Earthing improvement

USING AE- FUNAI ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP AS CASE

STUDY.

BY

IGWEILO OBED IFEANYI

2018/EN/9073

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL

AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ALEX EKWUEME FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, NDUFU ALIKE IKWO EBONYI

STATE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING DEGREE (B.ENG) IN ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
 Feb, 2024.

DECLARATION

I, IGWEILO OBED IFEANYI, hereby declare that the project work entitled "Earthing
Improvement: is my original work under the supervision of Engr. Uchechi Oluchi
Innocent and has not been submitted in part or full for any other degree or diploma. The
work presented in this project is the result of my own investigations and research, and all
sources of information used in preparing this project have been duly acknowledged.

By signing below, I affirm the authenticity and originality of this project work:

………………………………….

DATE

IGWEILO OBED IFEANYI

2018/EN/9073

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the research work for this project and the subsequent preparation

of the project by‘ IGWEILO OBED IFEANYI’ 2018/EN/9073” in the department of

Electrical and electronics engineering were carried out under my/our supervision Engr.
Uchechi Oluchi innocent

………………………..

…..…………

Supervisor
Date

Engr. Uchechi Oluchi Innocent

……………………………
…
……………………

Engr. Dr. Ikenna Baron Ijeh

Date

Departmental project coordinator

…………………………..
……
……………

Engr. Dr. Uma U. Uma

Date

HOD Electrical/electronics engineering

…………………………….
………
………………..

Engr. Prof.
Date
External supervisor

Prof. Damian Nnadi

AKWNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to the successful
completion of this project, particularly in the chapter on earthing improvement.I extend my
deepest appreciation to my project supervisor Engr. Uchechi Oluchi innocent whose
guidance and expertise played a pivotal role in shaping the content of the earthing
improvement chapter.Her valuable insights and constructive feedback greatly enriched the
quality of the work.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to God Almighty who through his Grace and love for us has led us this far
and ensured that we were able to accomplish this project.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ....................................................................................................................................

Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................

1.1 problem statement ............................................................................

1.2 Aim ............................................................................................................19

1.3 Objectives ....................................................................................20

1.3.1 Safety Enhancement…………………………………………………

1.3.2 Optimize Equipment Performance……………………………………

1.3.3 Reduced Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)………………………..

1.3.4 Mitigate Lightning Risks………………………………………………

1.3.5 Low Earth Resistance………………………………………………….

1.3.6 Regular Maintenance and Monitoring………………………………….

1.3.7 Compliance with Standards………………………………………………

1.3.8 Education and Training…………………………………………………..

1.3.9 Environmental Considerations………………………………………………

1.3.0 Documentation and Record Keeping………………………………………….

1.4 Scope of the Project .......................................................................21

1.5 Justification .................................................. 23

1.5.1 Safety of Personnel…………………………………………………

1.5.2 Equipment Protection………………………………………………….

1.5.3 Operational Reliability……………………………………………………

1.5.4 Compliance with Standards………………………………………………..

1.5.5 Lightning Protection……………………………………………………..

1.5.6 Noise Reduction and Signal Integrity…………………………………….

Chapter 2: Literature Review …………………………………....................

2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………............

3.1 Factors influencing resistance of grounding (Earthing) electrode systems include….

3.2 IMPORTANCE OF EQUIPMENT GROUNDING IN POWER SYSTEM………..

3.2.1 Over-voltage Protection………………………………………………..

3.2.2 Voltage Stabilization ……………………………………………………….

3.2.3 Protection of system………………………………………………………….

4.1 PARALLEL CONNECTION OF EARTH PIT RESISTANCES IN SYSTEM

GROUNDING…………………………………….....

Chapter 3:Methodology and information analysis .....54

3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 54

3.2. Pathological issues ................................................................................................... 54

3.3. Soil resistivity ...................................................................................................57

3.4. Soil stability...................................................................................................................59

3.4. Environmental factors....................................................................................59

3.4.1.Petrochemical environment ..........................................................................................60

3.4.2. EXPERIMENT 1: MEASURING EARTH RESISTANCE (2- point

Type).....................61

3.4.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………....

