SPACE

1. The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects both on it and
round it.

1.1) define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field

 Weight is a force, created by a mass placed in a gravitational field

 Weight depends on the acceleration due to gravity, so the weight of an object
varies, but the mass doesn’t.

1.2) explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done

 Any mass within a gravitational field has gravitational potential energy (GPE)
due to its mass and its position in the field.
 If an object moves within the gravitational field moves, its GPE will change,
therefore the object will have work done on it.

1.3) define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object from a
very large distance away to a point in a gravitational field

W = Fs
Work = mgh
Gm
ΔGPE = mgh g =
r2
GPE = m(Gm/r2)h
GPE = (Gmm)/r

1.a) perform an investigation and gather information to determine a value for

acceleration due to gravity using pendulum motion or computer-assisted technology
and identify reason for possible variations from the value 9.8 ms–2

Aim: To determine the acceleration due to gravity in Tamworth using a pendulum

Method:
1. Set up the apparatus (retort stand, boss head, clamp, string, mass)
2. Measure the length of string, should be approx 1m (measure from clamp to the
bottom of mass)
3. Pull the mass carrier back to approx 30° from the vertical
4. Release the mass and time using a stopwatch how long it takes for 10 full
swings (up and back)
5. Shorten string and repeat

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Results:
Length of Time for 10 oscillations (s) Average Period for T2 (s)
string Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 time (s) one swing
(T) (s)
1.00 20.06 19.82 19.91 19.93 1.993 3.97
0.80 17.62 17.88 17.81 17.77 1.777 3.16
0.60 15.31 15.37 15.46 15.36 1.536 2.36
0.40 12.53 12.60 12.45 12.53 1.253 1.57
0.2 8.69 8.69 8.72 8.70 0.870 0.76

1.b) gather secondary information to predict the value of acceleration due to gravity
on other planets

Planet Mass (kg) Diameter (km) Gravitational

acceleration (ms–2)
Sun 1.99x1030 1392530 275.4
Mercury 3.58x1023 4878 4.01
Venus 4.90x1024 12104 8.92
Earth 5.97x1024 12756 9.8
Moon 7.35x1022 3467 1.6
Mars 6.43x1023 6794 3.52
Jupiter 1.90x1027 142984 24.8
Saturn 5.69x1026 120000 10.5
Uranus 8.68x1025 51800 8.63
Neptune 1.03x1026 49250 11.3
Pluto 1.27x1022 2320 0.63

1.c) analyse information using the expression: F=mg, to determine the weight force
for a body on earth and for the same body on other planets

1. determine the weight of an object of mass 3kg on Earth and on Mars which has a
gravitational acceleration equal to 0.38 that of Earths

Earth: F = mg Mars: F = mg
F = 3 x 9.8 F = 3 x 9.8 x 0.38
F = 29.4 N F = 11.17 N

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2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket
launch, maintain stable orbit and return to Earth.

2.1) describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the
Earth’s gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical components

 Horizontal velocity is always constant

 Vertical velocity is accelerating at the rate due to gravity
 All projectiles have a horizontal and vertical component
 Uy (vertical) = Usinθ
 Ux (horizontal) = Ucosθ

2.2) describe Galileo’s analysis of projectile motion

The motion of an object can be regarded as two separate and independent motions
superimposed on each other. The first is a vertical motion which is subject to
acceleration due to gravity; the second is a horizontal motion, which has no
acceleration.

2.3) explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the gravitational constant and
mass and radius of the planet

To escape the gravitational pull, a projectile fired from the surface of the earth needs
to be given kinetic energy equal to its gravitational potential energy.
So: KE = GPE
2
½mv = (Gmm)/r
v2 = (2Gm)/r
The velocity depends only on the mass of the planet and its radius is independent of
the mass of the projectile.

2.4) outline Newton’s concept of escape velocity

Newton reasoned that, given the faster a projectile was fired the further it would go
before it hit the ground, and then there must be a firing speed that would cause it to
orbit the Earth. He further reasoned that if it was fired faster than this value, then
perhaps it would leave the Earth’s gravitational field.

2.5) identify why the term ‘g-forces’ is used to explain the forces acting on an
astronaut during launch

The g-force scale is a simple scale of measurement. It makes it easier to communicate

the force on astronauts as it is independent of the mass of the astronaut

g-force = (rocket acceleration + 9.8)/9.8

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2.6) discuss the effect of the Earth’s orbital motion and its rotational motion on the
launch of a rocket

 If a rocket is launched towards the east from the equator, the rotational speed
of the Earth adds 1700 km/h to their motion, fuel free
 Mission planners also use the orbital speed of the earth around the sun, about
107,000 km/h to increase the starting velocity of an intra-Solar System rocket
 The Earth must be in the right position to take advantage of this orbital speed,
so there are ‘launch windows’ during which a rocket must be launched. If it is
launched outside these windows, the rocket will start its journey in the wrong
direction or at the wrong time.

2.7) analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the: Law
of conservation of momentum, and Forces experienced by astronauts

 During launch, downward momentum of exhaust gases provide the upwards

impulse to propel the rocket
i.e. Δmv(gases) = –Δmv(rocket)
 The change in momentum of an object is equal to the impulse of an applied
force, so the impulse of the exhaust gases down will be equal to the impulse
applied to the rocket upwards.
i.e. Ft(gases) = –Ft(rocket) so: F(gases) = –F(rocket)
 Most air force pilots experience vision problems at about 4g. 8g causes chest
pains and loss of consciousness. Doctors decided that 3g was ‘safe’
 Researches later found that astronauts cause survive forces up to 20g if:
o They are laying down (stops blood draining from head)
o Face (especially eyes) upward (eyes can pop out)
o On a body countered couch (maximum body support)

2.8) analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects
including satellites orbiting Earth

 Objects travelling in uniform circular motion are always changing direction,

so there must be a net force acting on them
 This force is called a centripetal force and it acts towards the centre if the
circle of motion.
 Centripetal force is given by: F = (mv2)/r

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2.9) compare qualitatively low Earth and geostationary orbits

Low Earth Orbits Geostationary Orbits

Altitude : 250 – 1000km Altitude: 35800km
Orbit: 90mins – 5hrs Orbit: 23hrs 56mins 4secs
 The minimum altitude required to avoid significant atomsphgeriv friction is
250km, the region between this and 100km is known as the low Earth orbit
region. Satellites have orbital periods of between 90mins and 5hrs in this
region
 Low Earth orbits are used by:
o Spy satellites as they cover the whole surface of the earth at least once
a day
o The space shuttle
o Hubble space telescope
 Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth over the equator with a period of 23hrs
56mins 4secs at an altitude of about 36000km
 A geostationary satellite will occupy the same position in space obove the
earth.
 Geostationary orbits are useful for:
o Communications
o Weather mapping

2.10) define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and qualitative relationship
between orbital velocity, the gravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass of
the satellite and the radius of the orbit using Kepler’s Law of Periods

Orbital velocity is a measure of the speed at which a satellite moves around its
primary mass.
Relationship: Fg = Fc
v2 = (Gm)/d
Kepler’s Law of Periods:
d3 / T2 = (Gm) / 4π2

2.11) account for the orbital decay of satellites in Low Earth Orbits

Friction between the satellite and the atmosphere reduces the speed if the satellite, so
gravitational forces can attract it closer to earth where the denser atmosphere with
provide greater frictional forces which will slow it even more and allow gravity to
pull it closer to earth and so on.

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2.12) discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere and
landing in the Earth’s surface

Correct angle:
 During re-entry drag from the atmosphere is both good and bad. It provides
the spacecraft with brakes, but it also produces copious amounts of thermal
energy. The correct angle used to provide the perfect drag is 6.2° ± 1°
Heat:
 The considerable amount of kinetic and potential energy possessed by an
orbiting spacecraft must be lost during re-entry. As the atmosphere decelerates
the spacecraft, the energy is converted into heat. The heat can be tolerated by
using heat shields or insulating surfaces.
G-forces:
 The deceleration of re-entry is huge, creating huge g-forces. High g-forces can
be tolerated by reclining the astronauts so all the blood doesn’t rush to their
head
Radio Blackout:
 Radio blackout is caused by overheated particles ionising as they collide with
the spacecraft
Reaching the Surface:
 Soft landing is needed, parachutes are used

2.13) identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a manned spacecraft
into the Earth’s atmosphere and the consequences of failing to achieve this angle

 For Apollo capsules the angle was 6.2° ± 1°

 If the angle is too shallow, the spacecraft will rebound off the atmosphere
 If the angle is too steep, then the spacecraft will decelerate too quickly,
creating too much heat.

2.a) solve problems and analyse information to calculate the actual velocity of a
projectile from its horizontal and vertical components

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2.b) perform a first-hand investigation, gather information and analyse data to
calculate initial and final velocity, maximum height reached, range and time of flight
of a projectile for a range of situations by using simulations, data loggers an
computer analysis

Aim: To measure the horizontal launch velocity of a projectile abnd use thus to
determine the horizontal range and compare with the actual measured horizontal
range.

Method:
1. Set up an apparatus containing: Basketball, Ramp, Data logger
2. Set up the data logger with a motion sensor to measure the speed of the ball
3. Place the ball at the top of the ramp and release it
4. Start the motion sensor when the ball reaches the bottom of the ramp.
5. Use the data logger to determine the speed of the ball, and measure the
horizontal and vertical ranges of the ball
6. Repeat steps 3-5 for greater accuracy
Results:
Speed (ms–1) Δx (m) Δy (m)
Test 1 1.21 0.485 0.735
Test 2 1.28 0.485 0.735
Test 3 1.30 0.485 0.735

Calculated time: t = 0.387

Actual Δx = Uxt
Test 1 = 0.468m (3.5%)
Test 2 = 0.495m (2.0%)
Test 3 = 0.503m (3.7%)

Conclusion: From the 3 tests, we were able to calculate the horizontal range and
compare it to our measured range. The 3 tests were all under 5% accurate, with the
best being 2% accurate.

2.c) identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on the contribution
of one of the following to the development of space exploration: Tsiolkovsky, Oberth,
Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, O’Neil or von Braun

Robert H. Goddard, an American physicist invented and tested many practical aspects
of rockets and launching. He launched the first liquid fuelled rockets in 1926; he
confirmed that rockets work in a vacuum and showed that an hourglass shaped nozzle
greatly increased efficiency. He experimented with very futuristic ion thrusters.
Goddard also predicted travel to the moon.

2.d) solve problems and analyse information to calculate the centripetal force acting
on a satellite undergoing uniform circular motion about the Earth using:

2.e) solve problems and analyse information using:

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3. The Solar System is held together by gravity.

3.1) describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive object in terms
if its effects on other masses in it

The strength of a gravitational field around a massive object is proportional to the

value of its mass and decreases inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from the centre of the object. So a small heavy plant has a strong gravitational field,
but a large, light planet has a weaker field.

