Protecting Power Systems for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Technical literature supporting this section:

H.J. Altuve Ferrer and E.O. Schweitzer, III (Editors), Modern Solutions for Protection, Control, and Monitoring of Electric Power
Systems. Pullman, WA: Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., 2010.

G. Benmouyal and T. Lee, “Securing Sequence-Current Differential Elements,” in 31st Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Spokane, WA, October 19–21, 2004. Available http://www.selinc.com.

K. Fodero, C. Huntley, and D. Whitehead, “Secure, Wide-Area Time Synchronization,” in 36th Annual Western Protective Relay
Conference, Spokane, WA, October 20–22, 2009. Available http://www.selinc.com.

B. Kasztenny, G. Benmouyal, H.J. Altuve, and N. Fischer, “Tutorial on Operating Characteristics of Microprocessor-Based
Multiterminal Line Current Differential Relays,” in 38th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA,
October 18–20, 2011. Available http://www.selinc.com.

H. Miller, J. Burger, N. Fischer, and B. Kasztenny, “Modern Line Current Differential Protection Solutions,” in 36th Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 20–22, 2009. Available http://www.selinc.com.

R. Moxley, K. Fodero, and H. J. Altuve, “Updated Transmission Line Protection Communications,” in 35th Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 21–23, 2008.

J.B. Roberts, T. Lee, and G.E. Alexander, “Security and Dependability of Multiterminal Transmission Line Protection,” in 28th
Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 23–25, 2001.

J.B. Roberts, D.A. Tziouvaras, G. Benmouyal, and H.J. Altuve, “The Effect of Multiprinciple Line Protection on Dependability and
Security,” in 55th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference, Atlanta, GA, May 2–4, 2001. Available
http://www.selinc.com.

S. Sánchez, A. Dionicio, M. Monjarás, M. Guel, G. González, O. Vázquez, J. L. Estrada, H.J. Altuve, I. Muñoz, I. Yánez, and P.
Loza, “Directional Comparison Protection Over Radio Channels for Subtransmission Lines: Field Experience in Mexico,” in 34th
Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 16–18, 2007. Available http://www.selinc.com.

E.O. Schweitzer, III and J.J. Kumm, “Statistical Comparison and Evaluation of Pilot Protection Schemes,” in 23rd Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 15–17, 1996. Available http://www.selinc.com.

D.A. Tziouvaras, H.J. Altuve, G. Benmouyal, and J.B. Roberts, “Line Differential Protection With an Enhanced Characteristic,” in
3rd Conference and Exhibition on Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Energy Conversion, MedPower 2002, Athens,
Greece, 2002. Available http://www.selinc.com.

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Pilot protection schemes have been in service for well over half a century. Early communications systems used
copper conductors and included privately owned pilot wire channels
channels, dedicated telephone circuits
circuits, and power
line carrier channels. In the early 1970s, utility-owned microwave links began to replace copper wires in
transmission systems. Optical fiber and radio are two relatively new communications systems available today.

Pilot protection, or teleprotection, uses a communications channel to compare information from the line
terminals and provide high-speed fault clearing for 100 percent of the protected line. Without pilot protection,
high-speed tripping for all terminals will occur only for faults that are within the area where the Zone 1
elements overlap. Pilot protection is typically applied to transmission lines with nominal voltage levels of
115 kV and greater. Low-cost, spread-spectrum radio channels are making pilot protection applicable to lines
with even lower voltages, such as 34.5 kV.

Pilot protection includes directional comparison and current-only schemes (phase comparison and line
differential schemes).

Directional comparison protection uses the channel to exchange information on the status of directional or
distance elements at both terminals. If both elements operate, there is an internal fault. If one of the elements
operates and the other restrains, the fault is outside the protected line. The most widely used pilot protection
system is directional comparison. The main reasons for this wide acceptance are the low channel requirements
and the inherent redundancy and backup of directional comparison systems. On the other hand, these systems
experience problems associated with loss of potential for blown VT fuses, ferroresonance in wound potential
VTs, and transient response issues of CCVTs.

