LATITUDE:

Parallels of latitude are the SMALL CIRCLES whose plane is parallel to the equator.
Latitude is used to indicate the angle in degrees, minutes & tenths of a minute, for a point,
as located relative to the Equator. Latitudes are lines running parallel to the Equator, N or S.
“The latitude of any point on the sphere is defined as the angle, subtended at the centre of
the sphere, between the point in question and the Equator, when measured along the
meridian passing through that point.”

Difference of Latitude
The difference of latitude between two parallels is the angle at the centre of the Earth
measured along a meridian passing through both parallels of latitude.
D’Lat is ‘N’ if you are moving in a northerly direction but does not necessarily mean you are
in the northern hemisphere.

Rules for obtaining D’Lat:

To get D’Lat, Latitude same names subtract (difference)

opposite names add

LONGITUDE
Longitude is the minor angle, subtended at the centre of the sphere, between the plane of the
meridian through the point and the meridian through Greenwich, which is accepted as 0.
Longitude is measured east or west from Greenwich 0~180.
“Longitude is defined as the minor angle at the pole or the smaller arc at the Equator,
between the prime meridian & the meridian passing through the point in consideration”.

Difference of Longitude ( D’Long) :

This is the angle subtended at the centre of the Earth, between the two meridians on which
the points lie on, measured along the smaller arc of the Equator passing through both
meridians and the minor angle at the pole.
If the D’Long is greater than 180 then subtract from 360 to get actual D’Long.
D’long ‘E’ means you are moving in an easterly direction. This does not necessarily mean
you are in the eastern hemisphere with respect to Greenwich.

Rules for obtaining D’Long :

To get D’Long Longitude same names subtract (difference)
opposite names add

If angle exceeds 180 then subtract from 360 & change name to opposite

Departure :
Departure is defined as the east-west distance between two points. Departure is less between
same meridians at higher latitudes.
It is the distance measured in nautical miles along a parallel of latitude measured in a east -
west direction.
Dep = D’Long x Cos Lat ( Parallel Sailing only )
Dep = D’long x Cos Mean Lat ( Plane Sailing only )

P-1
EXERCISE
CALCULATING D’LAT & D’LONG BETWEEN TWO POSITIONS

Table - A Calculate the D’Lat and D'long between the given positions

INITIAL LATITUDE INITIAL ARRIVAL ARRIVAL

LONGITUDE LATITUDE LONGITUDE

37 ° 14.7 ’ N 13 ° 14.0' E 39 °11.8' N 28 ° 19.7 ' E

44 ° 15.0 ‘S 169 ° 14.7 ' E 30 ° 10.7 ' S 109 ° 15. O ‘ E

11 °42.0 ‘ N 17 ° 14.2 ' W 10 ° 18.0 ' S 41 ° 19.5 ' E

19 ° 21.2 ‘ N 170 ° 14.0 ' W 00 ° 12.6 ' S 168 ° 55.7 ' E

Table – B Calculate the arrival position from the following information.

INITIAL LATITUDE INITIAL D'LAT D'LONG

LONGITUDE

35 ° 13.9 ‘ N 45 ° 27.3 ' W 6 ° 11.4 ' S 67 ° 10.5 ' E

27 ° 56.4 ' S 105 °44.3' W 23 ° 11.6 ' S 23 ° 19.3 ' W

28 °24.0 'S 155 ° 18.0 ' E 35 ° 22.9 ’ N 35 ° 12.0 ' E

67 ° 12.5 ‘ N 175 °35.5 ' E 2 ° 11.7 ‘ N 21 ° 41.1 ‘ W

ANSWERS:

Table A:
1) 01º 57.1‛ N (117.1‛ N) 15º 05.7‛ E (905.7‛ E)
2) 14º 04.3′ N (844.3‛ N) 59º59.7’ W (3599.7‛ W)
3) 22º 00.0‛ S (1320‛ S) 58º 33.7‛ E (3513.7‛ E)
4) 19º 33.8‛ S (1173.8‛S) 20º 50.3‛ W (1250.3‛ W)

Table B:
1) 29º 02.5‛ N 21º 43.2‛ E
2) 51º 08.0‛ S 129º 03.6‛ W
3) 06º 58.9‛ N 169º 30.0‛ W
4) 69º 24.2‛ N 153º 54.4‛ E

P-2
RHUBM LINE SAILINGS

By types of sailing it does not mean we sail in different ways, all it means is that we use
different methods to calculate our final position & or distances as necessary.

These are the different types of sailing:

1) Parallel Sailing
2) Plane Sailing
3) Mercator Sailing
4) Great Circle Sailing
5) Composite sailing

We will deal more in depth with each of them in the following pages.
PARALLEL SAILING
Vessel sails along a particular latitude i.e. latitude remains constant.
Vessel maintains a Course is 090° (T) or 270° (T) i.e. due EAST or due WEST.
There is no limitation on distance unlike plane sailing.
Appears as a curve on a Gnomonic chart
Appears as a straight line on a Mercator chart
FORMULA: DEPARTURE = D'LONG x COSINE LATITUDE.

Parallel Sailing Questions

Q-1. A ship in Lat 51° 36-N Long 5° 30'W steers 270°(T) to Long 8° 32'W.