3.2) define Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation:

Newton said that an object attracts every other object in the universe. The two factors
that determine the force of the attraction are: mass of each of the two objects and the
distance between their centres of masses
Mathematically:

3.3) discuss the importance of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation in

understanding and calculating motion of satellites

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation allows us to derive the centripetal force

acting on an orbiting satellite, as Fc = Fg for an object to maintain orbit. It is this
force that holds our solar system together

3.4) identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes

 The slingshot affect is used to achieve an increase in velocity and/or a change

in direction relative to the sun
 A spacecraft is aimed ‘close’ to a planet and as it approaches the spacecraft is
caught by the gravitational field of the planet, and it swings around it.
 The speed at which the space craft exits the field is greater than its entry speed

3.a) present information and use available evidence to discuss the factors affecting
the strength of the gravitational force

The mass of an object and the distance between their centre of mass’ are the two
determinants of the strength of the gravitational force at any particular point. The
distribution of mass within an object is important in determining the uniformity of the
field.

3.b) solve problems and analyse information using:

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4. Current and emerging understanding about time and space has been
dependant upon earlier models of the transmission of light.

4.1) outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light

The aether was the proposed medium that light travelled through.
Property Justification
Fill space Light travels everywhere
Be transparent Cant see it
Permeate all matter Light travels everywhere
Have low density Cannot be detected
Have high elasticity No loss of energy

4.2) describe and evaluate the Michelson-Morley attempt to measure the relative
velocity of the earth through the aether

As the Earth was supposed to be moving through a stationary aether, there should be
an apparent aether wind. The speed if light was supposed to be constant in the aether,
so the aether wind should slow down the light heading into it. The Michelson-Morley
experiment compared the speeds of light rays travelling perpendicular to each other.
The rays’ speed was compared using a interferometer, a device that displays
interference effects. No significant difference was recorded. The experiment was of
sufficient sensitivity according to the aether model, yet failed to detect any presence
of the aether. No matter who did the experiment, where it was done or when it was
done, they all recorded a null result.

4.3) discuss the role of the Michelson-Morley experiments in making determinations

about competing theories

The Michelson-Morley experiment had null results. This split the aether believers two
ways, some maintained their belief that it existed, others rejected it, various new
models of the aether were presented but none could be proven true. It was not until
Einstein proposed his theory of relativity, which meant the aether model wasn’t
needed. Scientists only accepted Einstein’s theory because the Michelson-Morley
experiment put question marks over whether the aether existed or not.

4.4) outline the nature of inertial frames of reference

A frame of reference that is not accelerating is known as an inertial frame of

reference. Motion cannot be detected in an inertial frame of reference. Motion is
detectable in a non-inertial frame of reference, one that is accelerating.

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4.5) discuss the principle of relativity

The theory: all motion is relative. This means that it is impossible to distinguish
between constant velocity and stationary objects without a frame of reference.
Discussion: while the principle of relativity was accepted for most events, the aether
theory meant that it did not hole for light. If the aether existed, then measurements of
the speed of light made from objects moving with a constant velocity would give
different values depending on which way the object was moving relative to the aether.
Constant velocity cannot be detected without reference to a fixed position outside the
frame of reference.

4.6) describe the significance of Einstein’s assumption of the constancy of the speed
of light

This was significant in that it made the concept of the aether unnecessary. If true, it
certainly meant that no experiment whose results relied on a difference in the speed of
light could get positive results. Another consequence of this was thayt we can no
longer regard length and time and fundamental quantities. Only the speed of light is a
constant. This then led to the idea of the space-time continuum. Any event has four
dimensions, three in space and the forth in time in order to define its position in its
frame of reference.

4.7) identify that if c is a constant, then space and time become relative

In the theory of relativity, which assumes that c is a constant for all observers, then
time is relative as well as space. In other words, time passes differently for different
observers, depending upon how fast they are moving.

4.8) discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms of time in contrast
to the original metre standard

The metre was originally defined as on ten-millionth of the length of Earths quadrant
passing through Paris, in 1875. When the SI of units was set up in 1875, the metre
was defined to be the distance between two lines scribed on a single bar of platinum-
iridium alloy. The current definition is much more precise. It is defined as the distance
light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second, in a vacuum.

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4.9) explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequence of special relativity in
relation to: The relativity of simultaneity, The equivalence between mass and energy,
Length contraction, Time dilation and Mass dilation

Simultaneity:
 Refers to how different things happen at the same time. Einstein’s theory of
relativity complicates this simple idea. Events that are simultaneous in one
frame of reference may not be simultaneous in another frame of reference.
 A train is fitted with light operated doors. The light fitting is in the centre of
the roof, and is operated by a train traveller standing in the middle of the floor.
When the train is travelling at half the speed of light, the train traveller turns
on the light. The light travels forwards and backwards with equal speed and
reaches both doors at the same time. The doors then open, and the train
traveller sees them opening simultaneously. An observer standing outside the
train watches this happen, but sees the back door opening before the front.
This is because the back door is advancing on the light waves coming from the
light, while the front door is moving away from the light waves.
Mass and Energy:
 The rest mass of an object is equivalent to a certain quantity of energy. Mass
can be converted into energy under extraordinary circumstances and,
conversely, energy can be converted into mass.
Length Contraction:
 The length of an object is affected by its speed; the proper length of an object
is measured within its rest frame. Observers in different reference frames will
always measure the length to be shorter.
Time Dilation:
 Time in a moving frame if reference always passes more slowly than time in
other frames of reference
Mass Dilation:
 At normal speeds, and light speeds up to about 0.2c, the increase in mass of an
object due to its speed is insignificantly small. At speeds approaching that of
light, mass increases exponentionally, in the same way as time and length,
approaches infinity at c.

4.10) discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and length contraction
for space travel

 The nearest star to Earth is Proxina Centauri; it is about 4.3 light years away.
Travelling at the fastest speed a space probe has ever gone, it would take
43393 years to reach it.
 Provided that relativistic speeds could be reached, the nearest stars could be
reached in several years. For example, travelling to Alpha Centauri at half the
speed of light should take about 8 years. However, due to time dilation and
length contraction, the journey would take significantly less time.

4.a) gather and process information to interpret the results of the Michelson-Morley
experiment

The Michelson-Morley experiment achieved a null result. That is, they did not find
any interference suggesting that there was no aether.

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4.b) perform an investigation to help distinguish between non-inertial and inertial
frames of reference

Aim: To distinguish between non-inertial and inertial frames of reference

Method/Results:
1. When travelling at a constant velocity, two people opposite each other, throw
a ball to one another. The ball carries in a straight line according to the
observers within the reference frame. This is an inertial frame of reference.
2. When travelling at an accelerating velocity, two people opposite each other,
throw a ball to one another. The ball appears to change direction according to
the observers within the reference frame. This is a non-inertial frame of
reference.
Or

Imagine a plum bob hanging in a:

a. An inertial frame:
i. The plum bob will hang straight down
b. A non-inertial frame accelerating forwards
i. The plum bob will swing forwards and backwards
c. A non-inertial frame accelerating around a corner
i. The plum bob will swing side to side

4.c) analyse and interpret some of Einstein’s thought experiments involving mirrors
and trains and discuss the relationship between thought and reality

Imagine that you are sitting in a train facing forwards. The train is moving at the
speed of light. You hold up a mirror in front of you, at arm’s length. Will you be able
to see your reflection in the mirror?

The experiment could have one of two possible outcomes, each of which involves a
dilemma for the scientific community of the time that believed in the aether model:
 No, the reflection will not appear. This is the result predicted by the aether
model, since light can only travel at a set speed (3 × 10 8 m s-1) through the
aether. If the train is travelling at that speed then the light cannot catch the
mirror to return as a reflection. Unfortunately, this violates the principle of
relativity, which states that in an inertial frame of reference you cannot
perform any experiment to tell that you are moving.
 Yes, the reflection will be seen because, according to the principle of
relativity, it would not be possible for the person in the train to do anything to
detect the constant motion with which he or she is travelling. However, a
person watching this from the side of the track should see the light from your
face travelling at twice its normal speed!
Einstein decided that:
 The reflection will be seen as normal, because he believed that the principle of
relativity should always hold true
 The person at the side of the track sees the light travelling normally. But time
passes differently for you on the train and for the person at the side of the
track
 The aether model must be wrong

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4.d) analyse information to discuss the relationship between theory and the evidence
supporting it, using Einstein’s predictions based on relativity that were made many
years before evidence was available to support it

When Einstein proposed his theory of special relativity in 1905, the experimental and
technological capability to verify the predictions did not exist. In 1915 the general
theory of relativity was used to explain anomalous perihelion precession of mercury.
The British astronomer, Eddington announced that observations of stars near the
eclipsed Sun confirmed general relativity's prediction that massive objects bend light.
As technology improved, relativity theory predictions became testable, such as:
 The flying of atomic clocks to determine the existence of time dilation
 The observed increase in the mass of particles accelerated to near light speed.

4.e) solve problems and analyse information using:

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 MOTORS AND GENERATORS

1. Motors use the effect of forces on current-carrying conductors in magnetic

fields.

1.1) discuss the effect on the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying conductor
of variations in: Strength of the magnetic field in which it is located, Magnitude of the
current in the conductor, Length of the conductor in the external magnetic field,
Angle between the direction of the external magnetic field and the direction of the
length of the conductor

Strength of B field:
 The stronger the magnetic field, the strong the force.
Magnitude of current:
 The greater the current, the larger the force will be
Length of conductor:
 The longer the conductor, the greater the force
The angle between B field and current
 The force will increase as the angle increases from 0° to 90°, but as it goes
from 90° to 180°, the force decreases.
Thus, F = BIlsinθ

1.2) describe qualitatively and quantitatively the force between long parallel current-
carrying conductors:

 The force between the conductors exists because the magnetic field due to the
current in each conductor interacts with the magnetic field due to the current
in the other conductor.
 If the two currents are flowing in the same direction, each conductor
experiences an attractive force. If the currents are flowing in opposite
directions, each conductor experiences a repulsive force.
 The magnitude of the force between the two conductors depends on the
magnitude of the current in each wire, increasing or decreasing with the
product of the two currents.
 The force also depends on the distance of separation between the two
conductors, increasing as the conductors are brought closer together, and
decreasing as they are moved apart.
 The force between the conductors depends on the length of the parallel
conductors

1.3) define torque as the turning moment of a force using:

 Torque is the turning affect due to a force.

 The greater the distance from the rotating axis, the greater the torque.

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1.4) identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field

 A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force

that can cause the conductor to move.
 The force is due to the interaction of the magnetic field around the conductor
and the external magnetic field.

1.5) describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field

and describe the net result of the forces

 A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field will experience a

force due to the motor effect
 When a coil is placed in a magnetic field, then one side experiences a force
upwards, the other side a force downwards. This causes rotation.