Phase-comparison and current-differential systems use current information to make a trip decision. These
systems require a reliable, high-capacity communications channel. Current-only systems exhibit good
performance for complex protection problems such as series-compensated lines, short lines, evolving faults,
cross-country faults, mutual induction, power swings, and series impedance unbalance. Modern digital fiber-
optic communications channels fulfill the requirements of current-only pilot protection systems.

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High-speed clearing of faults along the entire line segment is required or desirable for several
reasons:

• A short circuit on a power system reduces the ability of the power system to transfer power.
Reducing the time that the short circuit exists on the power system reduces the likelihood of
the power system becoming unstable.

• High-speed reclosing is another means of improving power system stability. Power transfer
capability decreases for an out-of-service line. Automatic restoration of the line with minimal
delay, allowing for only arc deionizing time, can also reduce the likelihood of the power
system becoming unstable. If you use automatic restoration, both terminals must clear the
fault instantaneously.

• Clearing faults quickly reduces equipment damage, including through-fault damage to power
transformers, insulator damage due to sustained arcing, etc.

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Some additional advantages are as follow:

• Faster fault clearing times reduce the duration of the voltage sag from the short circuit and
the resulting negative impact on power quality.

• In time-stepped distance applications where you have a long line adjacent to a short line, it
may not be possible to coordinate the reach of Zone 2 for the long line with the reach of
Zone 1 for the short line. Pilot protection provides instantaneous fault clearing on the entire
short line and facilitates coordination.

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An optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide that uses a total internal reflection process to transmit light
along its longitudinal axis. Optical fiber offers high bandwidth, very high reliability, exceptional
signal-to-noise ratio, inherent immunity to electromagnetic interference, and electrical safety.
Because of these properties, optical fiber is a preferred medium for modern power system
communication.

Optical fiber is becoming more widely available. A dedicated fiber-optic channel can consist of a
direct point-to-point fiber connection or a multiplexed fiber link. SONET (synchronous optical
network) can be part of a wide-area communications network for voice and data traffic that provides
a nondedicated communications link.

The concern with a nondedicated teleprotection channel is that the channel delays may change as the
network reconfigures for a link failure. We will discuss the effects of channel delays on the various
schemes later in the presentation.

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Microwave channels operate at frequencies between 150 MHz and 20 GHz. This bandwidth allows
for many 4 kHz protection channels operating in parallel. The channel length is limited to a line-of-
sight path between antennas. Repeaters allow increased length, but also increase cost and reduce
reliability. Microwave channels are not affected by line problems (such as faults). However, these
channels are susceptible to atmospheric attenuation and distortion.

Microwave channels provide direct relay-to-relay communication. Typically, electric utilities own
the microwave system, providing an additional level of control over system performance and
reliability. However, microwave systems can fail because of failures in multiplexers, radio gear, or
cabling, and because of antenna pointing errors.

Microwave systems can be either digital or analog. These are often part of a wide-area
communications network for voice and data traffic as well. Analog systems generally use audio tone
sets to put the teleprotection information into a voice channel. Channel delays for audio tone sets on
analog microwave can be 8–20 ms. Digital microwave can provide channel delays in the 3–4 ms
range.

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Spread-spectrum radio systems were first used for secure government communication. Commercial
uses have grown since the United States Federal Communications Commission permitted license-free
operation under certain conditions. For power system protection, the advantages of spread-spectrum
radio channels include low cost, interference immunity, long range, congestion avoidance, and
freedom from licensing requirements.

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Power line carrier (PLC) channels transmit radio frequency signals in the 10–500 kHz band over the
transmission line. This channel is effective at over 150 miles. PLC provides a reliable point-to-point
path for sending teleprotection information.

However, the equipment to couple the signal to the high-voltage power line is expensive. PLC
channels may be affected by power line noise and by faults and other line problems. The
teleprotection scheme must be designed to work if the channel is lost during an internal fault that
short-circuits the PLC channel.

PLC channels can operate in one two modes: on/off and frequency shift keying (FSK). The type of
PLC channel used depends on the needs of the teleprotection scheme.

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Private or leased lines also provide digital and audio tone communications channels. Although the
interface equipment can be expensive, the overall installation costs can be reduced.

On the down side, there is the ongoing lease costs of the channel. Additionally, leased lines are often
unreliable. To encourage the owner of the leased line to improve the reliability, you must document
the availability, test results, etc., and provide them to the owner. Finally, this channel is limited to
very short lines because of signal attenuation due to the series resistance and shunt capacitance of the
pilot wires.