What distance has she traveled ? Dist 113.1'

Q-2. A ship is 200 nautical miles due West of Fastnet Rock (51° 23' N 9° 36'W )
What Longitude is the ship in? Long 14° 56.5'W

Q-3. By sailing due East, distance 238 nautical miles, a ship altered her Longitude by

5°26'. What Latitude was the V/L in? Lat 43°06.5'N or S

Q-4. A V/L in Latitude 41° 14'S Longitude 64° 36'E steams East for 294'.
Calculate the arrival position. Lat 41° 14.0'S Long 71°06.9'E
Q-5. Two ships in Latitude 53° 22'S are 200 n.m. apart. If after both ships have steamed
000°(T), at the same speed, they find themselves 289 n.m apart what Latitude are the ships now
in? How far have both ships steamed? Assume they have not crossed the Equator.

Lat 30° 26.3'S Dist 1375.7'

Q-6.
At 0200 hours a vessel is in position 37° 34.5’ N, 078° 23. 4’ E sails 270° T. At 1000 hours she
alters her course to 000° T. Find her position at 2300 hours if vessel’s speed is 23 knots.
(Ans - LAT 42° 33.5’ N, LONG 074° 31.2’ E)

P-3
PLANE SAILING
In Plane Sailing we sail along a fixed course such that the course line cuts all the meridians at the
same angle. Since course is constant so we can use plane trigonometric functions to solve our triangle
(assuming the Earth to be flat), but only for short distances i.e. not exceeding 600.’0 n.m.
DEPARTURE = D'LONG x COSINE MEAN LATITUDE.
NOTE : The use of "Mean Latitude" is not strictly speaking correct as it assumes the Cosine of an
angle varies linearly between 2 points. Technically we should use "Mid Latitude", however for
practical purposes "Mean Latitude" is considered acceptable. (For a full explanation and mathematical
proof- Admiralty Manual Of Navigation, Volume III) .
Plane sailing Questions

Q-1. Calculate the Course and Distance between Lat 55° 24'N Long 1 ° 10'W and
Lat 53° 55'N Long 7° 15'E. (Course 107°T Dist 305'.4)

Q-2. Calculate the Course and Distance between Lat 55° 28'N Long 6° 18'E and
Lat 52° 33'N Long 2° 48' E (Course 215°T Dist 214')

Q-3. A ship steers 214°(T) for 320' from Lat 2°OO’ N Long 168° 29'W.
Calculate her arrival position. ( Lat 02° 25.3'S Long 171° 27.9'W)

Q-4. Find the course & distance from Lat 2° 25'S Long 179° 26'E to Lat 1 ° 31 ‘N
Long 178° 50'W (Course 023.8°T Dist 257.9')

Q-5. A lighthouse in Lat 53° 42’ N Long 3° 12' W was observed bearing 230°(T) x 32 miles.
Calculate the V/L’s position. (Lat 54° 02.6'N Long 2° 30.3'W)

Q-6. A V/L steers 165° (T) at 12 knots for 8 hours 45 minutes from Lat 1° 12'N, Long 000° 07'
W. Calculate the

V/L’s arrival position. (Lat 00° 29.4'S

Long 000° 20.2'E)

MERCATOR SAILING

In Mercator sailing we still use a plane right angle triangle to solve our distance triangle but

unlike plane sailing where we took mean of latitudes (departure & arrival)

We use meridional parts which take into account the shape of the earth and the distortion on a

Mercator chart. This eliminates the distance limitation. Thus Mercator sailing can be used for

any distance.

P-4
 NOTE : The arguments in Mercator sailing are slightly different and should not be confused

with plane sailing.

Meridional Parts ( M.P.)

The length of the meridian between the Equator and any given latitude on a Mercator
Projection Chart, expressed in number of units of longitude at the Equator, constitutes the
meridional parts abbreviated as M.P.
Meridional Parts for different latitudes are listed in Norrie’s Tables or other similar nautical
tables

Difference in Meridional Parts (D.M.P.) (Required for Mercator sailing)

DMP is the difference in meridional parts of two latitudes.
To obtain Difference of Meridional parts;
Latitude same name subtract
Latitude opposite names add
Interpolation is required to obtain M.P. for tenths of minutes.

Mercator Sailing Formula

Tan Co. = D’long both units are longitude
D.M.P.

Distance = D’Lat both units are nautical miles

Cos Co.

Cos Co. = D’Lat both units are nautical miles

Distance
Mercator Sailing Questions

Q1. Calculate the course and distance from Lat 49° 58’ N Long 5° 12'W to Lat 37° 49’ N
Long 25° 08'W. Course 229.7°T Dist 1127'

Q2. A V/L left position 52° 50'S 81° 10'W and steered a course 336.5° for 6,000 miles.
Find the arrival position. Lat 38° 52.4'N Long 126° 27.1'W

Q3. A V/L left position Latitude 8° 14’ N Longitude 6° 12' W and steamed a course 150° (T)
for 5 days 8 hours. Ship speed 15 kts. Calculate the arrival position.
19°28.8' S 009° 56.0' E

Q4. Calculate the course and distance between 12° 31 ‘ N 177°30' W and 6° 23' S
169° 44' E. Course 214°T Dist 1368'

P-5
 MODIFIED FORMULAE SHEET

PARALLEL SAILING

Dep = D’Long x Cos Lat (Since there is no change in Lat)

PLANE SAILING

Dep = D’Long x Cos Mean Lat (Mean of Start & Finish Lat)

Tan Co. = Departure

D’Lat
Distance = D’Lat
Cos Co.