1.6) describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each feature

Rotor:
 The coils of wire around a laminated wire frame. These coils carry the current
to create the force due to the motor effect
Armature:
 Consists of a cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle. It carries the
rotor coils.
Commutator:
 A device with semicircular contacts that reverses the direction of the current
flowing in each coil to maintain constant torque

1.7) identify that the required magnetic fields in DC motors can be produced either by
current-carrying coils or permanent magnets

 The magnetic field required in motors can be provided by a permanent magnet

or by an electro magnet, which consists of a coil wound around a soft iron core
 Electromagnets produce much stronger magnetic fields than permanent
magnets.

1.a) solve problems using:

1.b) perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the motor effect

Aim: to demonstrate the motor effect

Method:
1. Hold a magnet close to the coil so that the force exerted on the coil will
allow it to spin. Determine the direction of the force using the FBI rule.

Results: When the magnet was held near the electric current, a force was exerted on
the conductor. Using the FBI rule we were able to determine the direction of the
force.
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1.c) solve problems and analyse information about the force on current-carrying
conductors in magnetic fields using: F = BIlsinθ

E.g. B = 2T F = BIlsinθ
I = 5A F = 2 x 5 x 0.15 x sin60°
l = 0.15m F = 1.3N
θ = 60°

1.d) solve problems and analyse information about simple motors using: τ =nBIAcosθ

1.e) identify data sources, gather and process information to qualitatively describe
the application of the motor effect in: Galvanometers, and Loudspeakers

Galvanometer:
 The motor effect is used to measure the magnitude of an electric current. The
current is passed through a coil suspended in the field of a permanent U-
shaped magnet. The resulting motor effect produces a torque on the coil in
proportion to the magnitude of the current.
 The pole faces of the magnet are curved to surround the coil and there is a soft
iron core inside the coil. These features ensure that the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the coil and is of relatively constant value within the range of
rotation of the coil. Thus, the torque on the coil remains proportional to the
current as the coil rotates.
 The motor effect on the coil is opposed by a coil spring whose restoring force
is proportional to the angle of rotation of the coil. When the torque due to the
motor effect is balanced by the restoring force of the spring, a pointer attached
to the coil indicates the magnitude of the current on a suitable scale.
Loudspeaker:
 The motor effect is used in a loudspeaker to produce sound from an audio
frequency electrical signal. The alternating current signal is passed through a
coil which is suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. This induces a
motor effect, causing the coil to vibrate as the force on the coil due to the
magnetic field changes direction at the same frequency as the input signal. The
speaker cone attached to the coil also vibrates, producing sound waves in the
surrounding air.

Page 16 of 56
2. The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field is used to
generate an electrical voltage.

2.1) outline Michael Faraday’s discovery of the generation of an electric current by a

moving magnet

1. Faraday wound an insulated copper coil around a card and attached each end
of the coil to a sensitive current measuring device. He then inserted a magnet
through the card fold and induced a small current reading whilst the magnet
was moving. Faraday found
a. Faster the motion, greater the current.
b. Reversing the magnet poles, reversed the current
c. The stronger the magnet, the stronger the current
2. Faraday’s second experiment replaced the moving magnet with a primary coil
attached to a battery and switch. When it was switched on, there was a small
current induced in the secondary coil. When switched off, there was another
slight surge in the opposite direction.

2.2) define magnetic field strength B as magnetic flux density

Magnetic flux density is a measure of how intense the magnetic field is, or the
strength of the field.

2.3) describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density and
surface area

Magnetic flux (Φ) is a measure of the total amount of magnetic field permeating a
space. Magnetic flux is proportional to the magnetic field strength and also
proportional to the surface area the B field is penetrating. Φ = B x A

2.4) describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of magnetic flux
through a circuit

Faradays law: the magnitude of an induced current in a conductor is directly

proportional to the rate that the conductor cuts the magnetic flux.

2.5) account for Lenz’s Law in terms of conservation of energy and relate it to the
production of back emf in motors

Lenz’s Law: the direction of the induced EMF is such as to oppose the change that
caused it. The law of conservation of energy state that no energy can be created or
destroyed. Thus, the force created will always appose the original force as to conserve
energy. Back EMF is caused by Faraday’s law; the moving magnetic induces a
current in the wire coils which opposes the original current.

Page 17 of 56
2.6) explain that, in electric motors, back emf opposes the supply emf

In an electric motor, a rotor spins due to a supply current interacting with a B field,
but due to the moving B field, a current is induced in the coil in the opposite direction
to the supply current (Lenz’s Law). This is called back EMF. The back emf increases
as the speed of the motor increases. If there were no back emf, the motor would
continue to spin faster and faster indefinitely.

2.7) explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenz’s Law

An eddy current is a swirling current set up in a conductor (usually a plate) in

response to a changing magnetic field. Lenz's Law says if an induced current flows,
its direction is always such that it will oppose the change of flux that produces it. That
is, the polarity of the magnetic field produced by the eddy current is such that it
opposes the relative motion of the magnetic field that induced the eddy current.

2.a) perform an investigation to model the generation of an electric current by moving

a magnet in a coil or a coil near a magnet

2.b) plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation
to predict and verify the effect on a generated electric current when: Distance
between the coil and magnet is varied, Strength of the magnet is varied, and Relative
motion between the coil and the magnet is varied

Aim: To predict the effect on a generated current when, the distance between the coil
and magnet is varied, the strength of the B field is varied and the relative motion
between the coil and the magnet is varied

Method 1 (distance):
1. Set up a circuit with a solenoid and a galvanometer, but no power source
2. Hold the magnet about 20cm away from the solenoid and thrust it towards the
solenoid but stop when the magnetic is about 10cm away from it. Record the
greatest reading on the galvanometer
3. Repeat step 2, but stop 5cm from the solenoid, then 2cm, then 0cm. Record all
results of the greatest current in a table

Results 1:
Distance (cm) Current generated (µA)
10 0.5
5 1
2 5
0 20

Method 2 (B field strength):

1. Set up a circuit with a solenoid and a galvanometer, but no power source
2. Hold one magnet away from the solenoid and thrust it towards it. Record the
greatest reading on the galvanometer in a table
3. Repeat step 2 but holding 2, 3 and 4 magnets together. Ensure the same pole is
facing towards the solenoid for each test.

Results 2:

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 B strength (No. of magnets) Current generated (µA)
1 20
2 30
3 40
4 60

Method 3 (speed):
1. Set up a circuit with a solenoid and a galvanometer, but no power source
2. Hold a magnet away from the solenoid and thrust it towards the solenoid at a
relatively quick speed. Record the greatest reading on the galvanometer in a
table
3. Repeat step 2, but slowing the speed down to a medium apace and then a slow
pace

Results:
Relative speed Current generated (µA)
Slow 10
Medium 25
Fast 40

Conclusion: From these 3 methods, we were able to determine the effect on a

generated current when: the distance between the coil and magnet is varied, the
strength of the B field is varied and the relative motion between the coil and the
magnet is varied. We found the greater the distance, the smaller the current, the
greater the B field strength, the greater the current and the faster the magnet moves,
the greater the current.

2.c) gather, analyse and present information to explain how induction is used in cook
tops in electric ranges

In induction cook tops, the heat is generated within the pan and not the actual cook
top. This means that there is virtually no heat lost to the surroundings. Induction cook
tops have an AC solenoid below a ceramic surface which creates a moving magnetic
field and therefore produces eddy currents in the base of the pan. The resulting rapidly
changing magnetic flux within the base of the pan, induces strong eddy currents
causing resistive heating.

2.d) gather secondary information to identify how eddy currents have been utilised in
electromagnetic braking

When moving wheels pass between strong magnetic fields, eddy currents are
introduced in the wheels. These interact with the magnetic field to produce a force
that slows the wheel down. As the wheel slows, the induced currents are smaller and
braking is smoother.

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3. Generators are used to provide large scale power production.

3.1) describe the main components of a generator

Armature: The armature is the part of a generator that contains the current-carrying
coils. These carry the induced current caused by the changing magnetic field
Coils: These are the many loops of wires that carry electrical current.
Rotor: The rotor generally consists of coils of wire wound around a laminated iron
frame. The frame is attached to an axle or shaft that allows it to rotate. The iron frame
is laminated to reduce eddy currents
Stator: The stator is the permanent magnet that provides the external magnetic field
around the rotor. These magnets are curved to maximise torque.
Split-ring Commutator: Semicircular metal contacts that reverse the direction of the
current flowing out of the rotor coil every half rotation (DC).
Slip-ring Commutator: Circular metal contacts. Each slip ring is connected to one end
of the coils in the rotor. These provide an AC that changes direction every half
rotation
Brushes: Conducting contacts that connect the commutators to the external circuit.

3.2) compare the structure and function of a generator to an electric motor

Motors Generators
 Have a power source  Don’t have a power source
 Convert electrical energy into  Convert kinetic energy into
kinetic energy electrical energy
 Almost identical structures except from their input and output components

3.3) describe the differences between AC and DC generators

 DC generators have a split-ring commutator to ensure the delivery of DC

current to the external circuit
 AC generators have a slip-ring commutator to ensure delivery of AC current to
the external circuit

3.4) discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through transmission lines
from the generator to the consumer

Energy can be lost in the transmission of electricity due to the heating effect.
P = VI and V = IR
P = IRI
P = I2R
P α I2

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3.5) assess the effects of the development of AC generators on society and the
environment

Environment:
Disadvantages:
 Removal of vegetation, removal of habitat and protection for animals
 Power stations emit gases that pollute the atmosphere and heat waterways
 Ugly power lines fill the countryside
 Power poles provide hazards on roads and in town
Advantages:
 Lines provide nesting places for birds
Society
Disadvantages:
 Health concerns for people living near lines
 Made us lazy (i.e. use of power tools)
 Cost for power
Advantages:
 Changed lifestyles
 Improved work opportunities
 Improved education
 24/7 communication

3.a) plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation
to demonstrate the production of an alternating current

Aim: To produce an alternating current

Method:
4. Set up a circuit with a solenoid and a galvanometer, but no power source
5. Using a magnet, induce a current in the wire by thrusting it back and forth.
The trusting movement will reverse the current every time the movement of
the magnet reverses. This produces an alternating current.

Results: An alternating current was produced

3.b) gather secondary information to discuss advantages/disadvantages of AC and

DC generators and relate these to their use

Advantages of AC:
 AC generators produce AC current that is easy to transform so it can be
transmitted at high voltage, low current to minimise energy loss by heating
and then can be stepped down for consumer use
 AC generators have fewer moving parts and are easier and cheaper to maintain
Disadvantages of AC:
 The production of back EMF due to moving B field. This lowers power output
and wires carrying AC require thicker insulation to minimise interference from
EMR

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Advantages of DC:
 Do not need as much insulation for transmission as there is no high frequency
EMR transmitted
 No energy loss in transmission due to induction in adjacent lines and metal
structures
Disadvantages of DC:
 Cannot be transformed
 Wear quicker due to constant rubbing between commutator and brushes means
they require more maintenance and cost more to run.