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In modern systems, the relay interface to the communications channel is digital and uses a
proprietary protocol. As an example, SEL MIRRORED BITS® communications technology
communicates the status of eight bits. The advantage of these systems is that more information can be
exchanged. The exchange of more information allows for the inclusion of control along with the
protection. These systems also simultaneously monitor the health and availability of the
communications channel.

ON/OFF carrier sets communicate one bit of information. The units either transmit a signal or they
do not.

FSK carrier sets are always transmitting. Under normal conditions, they transmit a guard tone. When
keyed, they shift the transmission frequency to a trip tone. The sets often include security measures,
such as trip after guard and guard before trip, to ensure the integrity of the communications channel.

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The figure shows a directional comparison scheme. Directional comparison schemes use a
communications channel on which the relays exchange information on the status of their directional
elements. For this reason, directional comparison does not require a high-bandwidth channel. Typical
bandwidth requirements are 0.5–1.5 kHz for analog channels and 9.6 kbps for digital channels.

Directional comparison schemes use directional or distance relay elements to distinguish internal
from external faults. For an internal fault, both relays see the fault in the forward (tripping) direction;
for an external fault, one relay sees the fault in the reverse (nontripping) direction.

In the past, expensive pilot wire or power line carrier channels communicated a single bit between
the relay I/O terminals. For these schemes, the relay has no information about the channel health.

Modern relays use advanced digital communication, such as SEL MIRRORED BITS and GOOSE, to
exchange multiple state points every 4–10 ms. A set of eight state points is common. Modern relays
continuously monitor the channel and protect the communications exchange by applying additional
error detection methods.

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The advantages of directional comparison schemes are summarized on this slide. In particular, the
low channel bandwidth, speed, and symmetry requirements explain why more than 80 percent of
transmission lines in the United States have directional comparison protection schemes.

Since only one bit of information is passed through the channel, a very low bandwidth is required.

When you use microprocessor relays, you can use fault locating algorithms to aid in fault locating.
Current-only schemes do not have enough information to be able to provide fault location estimates.

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Directional comparison pilot protection schemes exchange one bit of data across the teleprotection
channel at very high speed. In some schemes, this one bit gives the other end permission to trip
(tripping schemes). In other schemes, the bit prevents the other end from tripping (blocking
schemes).

Tripping schemes can be less dependable because they will fail to trip high speed during a channel
failure. Conversely, blocking schemes will overtrip if the channel fails or if the channel delay
increases.

When you are selecting a directional comparison scheme, consider the effects of channel failure on
scheme dependability and security. Blocking schemes can trip for internal faults even when the
channel is out of service. Thus, blocking schemes are suitable for channels that share the same path
with the protected line and that can be affected by the line fault, such as power line carriers and fiber-
optic cable embedded in the overhead line shield wire. For channels not affected by line faults, such
as wireless or separately routed fiber-optic links, permissive tripping schemes can provide faster
tripping and take advantage of continuous channel monitoring.

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Directional comparison schemes include the following:

• Direct underreaching transfer trip (DUTT)

• Permissive underreaching transfer trip (PUTT)

• Permissive overreaching transfer trip (POTT)

• Directional comparison blocking (DCB)

• Directional comparison unblocking (DCUB)

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The DUTT scheme uses an instantaneous, forward-looking, underreaching element (referred to as

Zone 1 in the figure) to trip the local breaker and send a transfer trip signal to the remote end. The
Zone 1 element can be a directional overcurrent, underreaching element or a distance, Zone 1
element. The remote relay trips the breaker immediately upon receipt of the transfer trip signal,
without any additional qualification.

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Because the keying elements are set with a short (Zone 1) reach, the DUTT scheme has limited fault
resistance coverage. Because the permissive keying elements can detect only faults within the
protected line, there is no danger of misoperation on current reversal situations.

The DUTT scheme is simple, but it is susceptible to misoperation if channel noise triggers the direct
trip signal. Proper application requires securing the communications channel against noise by using a
digital channel with data-integrity checking or by sending two transfer trip signals through separate
channels and applying the received signals to an AND gate.