MERCATOR SAILING

Tan Co. = D’Long (Note this is different from Plane Sailing)

D.M.P.

Distance = D’Lat
Cos Co.

GREAT CIRCLE SAILING

Cos Dist.AB = Cos D’LongxCosLatAxCosLatB +/- (SinLatAxSinLatB)

Note: (Latitude same names sum, different names difference)

2. Sine Rule

Sin a = Sin b = Sin c

Sin A Sin B Sin C

3. Brg by ABC by calculation

A = Tan Lat A (ignore sign), name opp to Lat except when HA greater than 90˚&
Tan D’Long less than 270˚
B = Tan Lat B (ignore sign), name same as Lat B (Dec.)
Sin D’Long

A + B = C (same names sum) named for greater

Tan Angle = 1
___________
C x Cos Lat A Named from C & D’Long

4. NAPIER’S RULES: (See Hand out)

P-6
 Sin Mid Part = Cos Opp x Cos Opp

Sin Mid Part = Tan Adj x Tan Adj

Note : Must keep sides & angles in sequence.

7. TO FIND VERTEX/ANGLE AT POLE ( when one angle = 90˚)

Cos Lat of Vertex = Cos Lat A x Sin Co.

(Where A is the initial position & vertex lies between A & B the final position)
Cos D’long = Tan (90- Lat of Vertex)/ Tan (90- Lat A)

COMPOSITE GREAT CIRCLE SAILING

8. The following formulas also work for Spherical triangles which have two angles 90
degrees i.e. two vertices. They can also be used for Sp.Triangles with at least one vertex.
This is a modification of the Napier’s Rules.

For Distances: Cos AV1 = Sin Lat A

(Dist A to V1) Sin Lat of vertex
Cos BV2 = Sin Lat B
(Dist A to V1) Sin Lat of vertex

FOR FINDING THE COURSE

Initial Course: Sin A = Cos Limiting Lat

Cos Lat A
Final Course: Sin B = Cos Limiting Lat
Cos Lat B
____________________________________________________________

FOR FINDING THE POSITION OF VERTEX

Angle at the Pole: Cos P1 = Tan Lat A
(Between V & A or B) Tan Lat of Vertex

Cos P2 = Tan Lat B

Tan Lat of Vertex

P-7
Great Circles
In general when considering great circle problems we replace the basic ABC triangle with a
terrestrial triangle PAB as shown below. The diagram shows two meridians converging at the
Pole P and two positions A and B, one on each meridian. We have seen earlier that each
meridian is a great circle in its own right and the third side of the triangle consists of the great
circle track passing through positions A and B
P North Pole

D'Long
Meridian through A

B (Position B)

AB
ack
le T r
e a t Circ Meridian through B
Gr
A (Position A)

Equator

In this case we have

P is the closest terrestrial pole, either the North Pole for a problem that starts in the
northern hemisphere, or the South Pole for a southern hemisphere problem.

A is the initial position of the vessel sailing along the great circle track.

B is the final position of the vessel sailing the great circle track.

AB is the great circle track between the initial and final positions and represents the
distance that the vessel will sail between the two points.

PA is the co-latitude of the initial position or (90° – Lat A).

P-8
PB is the co-latitude of the final position or (90° – LatB).

<P is the difference in longitude between the two positions.

<A is the initial course angle that the vessel will sail on.

<B is the final course angle of the vessel

Provided we know at least three of the last six above we can calculate the rest using
basic spherical trigonometric formulae.

To calculate the distance between A and B in nautical miles.

We are basically interested in calculating the distance between A and B along the great circle
track. This is given by side AB of the spherical triangle.

We would be given the position of A and B in terms of latitude and longitude therefore we
would be able to calculate the following values;

D’long between A and B i.e <P in the triangle.

(90° – Lata) i.e side PA in the triangle.

(90° – LatB) i.e side PB in the triangle.

This gives us two sides and the included angle, which will enable us to use the Cosine
formula on side AB.

Therefore we have

Cos AB = Cos PA Cos PB + Sin PA Sin PB Cos <P

If we now substitute the values above for PA, PB and <P we get the following

Cos AB = Cos (90° – LatA) Cos (90° – LatB) + Sin (90°- LatA Sin (90° – LatB) Cos D’long

Simplifying we get

Cos AB = Sin LatA Sin LatB + Cos LatA Cos LatB Cos D’long (2)

This equation works when both position A and position B are in the same hemisphere,
however it will not work if A and B are in different hemispheres. (see Diagram below)

P-9
 Pole P

d'long

90 - Lat A

90 + Lat B

A
Gr e
at C
irc l
e Tr a
ck

Equator

Assume that A is in the Northern hemisphere and B is in the Southern hemisphere. The
d’long is still calculated in the same way and PA will still be (90 – LatA), however because
we will be using the Pole closest to A, then PB becomes (90 + LatB) as B is on the opposite
side of the equator from A. If we now put these values into equation (1) above we get

Cos AB = Cos (90°– LatA) Cos (90° + LatB) + Sin (90° – LatA Sin (90° + LatB) Cos D’long
(3)

and on simplification

Cos AB = - (Sin LatA Sin LatB) + Cos LatA Cos LatB Cos D’long (4)

This is because Cos (90° + LatB) is equal to – Sin LatB.