3.c) analyse secondary information on the competition between Westinghouse and

Edison to supply electricity to cities

In the late 1800s a rivalry developed in the US over the type of electricity that
should be generated. Thomas Edison established a system based in DC electricity.
One of the major drawbacks of DC was that it couldn’t be transformed, so it had to be
transmitted at household voltage. Transmission therefore required large currents and
this limited the distances DC could be transmitted because of the huge power losses as
a result of resistive heating. This meant that power stations had to be built every few
kilometres.
When Edison was establishing his system of DC, there was no alternative,
until; Nicola Tesla a former employee of Edison’s developed an AC generator. The
patents for these were promptly purchased by George Westinghouse. AC current has
the advantage that voltage and current could be changed using transformers. It could
therefore be generated at low voltages and converted to high voltages and low
currents for transmission. This allowed transmission over long distances to be
economical with minimal energy loss.
Edison started promoting AC as unsafe. To do this he used an AC generator to
electrocute animals. The final showdown between AC and DC came when it was
proposed that Niagara Falls would be used to generate hydroelectricity. Westinghouse
was awarded the job. AC was eventually adopted as the standard world wide.

3.d) gather and analyse information to identify how transmission lines are: Insulated
from supporting structures, Protected from lightning strikes

Insulation from structures: In dry weather, air sparks can jump 1mm for every 1kV.
Some lines carry 330kV, which is a jump of 33cm. In high humidity this can
significantly increase. So, to stop sparks from jumping from the lines to the towers,
they are held away from the towers by insulators. The insulators are made out of
many ceramic disc shaped pieces to minimise weight and also pollution build up and
also so it dries faster in wet whether.

Protection from lightning: Power poles have an extra wire above all other wire that
doesn’t usually carry a current, unless there is a fault in the line or a lightning strike
hits it. The line regularly goes from the top down to Earth so that the extra current just
runs back to Earth.

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4. Transformers allow generated voltage to be either increased or decreased
before it is used.

4.1) describe the purpose of transformers in electrical circuits

Transformers are used to increase the transmission voltage to reduce energy loss due
to heating. They are then used again to decrease the voltage back down to consumer
level.

4.2) compare step-up and step-down transformers

Step-up transformers: The output voltage is greater than the input voltage. The
secondary coil has more coils than the primary coil.
Step-down transformers: The output voltage is less than the input voltage. The
secondary coil has fewer coils than the primary coil

4.3) identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of turns in the primary
and secondary coils and the ratio of primary to secondary voltage

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage in a transformer is the same as the ratio of
the number of turns in the primary to secondary coils.

Mathematically:

4.4) explain why voltage transformations are related to conservation of energy

Since energy must be conserved and power is the rate at which energy is converted,
then power must also be conserved if no energy is being stored (or lost) in the
transformer.
P (in) = P (out)

4.5) explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-stations

Electricity is produced at 23kV. It is then stepped up to 330kV or 500kV for

transmission. It is then stepped-down to 130kV at terminal substations. Then at zone
substations, it is stepped down to 11kV. The final transformer is usually located on
the power pole itself which steps it down to 230V or 415V (three phase).

4.6) discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are connected to the
mains domestic power supply use a transformer

Not all appliances run off 230V, some TVs need up to 30,000V so they have a step-up
transformer inbuilt. Mobile phones, laptops and many other small appliances only
require 12V – 19V. They have inbuilt step-down transformers as it isn’t economically
to transmit many different voltages.

Page 23 of 56
4.7) discuss the impact of the development of transformers on society

Advantages:
 We now have the ability to transmit high voltages, low currents. More
efficient
 We have the ability to step-up or step-down voltage for a range of appliances
 People are now more efficient as we have a greater use for electricity
 We now have power in very remote areas
Disadvantages:
 People have become more lazy and rely on electricity more

4.a) perform an investigation to model the structure of a transformer to demonstrate

how secondary voltage is produced

Aim: To model the structure of a transformer

Method:
1. Set up two circuits, one with just a power source and a solenoid and the
second with a solenoid (less coils) and a galvanometer
2. Turn the power pack to 12V, AC power
3. When the power pack is switched on, a current will be induced in the
secondary coil, it will also be a lower voltage due to the less coils in the
solenoid

Results: A transformer was modelled

4.b) solve problems and analyse information about transformers using:

4.c) gather, analyse and use available evidence to discuss how difficulties of heating
caused by eddy currents in transformers may be overcome

 Laminated iron core, reduces the amount of eddy currents.

 Cooling vents on the metal case
 Coolant flowing around box to keep it cool
 Fans inside the case
 Having transformers above ground

4.d) gather and analyse secondary information to discuss the need for transformers in
the transfer of electrical energy from a power station to its point of use

Electricity is generally consumed at 230V or 415V. If there were no

transformers, electricity would have to be generated and distributed at these voltages.
It is more efficient to generate electricity at high voltages, such as 23V. It is
also more efficient to transmit electricity at very high voltages like 500kV because at
these voltages the currents are really small meaning, less power loss. High voltages
are achieved with step-up transformers.
After transmission, step-down transformers are used at various stations to get
the voltage down to the consumer level of 230V.

Page 24 of 56
5. Motors are used in industries and the home usually to convert electrical
energy into more useful forms of energy.

5.1) describe the main features of an AC electric motor

 An AC induction motor consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator consists of a

series of wire coils wound on a soft iron cores that surround the rotor. These
are connected to an external power supply in such a way that they produce a
magnetic field whose polarity rotates at constant speed in one direction.
 The rotor consists of coils wound around a laminated iron armature mounted
on an axle. The rotor coils are not connected to the external power supply. An
induction motor has no commutator or brushes
 Eddy currents are induced in the rotor coils by the rotating magnetic field of
the stator. The eddy currents produce magnetic field which interacts with the
rotating field of the stator to exert a torque on the rotor in the direction of
rotation of the stator.

5.a) perform an investigation to demonstrate the principle of an AC induction motor

Aim: To demonstrate the principle of AC induction motors

Method:
1. Full up a tub about half full of water
2. Make a drill bit that has a magnet on the end so that it rotates like the stator in
an AC motor
3. Place the aluminium dish on the water and hold the drill just over it. Spin the
drill and observe what happens to the dish
4. Repeat step 3 for an aluminium disc and plastic disc

Results:
Object tested Observations
Aluminium dish Spins quickly
Aluminium disc Spins a little slower
Plastic disc Barely spins

Conclusion: The principle of an AC induction motor was demonstrated by rotating a

magnet above an aluminium dish and disc. The moving magnetic field induced eddy
currents in the aluminium and as a result, it spun.

5.b) gather, process and analyse information to identify some of the energy transfers
and transformations involving the conversion of electrical energy into more useful
forms in the home and industry

 To heat – Cooking, heaters

 To sound – Radio, TVs, CDs, electric saws
 To light – Light bulbs, TV’s
 To Kinetic energy – Electric saws, ceiling fans

Page 25 of 56
 FROM IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION

1. Increased understandings of cathode rays led to the development of television.

1.1) explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays caused debate
as to whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves

 Heinrich Hertz performed an experiment in 1883 that appeared to show that

cathode rays were not deflected by electric fields, suggesting that they were
waves as waves don’t carry a charge, but his results were incorrect.
 JJ Thompson performed an experiment that showed that a cathode ray beam
was visibly deflected by an electric field; this was interpreted as indicating that
cathode rays were charged particles.
 In 1892, hertz also showed that cathode rays penetrated thin metal foils. This
was interpreted to mean that they were electromagnetic waves
 These conflicting results arose from inadequacies in experimental design and
the current state of knowledge about the nature of atoms

1.2) explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of charged
particles

 The discovery of vacuum cathode ray tubes enabled scientists to produce a

continuous beam of cathode rays rather than short discharge sparks.
 This meant that they were able to observe the rays for longer and take
measurements that were not possible with small discharges

1.3) identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field experience a force

A moving charged through a B field will experience a force due to the interaction
between the particles B fields and the external B field.

1.4) identify that charged plates produce an electric field

Field between charged plates:

 Is directed from the positive plate to the negative
 Electric field between plates is uniform
 Strength of the field is given by:

1.5) describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a magnetic
field: F = qvBsinθ

F = qvBsinθ
F: force on charges object (N)
q: size of charge (C)
v: velocity of charge (ms–1)
θ: angle between B and v

Page 26 of 56
1.6) discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charge, positive and
negative charges and oppositely charged parallel plates

 The strength of the electric field due to a point charge diminishes with
distance from the object. The direction of the field is defined as the direction
that a positive charge would move.
 The electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates is uniform in
strength and direction. The direction is again defined as the direction in which
a positive charge would move.

1.7) describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely charged parallel plates

where: E = electric field strength (Vm–1)

V = volts between plates (V)
d = distance between plates (m)

1.8) outline Thomson’s experiment to measure the charge/mass ratio of an electron

Method:
1. Adjust so: F (e) = F (b)
qE = qvB
v = E/B
2. Turn off e field:
F (b) = F (c) (rotation in B field)
qvB = (mv2) / r
q(E/B) = [m(E/B0) 2] / r
qE = (mE2) / (B2r)
q/m = E / (B2r)
= 1.76x1011

1.9) outline the role of: Electrodes in the electron gun, The deflection plates or coils,
The fluorescent screen in the cathode ray tube of conventional TV displays and
oscilloscopes

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

 Electron gun:
o The electron gun produces and accelerates the electron beam. It
consists of a heater, cathode and anode. The heater is a wire filament
with a large current so that it reaches high temperatures.
o Electrons in the cathode then acquire enough energy to escape the
cathode and enter the region between the cathode and the anode. They
accelerate towards the anode which is very narrow so it focuses the
beam.
 Deflection plates:
o There are two sets of plates. One set to deflect horizontally, the other
deflect vertically.
o The two vertical plates deflect the electrons horizontally and are called
the x-plates
o The two horizontal plates deflect the electrons vertically and are called
the y-plates
 Fluorescent screen:
Page 27 of 56
 o The screen is coated with a material which illuminates when electrons
hit it
Television:
 Electron gun:
o Three separate guns, one for each primary colour (blue, red, green)
o Shoots electrons towards focusing coils
 Deflecting coils:
o Circular plate around the tube. Contains coils that create a B field and
deflect the electrons into their place
 Fluorescent screen:
o Covering the screen is a shadow mask which guides the electron into
the correct place. The screen has different coloured phosphor which
illuminates different colours. The mask directs the electron beam into
their respective phosphor colour to create a picture on the screen.

1.a) perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to observe the

occurrence of different striation patterns for different pressures in discharge tubes

Low pressure:
Medium pressure:
High pressure:

1.b) perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify properties of cathode rays

using discharge tubes: Containing a Maltese cross, Containing electric plates, With a
fluorescent display screen, Containing a glass wheel, Analyse the information
gathered to determine the sign of the charge on cathode rays

Cathode ray tube used Results observed Property of cathode rays

Maltese cross Casts a shadow on the end Wave as it travels in a
of the tube straight line
Screen display Line moves with B field Charged particle
Rotating wheel Wheel moves along track Particles have momentum
Electric plates Ray bent Charged particle

1.c) solve problem and analyse information using: F = qvBsinθ, F = qE and

Page 28 of 56
2. The reconceptualisation of the model of light led to an understanding of the
photoelectric effect and black body radiation.

