule.

The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any compound indicate the relative configuration of a particular
stereoisomer. This refers to their relation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde. Glyceraldehyde
contains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric forms as shown below.

All those compounds which can be chemically correlated to (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have
D-configuration whereas those which can be correlated to (–) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have
L—configuration. For assigning the configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon
atom (as shown below) which is compared. As in (+) glucose, —OH on the lowest asymmetric carbon is
on the right side which is comparable to (+) glyceraldehyde, so it is assigned D-configuration. For this
comparison, the structure is written in a way that most oxidised carbon is at the top.

7.What happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents?(i) HI (ii) Bromine water (iii)
HNO3 iv) hydroxyl amine v)acetic anhydride
Cyclic Structure of Glucose
Glucose exists in two cyclic forms, which exist in equilibrium with the open- chain structure.

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 Representation of the cyclic structure of glucose by Haworth structure:

The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure (α– or β–), in analogy with
pyran.
8. What are anomers? Name the two anomers of glucose.
Anomers are a pair of stereoisomers which differ in configuration about C-l carbon atom.

9.Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its open chain structure.
Or
List the reactions of glucose which cannot be explained by its open chain structure.
The open chain structure was unable to explain the following reactions :
(i) Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2, 4 DNP test or Schiff.s test.
(ii) It does not form hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3.
(iii) The penta acetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free CHO
group.
Structure of fructose
Open structure
➢ Fructose is correctly named as D (-) –fructose
➢ OH group of 3rd carbon atom on the left side.
➢ It is ketose because CO (ketonic group) is present
➢ D’ before the name of fructose represents the
➢ Configuration whereas ‘(-)’ represents Laevo rotatory nature of the
molecule.

10.What are disaccharides?

Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give two mono saccharides Eg: Maltose, Lactose,. Sucrose
11.What are the hydrolysis products of (i) sucrose and (ii) lactose (iii) maltose?
(i) On hydrolysis, sucrose gives one molecule of α-D glucose and one molecule of β- D-fructose.

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 (ii) The hydrolysis of lactose gives β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose.
(iii)two molecules of α-D glucose
12.What do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage?
Glycosidic linkage refers to the linkage
formed between two monosaccharide units
through an oxygen atom by the loss of a
water molecule.
For example, in a sucrose molecule, two
monosaccharide units, α-glucose and β-
fructose, are joined together by a glycosidic
linkage.

13. What is invert sugar?

Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose.
Since the laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is
laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to
laevo (–) and the product is named as invert sugar.
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharides
Eg: starch, cellulose,glycogen
Starch
➢ Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants.
➢ It is a polymer of -D-glucose; consists of two components − amylose and amylopectin
Amylose Amylopectin
It is a linear polymer of α-D-Glucose It is branched chain polymer of -D-
glucose
It is soluble in water It is insoluble in water

Cellulose
➢ It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
➢ Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of β-D-glucose units
Starch Cellulose
It is a polymer of α-D-Glucose It is a polymer of -D-Glucose
➢ It consists of two components − amylose It is a linear polymer
and amylopectin. Amylose is linear
polymer. Amylopectin is branched chain
polymer

Glycogen
➢ The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.
➢ It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly
branched.
14 .Write two main functions of carbohydrates in plants.

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 Two main functions of carbohydrates in plants are:
(i)Polysaccharides such as starch serve as storage molecules.
(ii)Cellulose, a polysaccharide, is used to build the cell wall

Amino Acids
Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups.

• Some amino acids with their symbols are listed in the given table.

Name Side chain, R Three-letter symbol One-letter code

1. Glycine H Gly G

2. Alanine − CH3 Ala A

3. Valine (H3C)2CH− Val V

4. Leucine (H3C)2CH− CH2− Leu L

Classification of Amino Acids

• Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the relative number of amino and
carboxyl groups in their molecule.
• Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral;
• More number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic
• More carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic.
Essential amino acids: Non-essential amino acids:
Amino acids that cannot be synthesised in the body, and Amino acids that can be synthesised
must be obtained through diet in the body
Example − Valine, leucine, isolecuine Example − Glycine, alanine, glutamic acid
Zwitter ions
In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group (acidic group) of an amino acid can lose a proton and the amino
group (basic group) can accept a proton to give a dipolar ion This ion is known as zwitter ion.

Proteins
Proteins are polymers of -amino acids, joined to each other by peptide linkage or peptidebond.
Peptide linkage:

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 The amide linkage (CO-NH) formed between −COOH group of one molecule of an amino acid and
−NH2 group of another molecule of the amino acid by the elimination of a water molecule is called a
peptide linkage.