In general we re-write this equation as follows

Cos AB = Cos D’long Cos LatA Cos LatB +/- Sin LatA Sin LatB
(5)

NOTE:
If the latitude of the initial and final positions are named the same then we use the +
sign in the equation and if the initial and final latitudes are named opposite, i.e one
North and the other South, then we use the - sign in the equation.

The answer you get for AB will in degrees. To convert this to nautical miles you need to
convert it into minutes of arc. You should recall that on a great circle track one minute of arc
is equal to one nautical mile. Therefore if we convert the answers into minutes of arc, we can
directly obtain the distance along the great circle track between A and B.
P-10
To do this enter the degrees and minutes into any scientific calculator and convert this into
degree format (see the instructions that came with your calculator on how to perform this
operation). To convert degrees to minutes of arc you simply multiply the value shown on the
calculator by 60.

To Calculate angle A (<A).

This is the initial course a vessel must sail on to start the great circle track.

NOTE:

To calculate <A we use the ABC formulae (these should be familiar to you from the
astro-navigation unit done in a prior phase. These formulae are the same as the ones
that you use to work out the azimuth when doing a Marq St Hilaire sight and should be
used in exactly the same manner)

A = Tan LatA / Tan D’long (6)

B = Tan LatB / Sin D’long (7)

C = A±B (8)

Tan Azimuth = 1 / ( C x Cos LatA (9)

To Calculate angle B (<B).

This is the final course angle and from this we can determine the final course a vessel
must sail on to complete the great circle track.

NOTE:

To calculate <B we again use the ABC formulae, however this time we work out the
course that a vessel would have to sail to get from B to A. Once this is found we simply
reverse it to obtain the final course from A to B

A = Tan LatB / Tan D’long (10)

B = Tan LatA / Sin D’long (11)

C = A±B

Tan Azimuth = 1 / ( C x Cos LatB ) (12)

P-11
Example

A vessel is to sail a great circle track between the following positions.

Position A, Tokyo (Japan) 35°43’N , 139° 46’E

Position B San Francisco (USA) 37° 48’N , 122°25’W

Pole
d'long

Line
Da te

Final Co
Initial Co
San Francisco
37 48'N , 122 25'W
Tokyo
35 43'N , 139 46'E

NOTE:

The vessel will head Eastwards from Japan and then cross the International Date line
en route. Also longitudes are named different therefore add together to get the d’long.

D’Long = 139°46’ + 122° 25’ = 262° 11’

Note: d’long greater than 180 » subtract from 360°

D’long = 360° – 262°11’ = 97° 49’

To find the distance along the track

Using the Cosine formula on AB we have

Cos AB = Cos D’Long Cos LatA Cos LatB + Sin LatA Sin LatB

= Cos AB = Cos 35° 43’ Cos 37° 48 Cos 97° 49 + Sin 35° 43’ Sin 37° 48’

= 0.8119…. x 0.7901… x (-0.1360..) + 0.5837.. x 0.6129…

= - 0.0872…. + 0.3578…….

P-12
 = 0.270549749

AB = Cos-1 ( 0.270549…)AB

= 74.3030°

= 74.3030 x 60 nmls

= 4458.2 nmls

To find the initial course

Initial Co

k
T rac
e
Circl
at
A Gre

Meridian Through A

NOTE:

You should recall the rules for naming A, B and C from your astro-navigation unit but
we will repeat them here once. You should also ignore any negative signs that appear in
the calculator.

A is always named opposite to LatA EXCEPT when the d’long is greater than 90o

A = Tan LatA / Tan D’long = Tan 35° 43’ / Tan 97° 49’

= 0.7190… / 7.2844…

= 0.0987…..(N)

B is always named the same as LatB

B = Tan LatB / Sin D’long = Tan 37° 48’ / Sin 97° 49’

P-13
 = 0.7756…. / 0.9907….

= 0.7829…..(N)

C is the numerical sum of A and B. if A and B are named the same then simply add them
together. If A ad B have different names then subtract the smaller from the large and name it
the same as the larger of the two values.

C= A±B = 0.0987… (N) + 0.7829… (N)

= 0.881660235 (N)

Tan Azimuth = 1 / ( C x Cos LatA )

= 1 / (088166…. x Cos 35 43’)

= 1 / 0.8816… x 0.8119… )

= 1 / 0.7158….

= 1.396975698

Therefore Azimuth = Tan-1 (1.39969…)

= N 54.4° E
Therefore Initial Course = 054.4° (T)

NOTE:

The way the Azimuth is named is as follows; In front you put whatever C is named as
(this can only be N or S). What goes behind depends on the direction you are sailing.
This can usually be found by inspection or looking at the diagram. In the case above it
would be East as the vessel leaves from Tokyo in an easterly direction.