2.1) describe Hertz’s observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and the
photoelectric effect he produced but failed to investigate

 Hertz observed that discharges in one coil produced discharges in a second

coil about 1.5m away. He proposed that an invisible radiation produced by the
discharges in his first coil and travelled through the ait to the second coil
producing discharges as a result.
 During his experiments, hertz found that if he shone ultraviolet light on the
second coil the spark jumped the gap more easily. He realised from this that
light and electricity must be connected in some way and called it the
photoelectric effect.

2.2) outline qualitatively Hertz’s experiments in measuring the speed of radio waves
and how they relate to light waves

 In 1887 Hertz produced experimental evidence for the existence of

electromagnetic waves, theoretically predicted by Maxwell in 1864
 Hertz set up an induction coil, as sparks were generated across a small gap
they induced sparks in a detecting loop a small distance away. This spark was
evidence for electromagnetic waves travelling trough space from the induction
coil to the detecting loop.
 Hertz was able to calculate the velocity of the waves by reflecting the
generated waves of a metal sheet and measuring the wavelength of the
standing wave set up by interference. Substituting this wavelength and the
known frequency of the wave generator into the wave equation, Hertz
calculated the wave speed to be 3x108ms–1

2.3) identify Planck’s hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a
black body cavity is quantised

Plank explained that the observations involved the radial idea that energy could only
be radiated absorbed in small discrete amounts, later called quanta. The size of each
quantum of energy is characteristic of the frequency of light emitted.

2.4) identify Einstein’s contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black body
radiation

Einstein explained Planck's work in the following way:

The energy associated with the radiation from a black body is concentrated in packets
of energy called photons. A photon is the smallest amount of radiation energy
possible at a particular frequency. A photon cannot transfer part of its energy: it can
only transfer all of its energy or none of it. The amount of energy carried by a photon
is proportional to its frequency. The intensity of light is proportional to the number of
photons. The energy possessed by a photon is proportional to its frequency, hence the
observation, in relation to black body radiation, that the shorter the wavelength (thus
the higher the frequency) the greater the total energy radiated (for a given
temperature)

Page 29 of 56
2.5) explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular energy and
frequency

A photon carries an amount of energy that is proportional to the frequency of the

radiation (light). All photons of light of a particular frequency have precisely the same
amount of energy. The higher the frequency of the light, the more energy the photon
possesses, thus photons of ultraviolet light have higher energy than those of blue light,
which in turn have higher energy than photons of red light.

2.6) identify the relationships between photon energy, frequency, speed of light and
wavelength: E = hf, and c = fλ

E α f and fα1/λ
c and h are constants
E = hf
c = fλ
E = (hc) / λ

2.a) perform an investigation to demonstrate the production and reception of radio

waves

Aim: To demonstrate the production and reception of radio waves

Method:
1. Set up a circuit with and induction coil.
2. Set up a radio receiver some distance away from the coil and tune it into the
frequency of the waves
3. Turn the induction coil on and you will hear static come through the radio
receiver

Results: Radio waves were produced from the induction coil and then received by a
radio.

2.b) identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information and use available
evidence to assess Einstein’s contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black
body radiation

Einstein applied and expanded Plank’s idea about quanta which had been developed
from Plank’s observations of black body radiation when he used them to explain the
photoelectric effect. This added to the credibility of the idea of quanta (which wasn’t
widely supported in the scientific community as it went against classical theory) and
widened the support for the theory in the scientific world. In addition, Einstein
expanded quanta to apply to light and in this way opened a door for the development
of the dual theory for light which we still accept. It was also Einstein’s application of
quanta that stimulated Bohr’s mind to develop his solar system model of the atom. So,
Einstein's application of quanta was important in two directions – it supported a newly
developing idea and stimulated others.

Page 30 of 56
2.c) identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the
use of the photoelectric effect in photocells

A photocell detects light and transforms the energy into electricity using the
photoelectric effect. When light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency of
the cathode material falls on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted because the
electrons have enough energy to leave the surface of the metal. This is the
photoelectric effect. These electrons are collected by the anode and an electric current
starts flowing in the external circuit. The current would stop if the light does not fall
on the cathode or the frequency of the light was less than the threshold frequency.

2.d) solve problems and analyse information using: E = hf, and c = fλ

2.e) process information to discuss Einstein’s and Planck’s differing views about
whether science research is removed from social and political forces

Einstein and plank were both German scientists, working on research during the rise
of Hitler in Germany. Einstein felt uncomfortable about the direction of the political
forces in Germany as they were pushing the scientists towards the war effort. Plank
felt that conducting scientific research was important, regardless of the driving force
behind it, or to what use the research was going to be put to. Einstein did not think
scientists should be helping to kill people. Einstein felt so strongly, he eventually left
Germany to continue his research, trying to ensure that Germany would not be the
first to develop horrific weapons. Plank remained in Germany having his research
supported by the government of the time.

Page 31 of 56
3. Limitations of past technologies and increased research into the structure of
the atom resulted in the invention of transistors.

3.1) identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move freely

In some solids, the outer electrons are very loosely bonded to other atoms. This allows
electrons to move freely between these atoms.

3.2) describe the difference between conductors, insulators, and semiconductors in

terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance

In a conductor, the conduction and valence bands overlap. This allows the
valence electrons to easily move to the conduction band with minimal energy added.
In insulators there is a large energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band. This often referred to as the forbidden energy gap. The gap is too
large for electron to just jump up, they will need huge amounts of energy to jump, and
thus, they are generally referred to as non-conductors.
In semiconductors, the energy gap is very small. This means that under certain
conditions, they will conduct. The electrons in the valence bad need to gain small
amounts of energy to jump bands, this energy usually come from heat.

3.3) identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that
both electrons and holes help carry current

In semiconductors, when an electron leaves the valence band to jump into the
conduction band, they leave a hole in the valence band. These holes act as positive
charges and attract electrons to move into these holes. The electrons continue to move
from hole to hole, thus creating a current. The electrons will move in one direction
(towards the positive end) and holes will move the opposite way (towards the
negative end).

Page 32 of 56
3.4) compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift from
atom to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators

Conductors have many free electrons that are able to drift to create a current.
Insulators have no free electrons that are able to drift to create a current.
Semiconductors have some free electrons that are able to drift to create a current, but
these few need some added energy before they can move freely.

3.5) identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of ability
to produce other materials of suitable purity

Germanium was used in the growth early transistors as it was easily purified
compared to other known semi-conductors such as silicon. It has about 1000 times
less resistivity compared to silicon which therefore makes it a much better conductor.
At the time of early electronics, silicon crystals could not be made pure enough and
they had to be pure to work. However, germanium was phased out due to many
reasons, one of which is that it didn’t handle heat well. At high temperatures it lost its
semi-conductor properties, this makes it unreliable in circuits. Another being that it
isn’t very abundant in the earth crust making it relatively expensive to extract.
Silicon eventually replaced germanium in transistors as it is one of the most
abundant elements on earth, it can handle heat much better than germanium, and as
technology developed, so did purifying techniques so it became much cheaper and
easier to purify silicon crystals.

3.6) describe how ‘doping’ a semiconductor can change its electrical properties

Doping is the addition of an impurity to a semiconductor to either create holes or add

extra electrons. The semiconductor is either doped with a group III element such as
boron or a group V element such as phosphorus. When doped with boron, it creates a
hole due to boron only having 3 valence electrons. This allows electrons to move
around in the valence band and this creating a current. When doped with phosphorus,
it leaves an extra electron as phosphorus had 5 electrons in its valence shell. This
means that the electron is free to move and again, conduction can occur in the valence
band.

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3.7) identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative
number of negative charge carriers and positive holes

P-type semiconductors have a hole

where the 4 electron from silicon
used to be.

N-type semiconductors have an extra

electron.

3.8) describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss why
solid state devices replaced thermionic devices

When metals are heated to great temperatures, they emit electrons. This
phenomenon is known as thermionic emission. A thermionic device is a vacuum tube
that contains a cathode that releases electrons through thermionic emission.
A solid state device uses a semiconductor to conduct electricity. These require
much less energy to work as they do not rely on thermionic emission, so there is no
heating element needed.

The simplest form of a thermionic device is a diode. This contains a cathode,

and anode within a vacuum tube. When the cathode gets hot enough, it will emit
electrons due to thermionic emission and these electrons will move to the anode thus
creating a circuit. If an alternating current is applied across the diode, it will only
conduct when the cathode is negative and the anode is positive. As a consequence of
this, diodes change AC into DC (rectify alternating current).
A solid state device works by using doped semiconductors to complete the
circuit. Connected to the positive terminal is a p-type semiconductor and connected to
the negative is an n-type semiconductor. Due to the circuit, the extra electron in the n-
type semiconductor, and the holes in the n-type, electron flow through the metal and
thus creating a circuit.

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 Advantages Disadvantages
Thermionic  Rectifies an alternating  Requires heating element so
Devices current it requires high voltages to
run
 Requires a vacuum tubes
which are fragile and
expensive
 They are large and heavy
 Takes time before
conducting as the cathode
needs to heat up
Solid-State Devices  Small and light weight  Difficult to find pure semi-
 Cheap to manufacture metals to dope.
 Works faster
 Much more durable

These combined advantages of the smaller, more durable, solid state devices
made then more attractive for electronic developers compared to the much larger,
more fragile thermionic devices.

3.a) perform an investigation to model the behaviour of semiconductors, including the

creation of a hole or positive charge on the atom that has lost an electron and the
movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions when an electric field is
applied across the semiconductor

Procedure:
1. Place two separated halves of an egg carton side-by-side and 5 cm apart.
2. Place a ball bearing into each of the egg holders in one side of the egg carton.
The ball bearing represents an electron. This side will be the VALENCE
BAND.
3. Now remove ONE ball bearing from an egg holder in each row. This
represents doping a semiconductor to create a “hole”.
4. Raise ONE end of the half of the egg carton containing the ball bearings until
a ball bearing falls into the space left by removing the first ball. Raising the
carton represents the applied potential difference. The movement of the ball
bearing represents the electron movement and the apparent movement of the
empty egg holder represents hole movement.
5. Repeat the first two steps EXCEPT place extra ball bearings (electrons)
between the egg holders. This represents doping a semiconductor to create an
n-type.
6. Slowly tilt the half of the egg carton containing ball bearings TOWARDS the
empty half.
7. Stop tilting when ANY of the extra ball bearings make it across.