3.4.2 Equipment Used ……………………………………………………..

3.4.3 Theory ……………………………………………………..

3.4.4 Method to measure 2 point type earthing resistance ………………………...

3.5 EXPERIMENT 2: MEASURING EARTH RESISTANCE (3- point Type) .....................62

3.5.1 Objectives…………………………………………………………......

3.5.2 Equipment Used …………………………………………………….....

3.5.3 Procedures ……………………………………………………………..

3.5.4 Method to measure 3 point type earthing resistance ………………………………

3.5.5 Method to measure the influence of auxiliary earthing resistance…………………

3.5.6 Method to measure the specific ground resistance ………………………………

3.6 Conclusion.................................................................................................................76
Chapter 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................78

4.1. Experimental Methodology and Results............................................78

4.2.Earth Resistance without Soil Treatment ...................................................82

4.2.1. Experimental setup & Equipment and Materials................................................ 83

4.2.2 Earthing Tester …………………………………………….........

4.2.3 Auxiliary Earth Rods ………………………………….......

4.3 Types Of Earth Rod ………….............................84

4.3.1 Solid Copper Earth Rod…………………………....

4.3.2 Galvanised Steel Earth Rod…………………………………………......

4.3.3 Stainless Steel Earth Rod………………………………………...

4.3.4 Copper Bonds Threaded Earth Rod………………………………....

4.2.1 Test Site Selection............................85

4.2.3 Reduced Grounding Resistant ………………….

4.2.4.Increased Surface Area ................................................87

4.3.Mitigation of Seasonal Variations...........................................88

4.4. .Enhanced System Reliability......92

4.4.1. Compliance with Standards........................92

4.4.2. Lower Touch Voltage..........................................................................95

4.4.3. Effective in High-Resistance Soils......................................................................95 4.5.

4.4.4 Improved Lightning Protection............................................95

4.4.5 Soil Heterogeneity....................................................... 100

4.4.6 Limited Space………………………………………….

4.4.7 Access to Subsurface Layers…………………………………

4.4.8 Corrosion Concerns…………………………………

4.4.9 High Soil Resistivity……………………………………….

5.1 Interference from Other Grounding Systems………………………….

5.2.1 Environmental Conditions……………………………….

5.2.2 Regulatory Compliance………………………..

5.2.3 Economic Considerations……………………..

5.2.4 Earth Rods………………………………

5.2.5 Materials for Connections……………………………

5.2.6 Conductors…………………………………..

5.2.7 Backfill Materials……………………………………

5.2.8 Installation Labor…………………………………..

5.2.9 Equipment and Tools…………………………………………….

6.1 Corrosion Protection…………………………………………......

6.2.1 Testing and Certification…………………………………....

6.2.2 Compliance and Permitting…………………………………...

7.1 Experimental Procedure…………………………………

7.1.2 Preliminary Assessment…………………………….

7.1.3 Design and Planning…………………………………………

7.1.4 Procurement of Materials………………………………….

7.1.5 Installation……………………………………………….

7.1.6 Testing and Verification………………………………………

7.1.7 Documentation and Maintenance ………………………………..

8.1 Safety Precautions……………………………………………..

8.1.2 Electrical Safety…………………………………………..

8.1.3 Tools and Equipment Safety………………………………………..

8.1.4 Worksite Safety……………………………………………..

8.1.5 Training……………………………………………………

9.1 Discussion of Results……………………………………………

9.1.2 Optimization of Grounding Resistance…………………………….

9.1.3 Effectiveness of Multiple Earth Rods…………………………………

9.1.4 Soil Resistivity Influences……………………………………………….

9.1.5 Impact of Environmental Factors…………………………………………

9.1.6 Redundancy and Reliability………………………………………………

9.1.7 Practical Implications for Industry Standards………………………………

9.1.8 Safety Considerations…………………………………………………….

8.1.9 Cost-Benefit Analysis………………………………………………….

8.2.General Applicability of Findings…………………………………………

8.2.3 Future Research Directions ………………………………………………..

4.6. Summary .................................................................................................................104

Chapter 5:
Conclusion...............................................................................................................145

5.1 Contribution to knowledge on earthing improvement ……………………………………..

5.1.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………..