To find the final course

Final Co Angle

Great Circle Track

Final Course
B

P-14

Meridian Through B
NOTE:

This time we are going to use the ABC formulae to work out the course a vessel would
have to steer if it was going from B to A. Once we have this, then we simply reverse it to
get the course the vessel would be steering at B if it had come originally from A.

A is always named opposite to LatB EXCEPT when the d’long is greater than 90°

A = Tan LatB / Tan D’long = Tan 37° 48’ / Tan 97° 49’

= 0.7756… / 7.2844…

= 0.10648…..(N)

B is always named the same as LatA

B = Tan LatA / Sin D’long = Tan 35° 43’ / Sin 97° 49’

= 0.7190…. / 0.9907….

= 0.7257…..(N)

C is the numerical sum of A and B. If A and B are named the same then simply add them
together. If A and B have different names then subtract the smaller from the large and name it
the same as the larger of the two values.

C= A±B = 0.10648… (N) + 0.7257… (N)

= 0.832242337 (N)

Tan Azimuth = 1 / ( C x Cos LatB )

= 1 / (08322…. x Cos 37 48’)

= 1 / 0.8322… x 0.7901… )

= 1 / 0.64699….

= 1.545611459

Therefore Azimuth = Tan-1 (1.54561…)

= N 57.1° W

NOTE:

The way the Azimuth is named is as follows; Like before it is named North because A
and B are both North, however this time we have named it west because to go from B to
A, we would have to sail west.

P-15
To reverse this to get the final course we simply change the way the azimuth is named. If it
starts with N we change it to S, if it ends in W then we change it to E.

Therefore course going from B to A = N 57.1° W

Final course at B when going from A to B = S 57.1° E

= 122.9° (T)

To find the vertex, when given only initial and final position.

If you are not told the position of the vessel crossing the equator or its course then we will
have to use spherical trigonometry to determine the position of the vertex. There are two
distinct types of vertex problems that can be encountered;

Problems where the vertex lies along the path of the great circle track which the vessel is to
sail.
Problems where the vertex lies outside the path of the great circle track which the vessel is to
sail.
Consider the great circle track in the diagram below.

The diagram above shows part of a great circle track from a position A to some other position
B. In this particular case the track lies in the Northern Hemisphere and P represents the North
Pole of the Earth.
Pole

Vertex V

PA is the meridian passing through A (called the Co-Lat or 90o – LatA)

PB is the meridian passing through B ( called the Co-Lat or 90o – LatB)

V is the vertex of the great circle

P-16
PV is the meridian passing through the vertex

Note at the vertex, the vessels course will be 270o (T). This means that angle PVA will be
equal to 90o and is equal to angle PVB.

Given that we can now identify a right angle within the spherical triangle, we can use Napiers
Rules to solve the problem of obtaining the position of the vertex.

Napier’s Rules

We have already looked at Napier’s Rules in an earlier section and you should go back and
study that section before carrying on. Napier’s Rules can be used in any spherical triangle
where there is either a 90o side or a 90o angle.

The rules state the following;

Sin of the Middle Part = Product of the Cosines of the Opposite Parts (13)

Sin of the Middle Part = Product of the Tangents of the Adjacent Parts (14)

The parts are simply the other sides and angles within the triangle.

To use Napier’s Rules we need to know at least two parts of the triangle, other than the 90o
angle.

Refer back to the triangle PAV, in the diagram above. In this triangle we know

PA , which is the Co-Lat of A

Angle V, which is 90o

Angle A is not given, but we can calculate this given the position of A and B

We need to find;

Side PV, which will give the Co-Lat of the vertex.

Angle P, which will give the d’long of the vertex from A.

Side AV, which will give the distance of the vertex from A.

P-17
If we draw Napier’s Cartwheel for triangle PAV we have the following.

Note:
PV AV All the parts below the horizontal line in the cartwheel are coloured red.
This is to remind you that if these parts appear in the equations, listed
above, then the complimentary trig function must be used.

<P <A

PA

To find the position of the Vertex

P (pole)

Angle P
90 - Lat A
90 - Lat V

A Initial Co Angle

Looking at triangle PAV, we can see that in order to find the position of the vertex, we need
to find two the parts in the triangle, namely;

PV – which is the co-latitude of the vertex. i.e (90o – LatV).

<P – which is the d’long between the meridian through A and the meridian through the
vertex.

We can also see that the two parts that we can determine are;

PA – which is the co-latitude of the initial position. i.e (90o – LatA)

P-18
<A – which is the initial course from A to B

Drawing the cartwheel diagram for the above triangle we have

To find PV
PA and Angle A are quantities
V that we can calculate and are
marked by red circle.

If we wish to find PV the co-lat of

the vertex, marked by a blue
PV AV circle then we can apply Napiers
rules to these three parts .

<P <A
PA

PA and <A are opposite to PV (which is the middle part), hence we use formulae A above

Sin PV = Cos* PA x Cos* <A

Sin PV = Sin PA x Sin <A

Sin (90o – LatV) = Sin (90o – LatA) x Sin <A

Cos LatV = Cos LatA x Sin <A (15)

To find <P

V
As before PA and angle A are
those parts which can be
calculated and the part that is
required is angle P.
PV AV
This time PA is the middle part
and Angles P and A are adjacent
parts, marked with yellow
circles.