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3.b) gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how shortcomings
in available communication technology lead to an increased knowledge of the
properties of materials with particular reference to the invention of the transistor

The transistor was invented by William Shockley in 1948. He proposed the

‘sandwich’ structure which was different to all other designs at the time. It consisted
of two n-type semiconductors (silicon) layers with a p-type semiconductor (silicon) in
the centre. The n-type layer are known as the collector and the emitter, these layers
are connected so that the potential difference between the two prongs is the same. The
p-type layer is known as the base. Transistors can be connected in a variety of ways; it
all depends on the circuit. Small voltage changes in the base prong, results in large
changes in the collector and emitter. Due to this effect, transistors are used as
amplifiers.
Thermionic devices were restricted in terms of size as they had to have a
vacuum tube and consequently weight. Also, they were limited in efficiency as they
required a heating element to produce thermionic emission. Due to these restrictions,
scientist began to research other materials that could replace germanium and
thermionic devices. They found ways in which to purify silicon much economically
and ergonomically. This lead to the invention of the transistor and thus, giving
electronics the ability to evolve.
Limitations Advantages
Thermionic devices  Large power consumption  Can handle high
due to heater frequencies better than
transistors
 Works as a ‘one way
valve’ (rectifier)
Transistors  Silicon can burn out  Smaller size, smaller
 More vulnerable to weight makes it much
electro-static discharge more useful
during handling  No power consumption
due to heater
 Long life span
 No warm up period
 High reliability
The transistor changed modern technology as it allowed electric circuits to get
smaller and smaller, but still have the same function. Thermionic devices were limited
in terms of size and reliability, so silicon transistors replaced them.

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3.c) identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use available
evidence to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on society with particular
reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors

Transistors were invented in 1948. Since then, they have got smaller, more
powerful and overall, more useful. Transistors are used in the production of
microchips and microprocessors. These devices are used to make computers, phones,
cars, radios, movie production and many more. Since the 1960s, transistors have been
widely used in the production of these appliances. In the beginning the appliances
where large, slow and not all that useful. Since then, transistors have miniaturised and
become much more useful. Due to the reduction in size, a simple mobile phone has
more computing power than the first desktop computers.
The result of this development of transistors, life for people has become much
easier and the way in which we communicate has changed so much. Nowadays, we
can communicate instantaneously with the development of the World Wide Web and
also mobile telephones. It is easy for people to talk to others all over the world with
just a push of a button. Before the development of transistors, people had to write
letters to communicate and then post them. This wasn’t a very reliable system as letter
got lost in transit and also it was very slow. With cars now, they can basically drive
themselves and tell you everything you need to know about the car you are driving
whereas before transistors, cars didn’t have power steering, air conditioning, power
windows etc. This makes driving much more comfortable and more inviting to people
as a result, we are able to travel all over the country for either leisure, work or to see
family.
Transistors however, have had a negative impact on society. Because they are
used in the development of machine, they have replaced workers in large factories.
Today, most manufacturing plants are run by robots which are made up of millions of
microchips and microprocessors. This means that people have been put out of their
jobs and replaced by machines, creating unemployment.
Transistors have revolutionised society and the way we live our lives.

3.d) identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the
effect of light on semiconductors in solar cells

Solar cells us the photoelectric effect to convert the energy from sunlight into
electrical energy. They rely on semiconductor technology. The simplest design for a
solar cell has an N-type semiconductor in contact with a P-type semiconductor. At the
P-N junction, the surplus of electrons in the N-layer fills the holes in the P-layer
forming the depletion layer. Extra sunlight activates electrons in the N-type layer and
encourages them to migrate across the depletion layer. This causes a potential
difference to be set up across the two layers with the P-layer being negative.

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4. Investigations into the electrical properties of particular metals at different
temperatures led to the identification of superconductivity and the exploration of
possible applications.

4.1) outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine crystal structure

 In 1912 two Australian physicists, Sir William Bragg and his son Lawrence,
performed an experiment to produce a diffraction pattern of x-rays shone
through a crystal. The x-ray beam was directed into a crystal sample and the
resulting pattern produced on film was analysed.
 The diffraction pattern produced points of constructive and destructive
interference
 The Bragg’s found that d (distance between layers) was a constant for
particular metals

4.2) identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure

 A crystal lattice is defined by a repeating three dimensional unit.

 Braggs’ showed that metals posses a crystalline structure

4.3) describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by the

lattice

In a metal, valence electrons are said to be shared by all positive ions, thus, they are
free to move and creates conduction.

4.4) identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and
scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations

 When impurities are added to a metal, the drift velocity decreases as they
disrupt lattice integrity and increase electron collisions
 When the temperature increases, lattice vibrations increase thus, increases the
collisions and decreases drift velocity.

4.5) describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature of a

population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical resistance

When metals are below there critical temperatures, their electrical resistance drops off
to zero. This is accounted for in the BCS theory, as electron pairs are unaffected by
the cations rather accelerated by them.

4.6) discuss the BCS theory

 As electrons move through the lattice, positively charged atoms are attracted
to them, causing the lattice to distort. This distortion concentrates the positive
charge and attracts another electron through before returning to its original
position
 These pairs are known as cooper pairs
 At low temperatures, these pairs travel unimpeded due to minimal lattice
vibrations.

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4.7) discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify limitations to their
use

Advantages:
 Zero resistance
 Used in the production of fast trains
 Used in electrical generators, more efficient
 Carry large currents with no heating
Disadvantages:
 Expensive to achieve low temperatures consistently
 Brittle at low temperatures, difficult to manufacture wire

4.a) process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and compounds
that have been identified as exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their
critical temperatures

Metal Critical temperature (K)

Mercury 4.15
HgBa2CuO4 0.8
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 133
YBa2Cu3O7 90

4.b) perform an investigation to demonstrate magnetic levitation

4.c) analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above a

superconducting material that has reached the temperature at which it is
superconducting

 A superconductor will not allow a magnetic field to penetrate its interior.

 An external magnetic field causes currents to flow inside the super conductor.
These currents generate a magnetic field inside the superconductor that just
balances the field that would have otherwise penetrated the material.
 A magnet placed above a superconductor that is cooled below its critical
temperature will induce a field inside the superconductor by the Meissner
Effect. That field balances the external field and causes the magnet to
"levitate" above the superconductor.

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4.d) gather and process information to describe how superconductors and the effects
of magnetic fields have been applied to develop a maglev train

Maglev trains:
 Magnetic levitation does not require superconducting technology, but its
application makes the process more efficient and less expensive.
 Magnetic levitation is being used to develop zero friction transport. It uses
electromagnets in the train and on the rails producing repulsive fields that
cause the train to levitate about 10mm above the rails.
 A maglev train doesn’t need an engine as the magnets create attraction and
repulsive forces to move and accelerate it
 However, it requires huge amounts of electricity to create such big magnetic
fields

4.e) process information to discuss possible applications of superconductivity and the

effects of those applications on computers, generators and motors and transmission of
electricity through power grids

Motors and generators:

 Superconducting coils would make them much smaller and lighter. Less
energy input would be needed to sustain operation, thus saving the
environment due to reduced fossil fuel use.
Power transmission:
 Zero resistance in lines means zero energy loss. It will allow transmission of
higher currents; also power stations can build near consumers rather than near
fuel supplies.
Electronics:
 The capacity of microprocessor limited due to heat produced, zero resistance
increases capacity up to 250 times. The speed of microchips will also increase.

Page 40 of 56
 MEDICAL PHYSICS

1. The properties of ultrasound waves can be used as diagnostic tools.

1.1) identify the differences between ultrasound and sound in normal hearing range

Hearing range: 20 Hz – 20 kHz

Ultrasound: > 20 kHz
Medial ultrasound: 500 kHz – 30 MHz

1.2) describe the piezoelectric effect and the effect of using an alternating potential
difference with a piezoelectric crystal

When a piezoelectric crystal is hit by a sound wave, it vibrates to create an alternating

potential difference. Piezoelectric crystal can be used to detect and produce sounds
waves.
Piezoelectric effect: Mechanical deformation → Alternating P.D.
Reverse piezoelectric effect: Alternating P.D. → Mechanical deformation

1.3) define acoustic impedance: Z = ρv and identify that different materials have
different acoustic impedances

Acoustic impedance describes how readily a sound wave passes through a particular
medium.
Mathematically: Z = ρv where: Z = acoustic impedance (rayl)
ρ = density of medium (kgm–3)
v = velocity (ms–1)
Acoustic impedance differs for different body tissues due to density. More dense
mediums such as bone will have higher acoustic impedance than a less dense medium
such as muscle.

1.4) describe how the principles of acoustic impedance and reflection and refraction
are applied to ultrasound

 A short burst (pulse) of ultrasound is produced by a piezoelectric transducer.

This pulse will travel through a medium until it reaches the boundary of
another medium
 Some of the pulse will be reflected and will return to the transducer. The
distance from the transducer to the boundary can be found by recording the
time between the pulse and the echo.
 Some of the pulse will cross the boundary into a second medium. This
refracted pulse will continue into the second medium until it reaches another
boundary, where some of it will again be reflected to return to the transducer
and some will be refracted a second time. In this way a series of echoes having
different time lags from the initial burst will be recorded. Each reflected pulse
represents a different boundary at a different depth.
 The amount of ultrasound reflected compared to the mount refracted at a
boundary will depend of the different acoustic impedances of each medium. A
large difference results in more reflection and less refraction.

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1.5) define the ratio of reflected to initial intensity as:

Where: Ir = reflected wave

I0 = incident wave
Z1 = acoustic impedance of first medium (rayl)
Z2 = acoustic impedance of second medium (rayl)

1.6) identify that the greater the difference in acoustic impedance between two
materials, the greater is the reflected proportion of the incident pulse

 When an ultrasound pulse crosses a boundary between two different materials,

some of the incident pulse is reflected back into the first material, giving an
echo that can be recorded, while the remainder is refracted into the second
material
 The amount of incident pulse that is reflected depends on the difference in
acoustic impedance between the materials. A large difference in acoustic
impedance will mean that more of the wave is reflected and less refracted.

1.7) describe situations in which A scans, B scans and sector scans would be used and
the reasons for the use of each

A scan:
 Consists of a series of amplitude peaks on a cathode ray oscilloscope. Each
peak corresponding to a boundary of a certain depth.
 A scans are used in situations where only distance measurements are required,
e.g. measurements of the eye.
 A scans require less complex equipment than other ultrasound techniques.
B scan:
 Shows the echo as a brightness signal on the CRO
 Each dot corresponds to an echo from a boundary of a certain depth
 B scans are not very useful on their own
 B scans form the basis of sector scans.
Sector scan:
 Successive B scans are made as the transducer probe is rocked sideways on
the patient. Each static B scan is added to form a fan shaped image.
 This is used to image the infant brain
 It is used as it shows a two-dimensional image and only needs a small entry
window.