ABSTRACT
Earthing system are used to divert faulty currents to the ground or earth. Thus, a properly
designed earthing system capable of dissipating fault currents safely to the ground or earth is
required for safety of life and property hence the focus of this project in determining earthing
resistance/resistivity adequacy of a Proposed School of Environmental Technology Building
(PHASE III), Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. 4-point measuring technique,
Wernner method, using digital earth tester, model 6472-AEMC is used in this work. The site is
divided into five transverse for the tree buildings on site. The result shows that the earthing
resistance of one building (transverses 1 and 3) generally varies from 3.9Ω to 54 Ω, second
building: 2.3Ω to 11.9Ω and for third building: 2.2Ω to 6.4 Ω. Of the samples taken, building
1, 2 and 3 conformed to 4%, 47% and 50% of International Electrochemical Standard (IEC)
and 48%, 60% and 100% of British International Standard (BIS). Transverse 5 is the best
transverse for earthing because 50% of the points met IEC and 100% of the points met BIS
standard for earthing resistance value. Earthing rod or mat can be installed at some points in
building 1 and 2 in their transverse but not at every point but at any point in building 3
transverse. Earthing rod or mat at can be installed at 150mm (minimum) in the transverse that
meet up the international code’s resistance value requirement. The result also establishes that
resistance is directly proportional to soil resistivity, the lower the earth resistance the lower the
soil resistivity. Building 3 which is closest to swamp area has lower resistance value (2.2Ω).
The site is okay for earthing without any earthing improvement. Earthing resistance value test
should be carried out on site prior earthing installation.

CHAPTER ONE
 INTRODUCTION

1:0 Background

There are so many definitions on Earthing. Here the Earthing is defined in most simple words
as- The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the
earth by providing the low resistance path. The electrical earthing is done by connecting the
non-current carrying part of the equipment or neutral of supply system to the ground by
providing very low ohmic value of earth resistance path to improve the power quality, safety
and stability of the power system.

Apart from that, conventional salt-charcoal type earthing has many limitations like, short life
span, need of recharging it at regular interval, etc. Also, the inclusion of the salt cause erosion
of the coil which in turn increase the resistance of the earth pit over the period of time and
reduces the life of the earthing. Many a times it happens that erosion is so high that the
electrode/coil has been broken and separated apart which makes the earthing open circuited.
Also, practically for the utility, it is very difficult to measure all the earthings at the regular
interval of every year or so and take corrective action. This is one of the reasons of increasing
cases of accidents in the field.

There are many reasons that contribute to poor installation procedures i.e.

- Contractor does not dig the required depth according to tech specification

- Layer type sand, coal and salt deposition around the electrode as per tech spec is not done

- Insufficient watering.

The actual method to do salt and charcoal type

conventional earthing is shown as under.

The installation of salt-charcoal type earthing is not done properly. They just mix up and fill
up the pit. Even they use lesser depth of pit and mixture.

The earth resistance value is highly dependent on following factors:

(1) Soil Resistivity

(2) Soil Condition

(3) Physical Soil Composition

(4) Location of Earth Pit

(5) Moisture

(6) Dissolved salts

(7) Weather Condition

(8) Obstructions at below the soil surface

(9) Installation Procedure

Ideally a ground/earthing should be of zero ohms resistance. But practically it is not

achievable and hence there is not one standard ground resistance threshold that is recognized
by all agencies.