<P <A
PA

P-19
PA, <A and <P are all adjacent to one another, with PA being the middle part, therefore we
use equation (14) above.

Sin* PA = Tan* <P x Tan* <A

Cos PA = Cot <P x Cot <A

Cos (90 – LatA) = Cot <P x Cot <A

Sin LatA = Cot <P x Cot <A

Cot <P = Sin LatA x Tan <A (16)

These formulae should now enable us to calculate the vertex of any great circle.

EXAMPLE
A vessel sails on a great circle track from

A (51° 16’N , 5° 17’W) to B (48° 34’N , 43° 59’W)

Find the initial course from A to B and the position of the Vertex.

D’long between A and B = 43° 59’ W – 5° 17’W = 38° 42’ (W)

Pole
P

V A

To find the initial course using ABC formulae

A = Tan LatA / Tan D’long = Tan 51° 16’ / Tan 38° 42’ = 1.556………. (S)

B = Tan LatB / Sin D’long = Tan 48° 34’ / Sin 38° 42’ = 1.812………..(N)

C=AB = 1.812……(N) – 1.556……(S)

= 0.25585…….(N)

P-20
Now Tan Az = 1 / C x Cos LatA

= 1 / (0.25585… x Cos 51° 16’)

= 1 / 0.16008….(N)

= 6.24655……(N)

Azimuth = N 80.9° W

Initial Course = 279.1° (T)

NOTE:

When we calculate PV and <P we only require the numerical value of <A.

We can now use Napier’s Rules to calculate the position of the Vertex.

From (15) above

Cos LatV = Cos LatA x Sin <A

= Cos 51° 16’ x Sin 80.9°…..

= 0.62569… x 0.987428….

= 0.61783….

LatV = Cos-1 (0.61783..)

LatV = 51° 50.5’ N

From (16) above

Cot <P = Sin LatA x Tan <A

= Sin 51° 16’ x Tan 80.9°……

= 0.78006…. x 6.24670……

= 4.8728…..

Tan <P = 1 / 4.8728..

= 0.205219…..

<P = Tan-1 (0.205219…..)

<P = 11° 35.8’

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This will be named WEST because that is the direction the vessel is traveling in.

Therefore longitude of the vertex is

Longitude of A = 5° 17.0’W
+ <P = 11° 35.8’W
Longitude of V = 16° 52.8’W

Therefore the position of the vertex is as follows

51° 50.5’N , 16° 52.8’W

The example above was a case where the vertex of the great circle track lay between the two
points A and B, but this is not always the case.

There are examples of great circle tracks where the vertex lies outside the actual track, that
the vessel will sail, between the departure and arrival positions.

In some cases it is fairly obvious whether the vertex lies between the two points A and B, but
in other cases it is not obvious at all. There are two main methods of determining which type
of problem that you have.

You can either;

a) plot the great circle track on a Gnomonic chart and see directly whether the
track reaches a maximum latitude.

b) Calculate the initial and final courses, using the ABC formulae. If the initial and
final courses are in different quadrants of the compass, then the track has passed
through the vertex. If the initial and final courses are in the same quadrant then
the vertex must lie outside the track, as the course changes quadrants at the
vertex.

Tip:

If the initial and final latitudes are in the same hemisphere and are similar in magnitude then it is likely
that your vessel will pass through the vertex en route.

Also if the initial and final latitudes are named the same and the d’long between the two positions is more
than 90 degrees, then again your vessel must pass through the vertex.
Tip:

P-22
 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

You should now attempt the self-assessment questions below.

The solutions for all the questions are given at the back of this pack, however you should
attempt the questions without checking the solutions, unless you really become stuck.

Don’t forget you can always contact the College for assistance should you require it.

Great Circle sailings

SAQ No 1

Given the initial and final positions of a great circle track as shown below;

A 34° 24’S , 18° 42’E B 39° 42’S , 127° 12’E

Calculate the following:

a) the initial great circle course on the track.

b) the great circle distance between initial and final positions.

c) the position of the nearest vertex.

SAQ No 2

A vessel is to sail a great circle track between the positions given below.

A 4° 18’S , 173° 12’E B 40o 36’S , 127° 18’W

From the information above find EACH of the following:

a) the great circle distance along the track between A and B

b) the initial course from A to B

c) the position of the vertex

P-23
 Composite Great Circle Sailings

In the last section you will have noted that when working out the vertex of a great circle, the
latitude of the vertex was always numerically greater than either the start or end position of
the great circle track.

This is only to be expected , since we defined the vertex as the closes point to the Pole in each
hemisphere, when sailing a great circle track.

To the mariner this can present certain problems, when trying to follow the shortest route
between two points.

There are a number of reasons why a vessel may not want to reach the higher latitudes to be
found on trans ocean great circle tracks.

a) When following a true great circle track the vessel may contravene the Loadline
Regulations if the track takes her to high latitudes.

b) The true great circle track may take the vessel into regions where she may
encounter dangerous ice.

c) The vessel may encounter bad weather at higher latitudes.

d) The limits of the crew agreement may be breached if sailing at high latitudes.

e) Navigation aids may become unreliable at high latitudes, especially magnetic and
gyro-compasses, also the vessel may be unable, due to poor visibility, to obtain
astronomical observations to confirm GPS positions.

f) The limits of latitude for hull insurance purposes may be broken.

g) There may be cargo considerations to be taken into account.

h) Daylight may be limited in high latitudes in winter in a particular hemisphere, this

may restrict maintenance on deck.

i) Charterer’s may impose latitude limits on the vessel.

j) There may be land or islands en route which make the great circle route not
possible.