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1.8) describe the Doppler Effect in sound waves and how it is used in ultrasonics to
obtain flow characteristics of blood moving through the heart

Doppler Effect: The change in frequency of sound waves observed from a moving
source or moving observer.
 For movement towards the observer, frequency is increased
 For movement away from the observer, frequency is decreased
The Doppler Effect is used in ultrasound to image veins. Using the effect, it doctors
and nurses are able to determine which way the blood is flowing through the change
in frequency of the waves. If the change is positive, blood is moving away from the
transducer and this shows up as blue on the ultrasound screen. If the change is
negative, blood is moving towards the transducer and will show up as red spots.
Δf = f0 – f1 where: f0 = frequency of incident wave
f1 = frequency of reflected wave

1.9) outline some cardiac problems that can be detected through the use of the
Doppler Effect

Cardiac problems that can be detected by the Doppler Effect are those that produce a
difference in the flow of blood through the heart. i.e. Blocked arteries.

1.a) solve problems and analyse information to calculate the acoustic impedance of a
range of materials, including bone, muscle, soft tissue, fat, blood and air and explain
the types of tissues that ultrasound can be used to examine

Substance Density (kgm–3) Velocity (ms–1) Impedance (rayl)

Water 1000 1540 4.54x106
Fat 920 1450 1.33x106
Lens of eye 110 1320 1.78x106
Muscle 1040 1585 1.65x106
Kidney 1040 1561 1.62x106
Blood 1060 1570 1.66x106
Liver 1065 1549 1.65x106
Bone 1810 4080 7.38x106
Skull bone 1910 4080 7.79x106
 Ultrasound will move through a medium until it encounters a boundary. When
this happens some ultrasound will be reflected from the boundary and some
will cross the boundary. The ratio of these two amounts depends upon the
difference between their acoustic impedance. A big difference will mean that
very little of the sound will cross the boundary. This means that the boundary
will give a strong echo. Ultrasound echoes are the basis of examining tissues.
Bone has the highest acoustic impedance in the body and so most sound is
reflected from the surface of the bone. This means that the sound cannot
penetrate the bone. Tissues enclosed by bone, (e.g. in the skull) hidden by
bone or within bone cannot be examined.
 For a similar reason air interfaces have almost complete reflection. This means
that tissues with enclosed air, such as the lungs, are difficult to image.

Page 43 of 56
 1.b) gather secondary information to
observe at least two ultrasound images
of body organs

1.c) identify data sources and gather

information to observe the flow of blood
through the heart from a Doppler
ultrasound video image

1.d) identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information to describe how
ultrasound is used to measure bone density

Ultrasound can be used to estimate the bone density of the heel as the heel contains a
high percentage of the kind of bone most affected by osteoporosis. During an
ultrasound examination, two soft rubber pads are placed in contact with either side of
the heal. Transducers within these pads send and receive ultrasound waves through
the heel of the bone. The speed and absorption of ultrasound vary with bone density
the faster and less a wave penetrates the denser the bone is.

1.e) solve problems and analyse information using: Z = ρv and

Page 44 of 56
2. The physical properties of electromagnetic radiation can be used as diagnostic
tools.

2.1) describe how X-rays are currently produced

 X-rays for medical use are produced by a diagnostic X-ray tube consisting of
an evacuated glass envelope containing a cathode and an anode. Electrons
released from the cathode by thermionic emission are focussed into a beam
and accelerated towards the anode by a very high voltage electric field. X-rays
produced when the electrons strike the anode.
 (Bremsstrahlung) An X-ray tube produces X-rays when the electrons in the
beam interact with the anode atoms. An incident electron will be slowed down
by interacting with the nucleus of a target atom. The electron’s kinetic energy
is converted to a photon of X-radiation.
 (Characteristic) At the same time X-rays can be produced by another process.
Some incident electrons knock inner atomic shell electrons from their orbitals.
Other target atom electrons change orbitals to fill the gap and in doing so
release an X-ray photon.
 The process of producing X-rays is very inefficient, typically less than 1%.
Most of the electrons’ energy goes into heating the anode. Hence the need to
have external cooling surrounded by a jacket of cooling oil, air or water
circulated, a high melting point anode and to rotate the anode to distribute
target area heating. A high atomic mass target increases the efficiency of X-
ray production. The target is usually tungsten, chosen for its high melting
point and atomic weight.

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2.2) compare the differences between ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ X-rays

Characteristic Hard X-rays Soft X-rays

Wavelength (λ) Smaller wavelength (10–11m) Larger wavelength (10–9m)
Penetration High penetration Lower penetration, more
absorbed, this is a health hazard
Ionising ability More ionising Slightly less ionising
Danger More dangerous, causes cancers, Dangerous, but slightly less.
burns, mutations, sterility
Usefulness Better quality X-ray images as Useful for specialised X-rays of
more penetrates organs that are easily damaged
Voltages in Higher High
production

2.3) explain how a computed axial tomography (CAT) scan is produced

 CAT scans are based on a series of X-rays

 The patient’s bed moves through the X-ray equipment which is located in a
fixed cylindrical structure. (Like a large donut). The X-ray tube (and detector)
rotates around the donut as the patient goes through the central hole. This
produces a spiral of images.

2.4) describe circumstances where a CAT scan would be a superior diagnostic tool
compared to either X-rays or ultrasound

The main disadvantage of CAT scans is the potential damage to body cells due to the
excessive doses of radiation. For this reason, they should only be used for serious
cases such as cancerous tumours or potentially damaged arteries. They do not produce
real time images of the body like ultrasound and are far more expensive than either
normal X-ray or ultrasound.
Brain tissues are better imaged using CAT scans: Both ultrasound and X-rays
cannot image through the skull. As a result, CAT scans are used. They are able to use
computer software to image slight difference between image densities in 3D. The
resulting image has around 250 shades of grey and a much higher resolution.
Bone tissues are better imaged using CAT scans: Bone tissue cannot be penetrated
by ultrasound and X-rays images do not reveal a lot of detail. When searching for
bone cancers or imaging spinal problems, such as damaged discs, CAT scans provide
far superior imagery.
The chest region is often better imaged using CAT scans: The presence of the ribs
in the chest cavity is a problem for ultrasound technology as bones reflect much of the
ultrasound that they are trying to use to image the heart of lungs. An advanced CAT
scanner can image from all angles so that the soft tissues show up well.
Stones in kidneys and bladder seem to be better detected in CAT scans:
Ultrasound and X-rays are quite useful for detecting kidney stones. CAT scans, in
most studies, seems to be able to detect the stones with greater reliability.

Page 46 of 56
2.5) explain how an endoscope works in relation to total internal reflection

 Total internal reflection may happen when a wave attempts to pass from one
medium to another. If the refractive index of the second medium is greater
than the first there will be an angle, the critical angle, at which the wave will
be refracted along the boundary. At greater angles than the critical angle the
wave will be unable to cross the boundary. Instead it will reflect. This is called
total internal reflection.
 Optical fibres have a thin coating of plastic or other high refractive index
substance. This acts to provide a boundary across which the light cannot pass
if it strikes at an angle beyond the critical angle.
 An endoscope contains a flexible, narrow bundle of optical fibres. It is used to
image internal structures. Light is directed into the body through the
endoscope and the image is transmitted back to the operator. In each case,
total internal reflection allows the light to reflect (bounce) its way along the
flexible optical fibre. In this way the light can ‘travel around corners’.

2.6) discuss differences between the role of coherent and incoherent bundles of fibres
in an endoscope

 Optical fibres are very narrow. This allows them to be flexible and to access
narrow structures. To obtain an image a number of fibres need to be placed
side by side, much like lengths of spaghetti in the packet. If the relative
position of the fibres at each end is the same, the bundle will give a coherent
image. Each image element will be in the correct place at each end and so the
picture as a whole will be complete. If the relative position is not the same this
will not happen and the bundle will give an incoherent image where the
picture elements bear no relationship to each other.
 A coherent bundle is best used to transmit the image.
 An incoherent bundle can be used for introducing the light.

2.7) explain how an endoscope is used in: Observing internal organs and obtaining
tissue samples of internal organs for further testing

Endoscopes are used to visually examine the inside of a patient’s body. Being able to
see tissues allows doctors to diagnose diseases such as ulcers and tumours, and also
determine the nature and extent of injuries such as damaged cartilage and ligaments in
joints. Common uses of endoscopes include:
 Examining the digestive track: A short anaesthetic is used to pass an
endoscope down through the mouth to examine the oesophagus, stomach,
duodenum, and the small intestine. The surgeon searches for inflamed tissue,
ulcers and abnormal growths.
 Examining the respiratory system: The bronchoscope is closely related to the
endoscope. In most tolerable form, it is flexible and is inserted under a local
anaesthetic. The patients airways can be examined, foreign objects removed,
tumours lasered and tissue samples taken in order to diagnose tumour for
malignancy or to identify microbes causing infections.
 Keyhole Surgery: The surgeon checks the tendons for tears and splits, and the
bone ends and cartilage for damage. They can cut and re-attach tendons and
remove damaged tissue.

Page 47 of 56
2.a) gather information to observe at least one image of a fracture on an X-ray film
and X-ray images of other body parts

2.b) gather secondary information to observe a CAT scan image and compare the
information provided by CAT scans to that provided by an X-ray image for the same
body part

2.c) perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the transfer of light by optical

fibres

Page 48 of 56
2.d) gather secondary information to observe
internal organs from images produced by an
endoscope

Page 49 of 56
3. Radioactivity can be used as a diagnostic tool.

3.1) outline properties of radioactive isotopes and their half lives that are used to
obtain scans of organs

 Isotopes are atoms that have the same amount of protons as the normal atom,
but a different number of neutrons and thus a different mass number.
 Radioisotopes are isotopes that emit radiation, alpha (α), beta (β) or gamma (γ)
 Radioisotopes vary in their ability to penetrate matter depending on what
radiation they emit. Gamma being the most penetrating.
 The radiation can be detected to indicate the position and function of particular
organs.
 The half life is the rate at which the isotope decays. It is the time for half of
the isotope to decay. This can vary from a few seconds to millions of years.
 Technetium-99m is used in medical imaging as it emits gamma radiation and
has a half life of only 6 hours meaning that it leaves a patients body relatively
quickly.

3.2) describe how radioactive isotopes may be metabolised by the body to bind or
accumulate in the target organ

 Radioisotopes have the same chemical properties as stable isotopes of the

same element. Thus a suitable chemical compound can be chemically
synthesised or altered to include the radioisotope. This ‘tagged’ or ‘labelled’
radiopharmaceutical will behave in the same way as non-tagged compounds.
When introduced to the body, its emitted radiation can be detected by a
gamma camera. As the compound interacts with the patients’ biological
processes it may accumulate in an organ as it is metabolised.
 Radiopharmaceuticals that accumulate in an organ do so because the organ has
a particular affinity for that compound. A good example is the accumulation of
radioiodine in the thyroid gland. A patient is given a quantity of dilute tagged
sodium iodide to drink. This passes from the patient’s gastrointestinal tract
into their bloodstream and accumulates in the thyroid. The rate at which this
uptake occurs is measured using a gamma camera. This information can be
used to determine the activity of the thyroid as a function of gland size.
 Another example is the use of technetium to determine bone disease. In this
case, radioactive Tc-99m is incorporated into phosphate molecules. These
molecules preferentially bind with bone. Bone abnormalities have increased
blood flow. The administered radiopharmaceutical thus accumulates at a
greater rate in damaged areas, where the phosphates bind with the bone.