An advantage of tripping schemes is that channel time delay is not critical. A delay in receiving the
remote signal may delay tripping, but the delay does not affect whether the trip or restrain decision is
correct. The inherent backup provided by the directional and/or distance elements ensures tripping
(perhaps delayed) for internal faults with a channel failure.

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The PUTT scheme uses an underreaching Zone 1 element to trip the local breaker and to send a
permissive trip signal to the remote end. An instantaneous, forward-looking, overreaching element
(referred to as Zone 2 in the figure) supervises tripping at each line terminal. The Zone 2 element can
be a directional overcurrent, overreaching element or a distance, Zone 2 element. If the remote Zone
2 element detects a fault, the remote relay trips the breaker when it receives the permissive signal.

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Because the PUTT scheme uses an underreaching element to send permission to trip, PUTT does not
send a permissive signal for out-of-section faults. Hence, PUTT schemes do not require additional
supervisory logic to maintain security under current-reversal conditions on parallel lines. However,
the underreaching element limits the fault resistance coverage of PUTT schemes.

Using the underreaching Zone 1 element to supervise tripping makes the PUTT scheme less
susceptible to misoperation under noisy channel conditions than the DUTT scheme.

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The POTT scheme uses an overreaching Zone 2 element to trip the local breaker and send a
permissive trip signal to the remote end. If the remote Zone 2 element detects a fault, the remote
relay trips the breaker when it receives the permissive signal. Because the scheme uses an
overreaching element to send permission, it needs additional supervisory logic to maintain security
under current-reversal conditions on parallel lines. The overreaching element of POTT schemes
provides better fault resistance coverage than that of the DUTT and PUTT schemes.

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Because the POTT scheme uses an overreaching element to send permission to trip, it needs
additional supervisory logic to maintain security under current-reversal conditions on parallel lines.
The overreaching element of POTT schemes provides better fault resistance coverage than that of the
DUTT and PUTT schemes.

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A number of complications with a POTT scheme require additional logic:

• If the remote terminal is open, the relay on that terminal will not see the fault and therefore
will be unable to give the local terminal permission to trip. This problem is addressed by
echo key logic. The relay on the open terminal echoes the permissive signal back to the
closed terminal, allowing it to trip.

• If one terminal is a much weaker source of fault current than the other, or if its normal source
is out of service, it may not have sufficient current to pick up for the fault. In this case, the
weak terminal will not give the strong terminal permission to trip. This problem is addressed
similarly to the open terminal echo keying logic, but it includes 27P and 59N elements to
detect the weak-infeed condition.

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Additional complications to a POTT scheme are as follows:

• Current reversals during the fault can cause unfaulted lines to trip (see next slide). Current-
reversal logic solves this problem.

• If the channel fails completely, permission to trip cannot be sent. As a result, faults close to
the line ends (out of the section where the Zone 1 elements overlap) will be cleared by the
Zone 2 element after the Zone 2 time delay. A solution to this delayed-tripping problem is
proper channel selection: tripping pilot schemes should not use channels that share the same
path with the protected line. An additional solution is continuous channel supervision to
detect channel problems before a fault occurs.

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Faults near one end of the line may result in a sequential trip operation. This sequential trip happens
when the instantaneous relay elements trip the breaker nearest to the fault location (this trip is
independent from the communications-assisted tripping scheme). The breaker farthest from the fault
must wait for a permissive signal. In double-circuit line applications, the major problem with this
sequential fault current clearance is that it creates a current reversal in the healthy (nonfaulted)
parallel line. If the protection for the healthy line is not equipped to address this reversal, one
terminal of the healthy line may trip incorrectly.

The figure shows the status at the inception of the fault. Relaying at Breaker 3 detects the fault as
being within Zones 1 and 2. The instantaneous Zone 1 element issues a trip signal to the breaker
independent of the communications-assisted tripping scheme. The Zone 2 element at Breaker 3 issues
a permissive signal to the protection at Breaker 4. The protection at Breaker 4 detects the fault within
Zone 2 but must wait for the permissive signal from Breaker 3 before issuing a permissive trip
output. In the event that the permissive trip signal never arrives and the fault persists, Breaker 4 is
tripped by Zone 2 time-delayed protection.