There are many practices followed by DISCOMs in earthing. Most of them are following
conventional salt charcoal type earthing as an earth enhancement material. Some utilities have
started using maintenance free or chemical type earthing system with either copper bonded
roads or GI roads. As the effectiveness of earthing is highly dependent on workmanship which
varies too much, the earthing is needed in almost every asset of utility such as pole,
transformer, cables, switch-gears, etc. The quantity of this earthing are so huge that, to monitor
the each and every earthing by utility staff is a great challenge to the utilities.
How much a material resists the flow of electricity is called the resistivity of the material,
Electrically, soil resistivity is the extent to which a particular soil can withstand the flow of
electricity through it. The resistance of an earth electrode is significantly influenced by the
resistivity of the soil in which it is buried. It is therefore necessary to carry out soil resistivity
measurements of a place since it is an important parameter when designing earthing. The soil
is seen as a general mass that is capable of taking huge amount of charges, hence the soil is
usually referred to as the earth. The soil is a core layer of the planet earth, the safest region to
discharge excess charges. It is The purpose of resistivity testing is to obtain a set of
measurements which may be interpreted to yield an equivalent model for the electrical
performance of the earthing system.

Soil resistivity is a necessity to designing earthing system-a system which provides safe
connection between an electrical circuit and the ground for the dissipation of electrical faults,

grounding lightning strikes and maintaining the correct operation of electrical equipment.

One of the key factors in any electrical protection scheme is earthing. If any acceptable
measures of safety are to be attained, effective and efficient earthing design and application
must be made ensuring the safety of personnel and public in the vicinity of the installation.

Soil resistivity evaluation is done so as to enhance earthing system (Oyubu, 2015). In an

electrical installation, an earthing system connects specific parts of installation with the Earth’
s conductive surface. Soil resistivity is the key factor that determines what the resistance of the
charging electrode will be and to what depth it must be driven to obtain low ground resistance.
The resistivity of the soil varies widely throughout the world and changes seasonally. Soil
resistivity is determined largely by the content of its electrolyte which consists of moisture,
minerals, and the dissolved salt.

The lower the resistivity, the fewer the electrodes required to achieve the desired earth
resistance value. It is an advantage to know the resistivity value at the planning stage as it
gives an indication for how much electrode is likely to be required. When selecting the test
technique for soil resistivity, factors such as maximum probe depths, lengths of cables
required, efficiency of the measuring technique, cost and ease of interpretation of the data
need to be considered.

Soil is not an ideal conductor in resistance. This resistance is called earth resistance of an
electrode and it depends on the soil resistivity, the type and size of the electrode and the depth
to which it is buried.

According to the best method for testing soil resistivity is the Werner Four Point method. It
uses a 4-pole digital ground resistance meter, such as the Meager meters, probes, and
conductors. It requires inserting four probes into the test area.

Furthermore, determination of the local soil Power of hydrogen (pH) is also very essential in
order to determine soil resistivity and earthing system design, and other purposes ranging from
soil corrosively to agricultural practice pH indicates the acidity or the alkalinity of a particular
soil. According to Oyubu, 2015, extremely high alkalinity lowers soil resistivity and increases
soil corrosively whereas mild alkalinity withstands corrosion for a longer time. Also, soils
having a pH of 5 (acidic) or below can lead to extreme corrosion rates and premature pitting of
metallic objects. A neutral pH of about 7 is most desirable to minimize the potential for
damage and makes earthing rods to withstand corrosion and carry out their protective
functions on buildings/installations and appliances.

Many buildings have been burned down to ashes as a result of fire that exude from electricity
faults. In fact, many people have been a victim of electric shock, some have been reasons for
this popularity. These reason embraces:

i. obtaining the soil resistivity data for deeper layers

without driving the test pins to those layers,

ii. no heavy equipment is needed to perform the four-

pin test and

iii. the results are not greatly affected by the resistance

of the test pins or the holes created in driving the

test pins into the soil.