In spite of this the shipowner will generally want his vessel to take the shortest possible route
that is navigationally feasible and SAFE.

If a direct great circle route is not possible then the next best thing is what is known as a
Composite Great Circle track.

P-24
 Diagram of Composite Great Circle Track

Pole P

X Y

V V'

Direct Great Circle Track

Limiting Latitude
A B

In the diagram above;

P is the relevant pole A is the initial position

B is the final position PA is the co-latitude of initial position (90o – LatA)

PB is the co-latitude of the final position (90o – LatB)

AB is the direct great circle track which passes beyond the limiting latitude

V is the vertex of the first great circle track on the composite route

V’ is the vertex of the second great circle track on the composite route

XY is the limiting latitude

PV is the co-latitude of the vertex (90o – LatV) and will be the same as the co-latitude of the
vertex V’.

VV’ is the parallel sailing leg.

You should also note that <PVA and PV’B are both equal to 90 degrees.

This gives us two spherical triangles, PAV and PBV’, and in each case we have a 90 degree
angle.
P-25
Note: the triangle PVV’ is not a spherical triangle as VV’ is not a great circle.

AV is the distance along the first great circle leg.

V’B is the distance along the second great circle leg.

VV’ is the distance along the parallel sailing leg.

<APV is the d’long between the initial position and the first vertex.

<BPV’ is the d’long between the second vertex and the final position.

<A is the initial great circle course from the departure point.

<B is the final great course to the destination.

In order to calculate all these quantities we need to use Napier’s Rules on the two spherical
triangles and parallel sailing formulae on the parallel sailing leg.

Consider Triangle PAV, where <V is 90 degrees.

Using Napier’s Cartwheel we have;

V

PV AV

<P <A
PA

We would be given the initial and final positions and we would also be told what the limiting
latitude would be, hence we will be able to calculate the following parts within the wheel.

PA – which is (90o – LatA)

PV – which is (90o – LatV)

The other parts that we are normally asked to find would be AV and <P .

AV gives the distance along the initial great circle track and <P will allow us to calculate the
longitude of the vertex.

P-26
To find AV

In this case we use the ,“opposites rule”, because PA is by itself and PV and AV are next to
one another in the wheel. PA will be the middle part.

Therefore by Napier’s Rules we have;

Sin* PA = Cos AV x Cos PV

Cos PA = Cos AV x Cos PV

Cos (90o – LatA) = Cos AV x Cos (90o – LatV)

Sin LatA = Cos AV x Sin LatV

Cos AV = Sin LatA / Sin LatV (19)

To find <P

This time we have PV, PA and <P all next to one another in the wheel, therefore we use
the,”adjacents rule”, and <P will be the middle part.

This gives

Sin* <P = Tan* PA x Tan PV

Cos <P = Cot PA x Tan PV

Cos <P = Cot (90o – LatA) x Tan (90o – LatV)

Cos <P = Tan LatA x Cot LatV

Cos <P = Tan LatA / Tan LatV (20)

Similarly we could do the same procedure in triangle PBV’ and obtain equations for V’B and
<P in that triangle.

The derivation will not be given here, but you satisfy yourself that you can deduce the
following two equations.

In PBV’

Cos BV’ = Sin LatB / Sin LatV’ (21)

Cos <P = Tan LatB / Tan latV’ (22)

P-27
To find VV’

We have already seen how to determine AV and BV’. In order to calculate the total distance
along the track, we need to calculate the distance VV’.

We have already explained that VV’ is the part of the track which follows the parallel of the
limiting latitude. You should recall from the earlier sailing unit that to calculate the distance
along a parallel of latitude you need to use the Parallel Sailing formula, which is given below.

Departure = D’long x Cos Latitude

In the above ;

Departure indicates the E-W distance along the parallel

D’long is the difference in longitude between the two meridians involved

The latitude used in the Cos Lat term is the latitude along which the distance is being
measured.

In the case of VV’ we could rewrite this formula as

Distance = D’long x Cos (limiting Latitude)

The value of the d’long will be the value of <P in the triangle PVV’, however we need to
calculate this indirectly.

We can easily determine the total d’long between A and B, as we have done in previos
examples.

We also know how to work out the <P in both spherical triangles PAV and PBV’.

The total d’long, between A and B, must be equal to the sum of the d’long of the individual
triangles in the diagram above, therefore we can say that

Total d’long = dlong in PAV + d’long in PBV’ + dlong in PVV’

Hence

D’long in PVV’ = Total d’long – ( d’long in PAV + d’long in PBV’ )

In most cases you will be asked to find the positions of the vertices, in which case the d’long
between VV’ can be found directly from the difference in longitude between the position of
the vertices.

P-28
EXAMPLE 1

A vessel is to sail a composite great circle track between the following positions

A 30o 10’S , 170o 24’E

B 32° 18’S , 87° 36’W

The vessel’s charterer’s have stated that the vessel must not go further south than 35 S.