Dipeptide Tripeptide Polypeptide

Peptide which contains two Peptide which contains three Peptides which contains
amino acid molecules amino acid molecules more than ten amino acids

Classification of Proteins
Based on the molecular shape, proteins are classified into two types −
❖ Fibrous proteins
❖ Globular proteins

❖ Fibrous proteins ❖ Globular proteins

They have long thread like structure They have folded ball – like structure
They are insoluble in water They are soluble in water
Eg: Keratin Eg: Egg albumin
Structure of protein
Structures and shapes of proteins are studied at four different levels: primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary.
Primary structure of proteins
The sequence in which amino acids are arranged in a polypeptide chain is called primary structure
of proteins.
Secondary structure of proteins

The spatial arrangement of the polypeptide chain arising due to the regular folding of the backbone of the
polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding between –COOH and –NH2 groups is known as the secondary
structure.
There are two common types of secondary structure of proteins:
(i) α-helix structure
(ii) β-pleated sheet structure

α-Helix: In this conformation, the peptide chain coils like a spiral which may be right handed (moves
clockwise) or left handed (moves anticlockwise). The a-helix is stabilized due to extensive hydrogen
bonding between –NH and –C = O groups of different amino acid residues.
β-pleated sheet: In this structure the polypeptide chains are stretched out and the adjacent chains are
joined through hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding occurs between carboxylic oxygens and amide
hydrogens of two or more adjacent protein chains.
Tertiary structure of proteins

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• The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of the polypeptide chains i.e., further folding of
the secondary structure.
• It gives rise to two major molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular.
• Secondary and tertiary structures of proteins are stabilised by hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der
Waals forces and electrostatic forces.
Quaternary structure of proteins
Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial
arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as quaternary structure.
15. What is denaturation of Proteins
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical
change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get
uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein. During
denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but 1o structure remains intact. e.g., coagulation of egg
albumin by boiling, curdling of milk

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and healthof the organism.
e.g. vitamins A, B, C, D etc.
16.How are vitamins classified? Name the vitamin responsible for the coagulation of blood.
On the basis of their solubility in water or fat, vitamins are classified into two groups.
(i)Fat-soluble vitamins:Vitamins that are soluble in fat and oils, but not in water, or example: Vitamins A,
D, E, and K
(ii)Water-soluble vitamins:Vitamins that are soluble in water example: Vitamin C, B-group vitamins (B1,
B2, B6, B12)
Vitamin K is responsible for the coagulation of blood.

17. Why cannot vitamin C be stored in our body?

Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine and
cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
Some vitamins with their sources and the diseases caused by their deficiency are given in the following
table.

Name of vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmi

a,night blindness
butter and milk

Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green vegetables and cereals Beriberi

Vitamin B2 Milk, egg-white, liver, Cheilosis, digestive

disorders and burning
kidney sensation of the skin

Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions

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 cereals and grams

Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia

curd

Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy

green leafy vegetables

Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets and osteomalacia

fish and egg yolk

Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat germ oil, sunflower Muscular weakness and
oil Increased fragility of RBCs

Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Delay of blood clotting

18 .Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us? Give their important sources.
The deficiency of vitamin A leads to xerophthalmia (hardening of the cornea of the eye) and night
blindness. The deficiency of vitamin C leads to scurvy (bleeding gums).
The sources of vitamin A are fish liver oil, carrots, butter, and milk. The sources of vitamin C are citrus
fruits, amla, and green leafy vegetables.

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are biomolecules found in the nuclei of all living cells, as one of the constituents of
chromosomes.
❖ There are mainly two types of nucleic acids − deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
❖ Nucleic acids are also known as polynucleotides as they are long-chain polymers of nucleotides.
Two main functions of nucleic acids are:
(i) DNA is responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from one generation to the next. This
process of transmission is called heredity.
(ii) Nucleic acids are responsible for protein synthesis in a cell.

Chemical composition of nucleic acids:

❖ Nucleic acid contains a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and a base (heterocyclic compound containing
nitrogen).
❖ In DNA, sugar is β-D-2-deoxyribose; in RNA, sugar is β-D-ribose

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 ❖ Bases in DNA: Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
❖ Bases in RNA: Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U)
19. What is nucleoside?
The molecules in which one of the organic base is combined with sugar are callednucleosides.
20.What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?
Nucleoside Nucleotide
Nucleoside is formed by the attachment of All the three basic components of nucleic acids (i.e., pentose sugar,
a base to sugar. phosphoric acid, and base) are present in a nucleotide.
Nucleoside = Sugar + Base Nucleotide = Sugar + Base + Phosphate group

Formation of a di-nucleotide:

21. What type of bonding occurs between two nucleotides?

The two nucleotides are joined by phospho- diester linkage.
22.The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain
In the helical structure of DNA, the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between specific
pairs of bases. Cytosine forms hydrogen bond with guanine, while adenine forms hydrogen bond with
thymine. As a result, the two strands are complementary to each other.

23.Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA and RNA.
The structural differences between DNA and RNA are as follows:
DNA RNA

The sugar present in DNA molecules is β-D-

1. 1. The sugar present in RNA molecules is β-D-ribose.
2 deoxyribose.

DNA contains thymine (T).It does not

2. 2. RNA contains uracil. It does not contain thymine (T).
contain uracil (U).

3. The structure of DNA is double-stranded. 3. The structure of RNA is single-stranded.

The functional differences between DNA and RNA are as follows:
DNA RNA

1. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity. 1. RNA is not responsible for heredity.

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 DNA molecules do not synthesis Proteins are synthesised by RNA
2. 2.
proteins molecules in the cells.

24.What are the different types of RNA found in the cell?

i) Messenger RNA (m-RNA (ii) Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) (iii) Transfer RNA (t-RNA)

Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that catalyse biological reactions
❖ Specific for a particular reaction and for a particular substrate
❖ For example, maltase catalyses hydrolysis of maltose

❖ The name of an enzyme ends with ‘−ase’.

❖ Reduce the magnitude of activation energy

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