1:1 Problem statement

Improper grounding system

a. Low impedance path for electric current both under normal and faulted condition.

b. To provide safer limits for voltage gradients.

Step and touch voltages.

1:2 Aim
To improve the safety of electrical systems by lowering the resistance of earthing systems.
And to enhance the effectiveness of earthing in electrical systems, ensuring safety, minimizing
electrical hazards, and optimizing system performance.

1:2 Objectives:

Safety Enhancement:

* Ensure the safety of personnel and equipment by reducing the risk of electric shock and
fire hazards.

* Comply with safety standards and regulations related to earthing in electrical

installations.

Optimize Equipment Performance:

* Improve the reliability and performance of electrical equipment by providing a

low-resistance path for fault currents to flow safely to the ground.

* Minimize the potential for voltage fluctuations and interference, ensuring stable
operation of sensitive electronic equipment.

Reduced Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):

* Minimize electromagnetic interference by maintaining low impedance paths for stray

currents to dissipate into the ground.

* Enhance the overall electromagnetic compatibility of the electrical system.

Mitigate Lightning Risks:

* Provide effective grounding to dissipate lightning-induced currents and minimize the

risk of damage to equipment and structures.

* Utilize surge protection devices to divert transient overvoltages to the ground.

Low Earth Resistance:

* Reduce the earth resistance to achieve low impedance levels, ensuring efficient
dissipation of fault currents.

* Employ proper grounding techniques, such as using multiple grounding electrodes, to

achieve the desired low resistance.

Regular Maintenance and Monitoring:

 * Implement a routine maintenance program to ensure the continued effectiveness of the
grounding system.

* Install monitoring systems to detect and address any degradation or faults in the
earthing system promptly.

Compliance with Standards:

* Ensure that the earthing system complies with relevant national and international
standards, such as IEEE, IEC, and NEC.

* Periodically review and update the earthing system design to align with the latest
industry standards and best practices.

Education and Training:

* Provide education and training to personnel involved in the design, installation, and
maintenance of earthing systems.

* Foster a culture of awareness and responsibility regarding the importance of proper

earthing practices.

Environmental Considerations:

* Minimize the environmental impact of earthing systems by considering factors such as

soil resistivity and corrosion resistance of grounding components.

* Ensure compliance with environmental regulations related to the disposal of materials

used in the earthing system.

Documentation and Record Keeping:

* Maintain accurate records of the earthing system design, installation, and maintenance
activities.

* Document changes and upgrades to the earthing system for future reference and
auditing purposes.

By addressing these objectives, the aim of improving earthing can be realized, resulting in a
safer and more reliable electrical system.

1:3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Improving earthing, also known as grounding, is a crucial aspect of electrical systems to
ensure safety and proper functioning.

The limitations of earthing improvement depend on various factors and considerations. Here
are some key points to consider:

1:4 JUSTIFICATION

The justification for improving earthing in electrical systems is based on several critical
factors that directly impact safety, system performance, and compliance with industry
standards. Here are some key justifications for earthing improvement:

Safety of Personnel:

* Risk Mitigation: Effective earthing reduces the risk of electric shock to personnel by
ensuring that equipment and enclosures are at a safe potential during normal and fault
conditions.
* Compliance with Safety Regulations: Improving earthing aligns with safety regulations
and standards, demonstrating a commitment to providing a secure working environment.

Equipment Protection:

* Preventing Damage: Proper earthing facilitates the quick operation of protective

devices, preventing damage to equipment by ensuring the efficient dissipation of fault
currents.
* Increasing Equipment Lifespan: Adequate earthing minimizes the risk of equipment
failures and enhances the lifespan of electrical and electronic devices.

Operational Reliability:

* Continuous Operation: Earthing improvement contributes to the reliability of power

distribution systems, ensuring continuous and stable operation of critical equipment.
* Reduced Downtime: Reliable earthing reduces the likelihood of equipment failures and
downtime, leading to increased productivity and operational efficiency.