3.3) identify that during decay of specific radioactive nuclei positrons are given off

Some nuclei of radioactive elements are unstable because they have too many protons
in the nucleus, relative to the number of neutrons. These become more stable by a
form of beta decay called positron decay. A positron is an antiparticle of the electron.
It has the same mass as an electron and the same charge, but positive rather than
negative.

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3.4) discuss the interaction of electrons and positrons resulting in the production of
gamma rays

When a positron and an electron collide, they mutually annihilate. Their total mass is
converted into energy, producing two identical gamma (γ) rays photons. The two
gamma rays emerge in opposite directions to conserve momentum.

3.5) describe how the positron emission tomography (PET) technique is used for
diagnosis

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a functional imaging technology that allows

physicians to assess chemical changes related to how the body is functioning. PET
imaging can analyse sugar metabolism, blood flow, oxygen etc. It is most often used
to image the brain for diseases such as epilepsy, schizophrenia and Parkinson’s
disease. PET imaging uses positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals to obtain images.
Positron-emitting isotopes exist for carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine, which
allow these radioisotopes to be substituted into many naturally occurring substances
used by the body (such as proteins, water and sugars). An increased level of metabolic
activity in a part of the body associated with the chosen radioisotope cause a higher
concentration in that part and hence the gamma rays from those parts are more intense
than those from parts in which there is less metabolic activity. The gamma rays are
detected by a gamma camera.

3.a) perform an investigation to compare an image of bone scan with an X-ray image

3.b) gather and process secondary information to compare a scanned image of at

least one healthy body part or organ with a scanned image of its diseased counterpart

Bones scans of (a) A healthy person and

(b) A patient with a tumour in the skeleton

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4. The magnetic field produced by nuclear particles can be used as a diagnostic
tool.

4.1) identify that the nuclei of certain atoms and molecules behave as small magnets

Inside the nucleus of an atom, particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons have a
property called spin. Spin produces a magnetic effect called a magnetic moment or
magnetic dipole. Therefore, charged particles such as electrons and protons behave
like tiny magnets.

4.2) identify that protons and neutrons in the nucleus have properties of spin and
describe how net spin is obtained

For protons, neutrons and electrons the spin property can only have one of two
possible directions: up or down (sometimes called ‘spin up’ and ‘spin down’). If the
total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is even, then their spins align in
pairs in opposite directions so that the net spin of each pair and the whole nucleus is
zero. If there are an odd number of nucleons, then the nucleus has a net spin, since
there must be one unpaired nucleon.
 Net spin can be determined using the following key:
o Q1: Is the mass number even?
 YES: Go to Q2
 NO: The spin is a half integer
o Q2: Is the atomic number even?
 YES: The spin is zero
 NO: The spin is a integer.

4.3) explain that the behaviour of nuclei with a net spin, particularly hydrogen, is
related to the magnetic field they produce

 Each proton is a spinning and rotating charge in the nucleus. Thus the nucleus
acts like a magnet.
 Atoms with no overall spin do not act like magnets. These elements can not be
used in MRI.
 Hydrogen has a single unpaired proton. This can be either spin up or spin
down and will interact with an external magnetic field

4.4) describe the changes that occur in the orientation of the magnetic axis of nuclei
before and after the application of a strong magnetic field

 With no external B field, the nuclei in a substance are in random orientation.

 When a B field is applied, the spinning nuclei move into alignment with the
field. Some will align parallel to the field (spin up) and some will align anti-
parallel to the field (spin down)
 A slight excess of nuclei will align parallel to the external field.

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4.5) define precessing and relate the frequency of the precessing to the composition of
the nuclei and the strength of the applied external magnetic field

 The interaction of the external B field and the magnetic

vector of the nuclei cause the nuclei to precess. The nuclei
precess about the external B field.
 Each type of nucleus will precess at a unique frequency in a
given magnetic field. This is called the Larmor Frequency.
 It is the Larmor Frequency of precession that is used in MRI
to determine the type of element (or tissue) in the body.

4.6) discuss the effect of subjecting precessing nuclei to pulses of radio waves

 In an applied external magnetic field the nuclei will align parallel or anti-
parallel. The nuclei that are in the lower energy state (parallel) can be made to
flip to the higher energy state (anti-parallel) by supplying the nuclei with the
correct type of radiation.
 The frequency of radiation needed to cause the nuclei to flip is equal to the
Larmor frequency of the precessing nucleus. This frequency is in the radio
wave part of the EM spectrum (1 kHz – 100 MHz).
 A radio wave is directed into the nuclei to cause them to flip to the higher
energy state. This is called Resonance.
 When the nuclei return to the lower energy state, EMR is re-emitted at the
same radio wave frequency. This is called Relaxation.
 In MRI the radio wave that comes out of the body is detected.

4.7) explain that the amplitude of the signal given out when precessing nuclei relax is
related to the number of nuclei present

 The time taken for the nuclei to return to their original state is called the
relaxation time. Different tissues have different relaxation times.
 The other measurement made of the emerging signal is the amplitude. The
higher the amplitude the greater the proton density. These two sets of data are
used to construct an image of the tissue emitting the radio wave signal.

4.8) explain that large differences would occur in the relaxation time between tissue
containing hydrogen bound water molecules and tissues containing other molecules

 The difference in relaxation times and is significantly greater for tissues

containing relatively large amounts of water.
 As a result, MRI is very sensitive to variations in the water content of tissues
and this is a significant factor in MRI’s ability to produce high-resolution,
high-contrast images.
 Because tumours are characterised by rapid cell division and high growth
rates, they typically have a higher percentage of water than similar non-
cancerous tissue, and can thus be clearly imaged using MRI.

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4.a) perform an investigation to observe images from magnetic resonance image
(MRI) scans, including a comparison of healthy and damaged tissue

4.b) identify data sources, gather, process and present information using available
evidence to explain why MRI scans can be used to: Detect cancerous tissues, Identify
areas of high blood flow, Distinguish between grey and white matter in the brain

MRI scans can be used to detect cancerous tissues because:

 Cancerous tissues are areas of rapidly growing and dividing cells
 Increased cellular activity is accompanied by an increased level of water
around the cells and increased blood flow to the tissue
 Water contains Hydrogen therefore hydrogen will detected increased water
levels

MRI scans can identify areas of high blood flow because:

 Blood is a watery fluid
 High blood flow means more water can be detected

MRI scans can be used to distinguish between grey and white matter in the brain
because:
 Grey and white matter have different biochemistry
 White matter has a greater concentration of water and thus can be detected by
MRI.

4.c) gather and process secondary information to identify the function of the
electromagnet, radio frequency oscillator, radio receiver and computer in the MRI
equipment

Electromagnet:
 Gradient coils (magnets) produce small systematic variations in the net
magnetic field throughout the patient’s body. The Z coils produce variation in
the z direction, which defines a slice through the body. The X and Y coils
change the net magnetic field in their respective directions so that its strength
is different in each voxel. As a result of these variations in the imposed field,
the protons recess at slightly different frequencies. These frequencies allow
the positions of the protons emitting RF signals to be determine

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Radio Frequency Oscillator:
 The pulse of radio waves from the RF transceiver coils is transmitted through
the patient’s body. This flips the magnetic axes of some of the protons. It also
causes the protons to precess in phase with each other. As some of the protons
flip back and return to precession that is out of phase, the protons in each
voxel emit radio waves with intensity proportional to the number of hydrogen
atoms in the voxel.
Radio Receiver:
 The pulse of radio wave that is emitted from each voxel is detected by the
receiver and from the wave, it determines the hydrogen concentration
Computer:
 Produces an image based on the information received from the receiver.

4.d) identify data sources, gather and process information to compare the advantages
and disadvantages of X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans and MRI scans

Imaging technique Advantages Disadvantages

 Cheap  Uses ionising radiation
 Simple to use  Radiation dose is
 Readily available cumulative
X-ray  Rapid imaging  Does not show soft
 Good bone resolution tissue well
 Does not show
functioning
 Resolution better than  Uses ionising radiation
X-ray  Radiation dose is
 Can show three cumulative
CAT scan dimensions  Does not show
 Can ‘remove’ unwanted functioning
layers  More expensive than X-
ray
 Shows organ  Uses ionising radiation
functionality  Expensive and
 Gives nervous system uncommon
PET scan detail  Poor resolution
 Requires care with
radionuclide

 Can show three  Very expensive

dimensions  Scanning takes a long
 Can ‘remove’ unwanted time
layers  Hazards with implants
 Gives high resolution  Claustrophobia when
 Excellent soft tissue imaging
MRI scan
contrast  High skill in using it is
 Can show functionality needed
 Gives nervous system
detail
 Safe to use for most
patients
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4.e) gather, analyse information and use available evidence to assess the impact of
medical applications of physics on society

Health:
 Medical applications of physics provide better and earlier diagnosis and better
monitoring of a range of diseases and conditions.
 This contributes to a healthier society. For example, tuberculosis was a widespread
disease in Australia. Chest X-ray screening was instrumental in virtually eradicating
this disease.
 Ultrasounds are now used to detect foetal abnormalities as opposed to the old
method of amniocentesis which put the baby at risk.
 Endoscopes has led to keyhole surgery dramatically reducing recovery time
 Better imaging techniques has allowed for accurate and earlier diagnosis of diseases
 This has led to a healthier society.
Economics:
 Medical applications of physics are expensive to install and to operate. This is an
economic burden. Society as a whole has to weigh up the benefits of the technology
against these costs. Society has to decide upon how these costs can be met.
 Issues of equity and provision of service to remote areas are economic issues. For
example, MRI machines are over $1 million each to buy and require highly skilled
operators.
 Provision of increased medical physics technology for an aging population is in part
an economic issue.
 Endoscopes have reduced recovery time so people aren’t in hospital as long after
surgery making the health care system more economical but sometimes people don’t
get the correct supervision.
Ethics:
 Using medical applications of physics introduces ethical issues. The moral and
ethical values we have as a society underpin our legal system.
 Medical applications of physics give us knowledge and can present us with issues
that our value systems have to adjust to.
 For example, ultrasound is commonly used to image foetal development. Knowledge
of foetal problems presents a dilemma to the prospective parents.
 Society as a whole has to confront the ethical issues that are raised. This process can
be emotive and challenging and lead to societal unrest.
 Doctors are in short supply so only the rich can afford them
 Countries are taking doctors from other countries where they are most needed.
 Do we need to know the hidden horrors within us?
 People will demand genetic perfection.
Knowledge:
 Medical applications of physics have contributed an enormous amount to our
knowledge of the structure, function and development of the human body.
 Society uses this knowledge to provide for better and more efficient health
provision.
 For example, keyhole surgery is a much cheaper and less invasive procedure that has
been made possible by endoscopy.

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