Find:

a) the composite great circle distance between A and B

b) the position of both vertices

Answer

Draw a diagram first to show the track.

Total D’Long = 360o – ( 170o 24’ + 87° 36’)

= 360o – 258°

= 102°

A
B
V V'
Latitude
i ng
Lim it

Pole P

P-29
 Sin* PA = Cos AV x Cos PV

Consider triangle PAV Cos PA = Cos AV x Cos PV

V
Sin LatA = Cos AV x Sin LatV

Cos AV = Sin LatA x/ Sin LatV

AV PV

Sin* <P = Tan PV x Tan * PA

<A Cos P = Tan PV x Cot PA

<P
PA Cos P = Cot LatV x Tan LatA

Cos P = Tan LatA / Tan LatV

Therefore

Cos AV = Sin 30o 10’ / Sin 35°

= 0.502517…. / 0.573576….

= 0.8761117…

AV = Cos-1 ( 0.8761117…)

= 28° 49.4’

AV = 1729.4 nmls

Cos <P = Tan LatA / Tan LatV

= Tan 30o 10’ / Tan 35°

= 0.581235…. / 0.700207…

= 0.830090….

<P = Cos-1 ( 0.830090….)

<P = 33° 53.5’ (E)

Similarly in PBV’

P-30
Cos BV’ = Sin LatB / Sin LatV’

= Sin 32° 18’ / Sin 35°

= 0.53435…. / 0.573576….

= 0.931614….

BV’ = Cos-1 ( 0.931614…..)

= 21° 18.7’

BV’ = 1278.7 nmls

Cos <P = Tan LatB / Tan LatV

= Tan 32° 18’ / Tan 35°

= 0.632173.. / 0.7002075….

= 0.9028376…..

<P = Cos-1 (0.9028376…)

<P = 25° 28.0’ (W)

To find the longitude of V

Longitude of A = 170o 24.0’ E

<P (PAV) = 33° 53.5’ (E)

Longitude of V = 204° 17.5’ E

= 155° 42.5’W

To find the longitude of V’

Longitude of B = 87° 36.0’ W

<P (PBV’) = 25° 28.0’ (W)

Longitude of V’ = 113° 04.0’ W

To find the D’long corresponding to VV’

P-31
Long of V = 155° 42.5’W

Long of V’ = 113° 04.0’W

D’long VV’ = 42° 38.5’

= 2558.5’

Therefore using the parallel sailing formula

Departure = d’long x Cos Lat

= 2558.5’ x Cos 35°

= 2558.5 x 0.819152….

Departure = 2095.8 nmls

We can now obtain the total distance along the composite track by adding

AV +VV’ + V’B

AV = 1729.4 nmls
+ +
VV’ = 2095.8 nmls
+ +
V’B = 1278.7 nmls

Distance = 5103.9 nmls

Position of Vertex V 35° 00.0’ S , 155° 42.5’ W

Position of Vertex V’ 35° 00.0’ S , 113° 04.0’ W

Total Distance 5103.9 nmls

P-32
 Composite Great Circle Sailing Questions

In each case you should calculate the composite great circle distance and determine the
position of the vertex / vertices.

SAQ No 1
Departure Position 34° 54’ S , 56° 14’ W
Arrival Position 33° 54’ S , 28° 25’ E
The limiting latitude should be taken as 37° 30’ South.

SAQ No 2
A vessel is to sail a composite great circle track between the following ports
Durban 29° 52’ S , 31° 03’ E
Freemantle 32° 03’ S , 115° 45’ E
The vessel’s charterer’s have stipulated that the vessel must cross the parallel of 36° S.

SAQ No 3
Find the shortest distance between the following positions so that the vessel will avoid
encountering dangerous ice in latitudes greater than 58° S
Departure Position (off Port Chalmers, NZ) 45° 49’ S , 170o 50’ E
Landfall Position (off Cape Horn) 56° 20’ S , 68° 10’ W

SAQ No 4
A vessel is to sail a composite great circle track between San Diego, USA and Sasebo, Japan
during the northern hemisphere winter season.
In order to avoid adverse head winds and seas, the master has decided that the vessel will not
cross the parallel of 40 N.
Initial position off San Diego 32° 42’ N , 117° 20’ W
Final position off Sasebo 33° 10’ N , 129° 43’ E

SAQ No 5
A vessel is to make a passage between Norfolk, Virginia (USA) to Gibraltar in winter.
Due to restrictions imposed by the cargo insurers, the vessel must stay south of the parallel of
39 N.
Departure position off Norfolk 36° 52’ N , 76° 19’ W
Landfall position off Gibraltar 36° 08’ N , 5° 22’ W

SAQ No 6
A vessel is to carry a full load of Nitrate concentrates from Callao, (Peru) to
Newcastle, (NSW, Australia). The vessel is loaded to her summer marks and must not enter
the winter Loadline Zone which, has its boundary at 33 S.
Departure position off Callao 12° 03’S , 77° 10’W
Landfall position off Newcastle 33° 00’S , 151° 54’E
Calculate the total distance along the allowed composite great circle track and the position of
any vertices.

P-33