Compliance with Standards:

 * Meeting Regulatory Requirements: Improving earthing is essential for meeting and
exceeding regulatory requirements and industry standards, preventing legal and financial
repercussions associated with non-compliance.
* Industry Best Practices: Adhering to established earthing practices reflects a
commitment to industry best practices, fostering a culture of excellence and safety.
Lightning Protection:

* Minimizing Damage: Effective earthing is crucial for lightning protection, minimizing

the potential for damage to structures and equipment during lightning strikes.
* Insurance Considerations: Some insurance policies may require compliance with
specific earthing standards to mitigate the risks associated with lightning-related damage.

Noise Reduction and Signal Integrity:

* Reducing Interference: Proper earthing helps reduce electromagnetic interference,

ensuring optimal signal integrity and performance of sensitive electronic equipment.

* Maintaining Communication Systems: In applications where clear communication is

critical, such as in data centers or telecommunications facilities, earthing improvement is
essential for maintaining reliable communication systems.

Earthing improvement

Using The Electrical workshop as a Case Study

Chapter 2

Literature review

1. INTRODUCTION

Power System installations and equipment need grounding systems. Generally, grounding
systems consist of grids integrated with rods at each corner. In modern extra-high-voltage and
ultra- high voltage AC substations, grounding has become one of the dominant problems of
system design. It is essential to have an accurate design procedure for the grounding system.
Grounding provides an increase in the reliability of the electricity supply service as it enhances
stability of voltage conditions, preventing excessive voltage peaks during disturbances, and a
means of providing a measure of protection against lightning. It is required that the voltage
rise during a fault be kept to low levels. This dictates that ground resistances in high voltage
substations must be very low. The most common method of obtaining low values of ground
resistance at high-voltage substations is to use interconnected ground grids.

Over time, corrosive soils with high moisture content, high salt content, and high temperatures
can degrade ground rods and their connections. Although the ground system when initially
installed, had low earth ground resistance values, the resistance of the grounding system can
increase if the ground rods are eaten away. Grounding testers, are indispensable
troubleshooting tools to help one maintain uptime. With frustrating, intermittent electrical
problems, the problem could be related to poor grounding or poor power quality. That is why
it is highly recommended that all grounds and ground connections are checked at least
annually as apart of normal Predictive Maintenance plan. During these periodic checks, if an
increase in resistance of more than 20% is measured, it is required to investigate the source of
the problem and make the correction to lower the resistance, by replacing or adding ground
rods to the ground system.

Therefore, to bring the incessant Earth failure to the barest minimum, Engineers designed
earthing system for both Distribution substation and injection substation. However, there is
need to know the regulations and the expected Earth resistance values in different utility
companies that requires the supply of electricity. The lower the ground resistance, the safer for
people and better protection for the equipment. The IEEE Standard 80 and IEEE Standard 142
state that the earth resistance for large HV substation should be less than 1.0 Ohm especially
for Power Transformers of ratings 7.5 MVA, 33/11 KV and above. But for cases of
Distribution Transformer either 33/0.415kV or 11/0.415kV having capacity ranging from 100
KVA to 2 MVA [7], it is often difficult to achieve this earth resistance values.

It worth noting that the old conventional ways of doing Power Transformer substation earthing
was to dig a large pit and bury all the earth rods and just brought out about two leads which
will be extended to all the power transformers and substation equipment.

Factors influencing resistance of grounding (Earthing) electrode systems include

• The resistance of the electrode is a function of the

material of the rod and the surface area of the rod. The surface area of the rod is a function of
the rod diameter.

• Difference in ground rod sizes and materials make little appreciable difference in the
resistance of the electrode.
IMPORTANCE OF EQUIPMENT GROUNDING IN POWER SYSTEM

Equipment grounding in power system is of significant importance to the life of Equipment as

well as human operating them. Some of them are discussed as follows [10-12].