The Zone 2 element at Breaker 2 also picks up at fault inception and issues a permissive signal to the
protection scheme at Breaker 1. At this time, the reversed Zone 3 element at Breaker 1 also picks up
and identifies the fault as a reverse (or out-of-section) fault.

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After Breaker 3 opens, the fault currents redistribute. When this redistribution occurs, the Zone 2
element at Breaker 2 and the Zone 3 element at Breaker 1 begin to drop out. If the Zone 2 element at
Breaker 1 picks up before the received permissive signal resets, Breaker 1 trips because of this
current reversal.

This scenario can easily occur when ground directional overcurrent relays are used, as they can often
detect a zone-end fault on an adjacent line. It is less of a factor when ground distance relays are used.

Another factor that contributed to this problem in the past is that the contact-closing electromagnetic
torque of an electromechanical element is much higher than the contact-opening spring torque,
resulting in a large disparity in pickup versus dropout times. This disparity is also true with digital
relays, but to a much lesser degree.

To address this problem, use a reversed Zone 3 element to detect when the fault is initially seen
behind the relay. A dropout delay prevents the relay from keying permission upon a transition from
reverse to forward. The delay allows the remote-terminal forward element time to drop out.

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Unlike DUTT, PUTT, and POTT schemes, which send a tripping signal when they detect a fault in
the forward direction, the DCB scheme sends a trip-blocking signal when it detects a fault in the
reverse direction. The DCB scheme uses an instantaneous, reverse-looking element (referred to as
Zone 3 in the figure) to send the blocking signal. The Zone 3 element can be a directional overcurrent
element or a reversed Zone 3 distance element. If the local Zone 3 element detects a reverse fault, it
sends a blocking signal to the remote end. If the remote Zone 2 element detects a fault, the remote
relay trips the breaker after a short coordinating time delay CTD if it does not receive the blocking
signal. In many applications, a fast, nondirectional element sends the blocking signal. In these cases,
the blocking signal is quickly shut off if the fault is in the forward direction.

The DCB scheme is used often with power line carriers and an ON/OFF transmitter because the only
time the signal must get through is when the fault is not on the protected line.

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Because the DCB scheme uses a reversed Zone 3 element to send the blocking signal, it needs
additional supervisory logic to maintain security under current-reversal conditions on parallel lines.

The blocking logic (trip if no blocking signal is received) requires waiting for the blocking signal for
a given time. Hence, the logic requires a coordination time delay. This delay makes the DCB scheme
a bit slower than a permissive tripping scheme.

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There are number of complications that need to be addressed with DCB schemes.

In a DCB scheme, tripping occurs if the local Zone 2 forward-overreaching element operates and the
remote Zone 3 reverse-reaching element does not send a blocking signal within a settable time. The
channel coordination delay must allow time for the blocking signal to be received before the tripping
element can operate. If the block does not arrive, or if it is late, a DCB scheme can overtrip.

Current reversals must also be addressed, with logic similar to that used with the POTT scheme.

Loss of channel is a particular issue with DCB schemes. Because each terminal will trip if it does not
receive a blocking signal, these schemes will overtrip for an external fault if the channel fails. This is
complicated by the typical use of an ON/OFF type carrier set to obtain the highest possible channel
speed. An ON/OFF carrier set is off in the normal state; it is turned on to block the remote end.

For this reason, it is usually desirable to use an automatic carrier checkback system with ON/OFF
carrier sets. An automatic carrier checkback system can be programmed to operate several times a
day. There is usually a master checkback unit that keys the local transmitter with a series of carrier
pulses. The slave checkback units monitor their local receiver and recognize this code as a checkback
transmission instead of a fault transmission. These units then respond by keying their local
transmitter with an answer code. If the master hears the answer on its local receiver, it knows that the
channel is viable. If it does not, it will typically alarm the supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) system that the channel has failed. If an internal fault occurs during a checkback
transmission, the relay will assert its “carrier stop” output. The carrier sets give priority to “carrier
stop” over “carrier start.” That is, if both stop and start are asserted, the stop input takes precedence
and the transmitter will be turned off.