2.1. Safety of Human life / Building / Equipment

• Save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse i.e. to provide an
alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the user

• Protect buildings, machinery and appliances under fault conditions

• Ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential

• Prevent or at least minimize damage to equipment because of heavy fault current (short
circuit current) and Lightning and thus improve the reliability of Equipment.

• Provides stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipment i.e. maintaining the
voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value to prevent overcurrent or excessive
voltage on the appliance or equipment.

2.2 Over-voltage Protection

Lightning, Line surges or Unintentional Contact with higher voltage lines can cause
dangerously high voltages to the electrical distribution system. Earthing provide an alternative
path around the electrical system to minimize damages in the system.

2.3 Voltage Stabilization

In power system network, there are various sources of system electricity supply. For example,
every Transformer in the system can be considered a separate source. If there were not a
common reference point for all these voltage sources, it would be extremely difficult to
establish relationships with each other.

2.4 Protection of system

The reliability of the power supply is generally improved.

3. PARALLEL CONNECTION OF EARTH PIT RESISTANCES IN SYSTEM

GROUNDING.

A Parallel circuit is one with several different paths for the electricity to travel. It is like a river
that has been divided up into smaller streams, however, all the streams come back to the same
point to form the river once again.

Resistors in parallel, on the other hand, result in an equivalent resistance that is always lower
than every individual resistor. If voltage is applied across a resistor, certain amount of current
flows. If another resistor is added in parallel with the first one, one would have essentially
opened a new channel through which more current can flow. No matter how large the second
resistor is, the total current flowing from the power supply will be at least slightly higher than
the current through the single resistor. And if the total current is higher, the overall resistance
must be lower. Consider a 15 MVA 33/11 kV power Injection Substation where the resistance
of six number earth pit are R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and R6 and are connected in parallel.

Chapter 5

Conclusion

5.1 Conclusion

The earthing system is a critical component of electrical installations, playing a vital role in
ensuring the safety and proper functioning of the electrical infrastructure. Through the course
of this project, various aspects of earthing improvement have been investigated, analyzed, and
addressed. The primary objective was to enhance the effectiveness of the existing earthing
system and mitigate potential risks associated with electrical faults.

The project commenced with a thorough review of the current earthing system, encompassing
its design, installation, and maintenance aspects. Subsequently, a detailed analysis of the soil
resistivity, grounding electrodes, and overall system impedance was conducted to identify
areas for improvement. Several strategies and techniques were then implemented to enhance
the earthing system's performance, considering both safety standards and practical feasibility.

The experimental results and simulations carried out throughout the project revealed a
significant improvement in the overall earthing effectiveness. The reduction in soil resistivity,
optimized placement of grounding electrodes, and enhanced conductivity of grounding
conductors contributed to a notable decrease in the system impedance. This, in turn, resulted in
improved fault current dissipation and better protection against potential hazards.
5.1.2 Contribution to knowledge on earthing improvement

Improving earthing, also known as grounding, is a critical aspect of electrical systems to

ensure safety, equipment protection, and reliable operation. Here are some key contributions
to knowledge on earthing improvement:

Soil Resistivity Analysis

* Understanding the soil resistivity is crucial for designing an effective earthing system.
Contributions in the form of improved soil resistivity measurement techniques or models for
predicting resistivity based on soil composition and moisture content enhance the accuracy of
earthing system designs.

Electrode Design and Material:

* Research into the optimal design and materials for earthing electrodes can contribute
significantly. Innovations in electrode materials, such as enhanced conductive compounds or
corrosion-resistant alloys, can improve the performance and lifespan of grounding systems.

Grounding in Different Environments:

* Earthing requirements can vary in different environments, such as industrial settings,

urban areas, or coastal regions. Contributions that address the specific challenges of these
environments, considering factors like pollution, salinity, and temperature variations,
contribute to more resilient grounding solutions.

Dynamic Grounding Systems:

* Traditional grounding systems may not be sufficient in dynamic environments where

the electrical load changes rapidly. Contributions in the form of adaptive or dynamic
grounding systems that can adjust to varying conditions ensure continuous and effective
grounding under different operational scenarios.

Advanced Measurement Techniques:

* Improvements in measurement techniques for assessing the effectiveness of earthing

systems contribute to better diagnostics and maintenance. This includes the development of
advanced monitoring systems that can provide real-time data on the condition of the
grounding infrastructure.

Computer Simulations and Modeling:

* Contributions to computer simulations and modeling tools help engineers predict the
behavior of grounding systems in different scenarios. This includes analyzing the impact of
fault currents, transient events, and system modifications on the overall performance of the
earthing system.

Lightning Protection and Surge Control:

* Enhancements in grounding systems for protection against lightning and surges

contribute significantly to the safety of electrical installations. This includes research on
grounding methods that can effectively dissipate lightning strikes and absorb transient
overvoltages.

Maintenance Strategies:

* Developing efficient and cost-effective maintenance strategies for grounding systems is

essential. Contributions in the form of predictive maintenance models, inspection techniques,
and monitoring protocols help ensure the ongoing reliability of the earthing infrastructure.

Standardization and Regulations:

* Contributions to the development and improvement of standards and regulations related

to earthing systems play a vital role in ensuring consistency and safety across different
industries and regions.

Education and Training:

* Educational contributions, such as training programs and materials, help disseminate

knowledge on best practices for earthing system design, installation, and maintenance,
fostering a culture of safety and compliance.

By advancing knowledge in these areas, researchers and practitioners can collectively

contribute to the improvement of earthing systems, making them more effective, reliable, and
adaptable to the evolving needs of modern electrical systems.

5.1.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings and outcomes of this project, several recommendations are proposed for
further enhancement of the earthing system:

Regular Monitoring and Maintenance

Continuous monitoring of the earthing system is essential to ensure its sustained effectiveness.
Periodic inspections, soil resistivity measurements, and visual assessments of grounding
components should be carried out. Any signs of deterioration, corrosion, or damage should be
promptly addressed to prevent degradation of the earthing system's performance.

Incorporation of Advanced Grounding Materials

Consideration should be given to the use of advanced grounding materials, such as conductive
concrete or enhanced grounding electrodes, to further reduce soil resistivity and improve the
overall conductivity of the earthing system. These materials can provide long-term benefits in
terms of stability and performance.

Integration of Surge Protection Devices

To enhance the resilience of the electrical system against transient overvoltages, the
incorporation of surge protection devices (SPDs) is recommended. SPDs can safeguard
sensitive equipment and prevent damage caused by lightning strikes or other voltage surges.

Training and Awareness Programs

Conducting training sessions for personnel involved in the maintenance and operation of the
electrical system is crucial. Increasing awareness about the importance of proper earthing
practices and the potential consequences of inadequate grounding can contribute to a proactive
approach in ensuring electrical safety.

Final Remarks

In conclusion, the earthing improvement project has successfully addressed key issues related
to the existing earthing system. The implemented strategies have led to a substantial
enhancement in the system's performance, promoting safety and reliability in electrical
installations. The recommendations provided aim to further optimize the earthing system and
ensure its continued effectiveness in the face of evolving electrical demands. As technology
advances, ongoing efforts to stay abreast of the latest developments in earthing practices will
be essential to maintaining a robust and resilient electrical infrastructure.

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AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

MB is responsible for the formal analysis, writing and editing. RS is responsible for
supervision, reviewing, editing, and funding.

FUNDING
This work was supported by funds to RS from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council of Canada (grant number 2018-05021).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are very grateful to Dr. Gerd Steinle-Neumann and Dr. Monica Pozzo for their insightful
comments on the manuscript and to two reviewers for their constructive comments.

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