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In the DCUB scheme, a guard signal travels continuously between the two ends of the transmission
line. When the channel is healthy, the DCUB scheme operates similarly to POTT schemes. If the
local Zone 2 element detects a fault, the guard signal is shut off, and a trip signal is sent. The remote
relay detects the change in signals from guard to trip. If the remote Zone 2 element also detects a
fault, the remote relay trips the breaker.

The DCUB scheme also uses loss-of-guard logic that ensures tripping for internal faults with the
channel out of service. This logic permits a trip if the relay detects a loss-of-guard signal and if the
Zone 2 element detects a fault, even if the relay does not receive a trip signal. Hence, DCUB schemes
are applicable to channels that can be affected by internal faults.

The loss-of-guard logic operates in the following manner. FSK channel equipment sends a guard tone
continuously. Normally, a trip tone follows the loss-of-guard tone. The loss-of-guard logic creates a
virtual unblock signal that allows high-speed tripping for a short period of time. Thus, if the loss of
channel is caused by a fault, the high-speed clearing of the fault is still accomplished.

However, if an external fault coincides with a failure of the communications channel, the loss-of-
guard logic will allow tripping of the terminal that sees the fault in the forward direction, thus
causing a scheme misoperation.

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POTT and PUTT schemes can be less dependable because they will fail to trip high speed during a
channel failure. Conversely, DCB schemes will overtrip if the channel fails or if the channel delay
increases.

DCUB schemes combine the dependability of DCB schemes with the security of POTT schemes but
allow tripping during a window of time to accommodate channel failure during a fault. DCUB
schemes are attractive when the power line is used for the communications medium.

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DCB schemes should not be used with networked communications channels, such as SONET, where
the channel delay can change. For such cases, you would need a high-speed channel, such as a power
line carrier ON/OFF channel.

POTT and DCUB schemes will not trip until the permission (or unblock) signal arrives, so there are
no concerns about channel delay for security. Channel delay does affect ultimate tripping time. Given
modern high-bandwidth digital channels, POTT and DCUB schemes can be faster than DCB
schemes, without the security concerns.

If a fault on the power line can affect the teleprotection channel, a DCB or DCUB scheme should be
used. Examples of this type of fault include power line carriers or communications lines sharing right
of way with the protected power line.

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Current-only pilot protection schemes use a communications channel to compare current information
from the line terminals, as shown in this figure. Phase comparison schemes compare the phase angles
of the currents at the line terminals. By processing both current magnitude and phase angle
information, line differential schemes perform better than phase comparison schemes. In the past,
communications channels were suited only to directional comparison or phase comparison line
protection. Now, modern digital channels also support line differential schemes.

Old systems combined the three phase currents into a single signal to reduce the amount of data
transmitted. Modern channels support phase-segregated schemes, which communicate information
about all three phase currents.

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Some advantages of phase-segregated, current-only line protection schemes are that they:

• Do not require voltage information, thereby avoiding problems for close-in faults, blown
potential fuses, ferroresonance in VTs, transients in CCVTs, and voltage inversion.

• Are almost immune to unbalances, current reversals on parallel lines, power swings, and
zero-sequence mutual coupling.

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Other advantages of phase-segregated, current-only line protection schemes are that they:

• Perform well for evolving, intercircuit, and cross-country faults

• Tolerate high line loading

• May handle outfeed conditions, depending on the operating characteristic

• Are easily applied to short lines

The basic limitation of current-only schemes relates to their requirement for a reliable, high-
bandwidth communications channel.

This limitation is rapidly disappearing with the modern digital fiber-optic communications channels.
In addition, digital technology permits inclusion of many protection functions in a relay unit. It is
now possible to combine a directional comparison and a current-only pilot system in the same relay.
This diversity of operation principles in the same unit can enhance the overall performance without a
significant increase in cost. In applications where reliability also demands duplicate hardware, you
can install two such relay units and obtain four separate protection functions running on two separate
hardware platforms.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Line phase comparison protection schemes compare the phase angle of the currents at the line
terminals. For internal faults, these currents are approximately in phase. For external faults, the
currents are approximately 180 degrees out of phase.

Old phase comparison schemes combined the phase currents into a single signal and compared phase
information over a voice analog channel (typically 2.5–4 kHz bandwidth). Today, phase-segregated
schemes compare the phase currents separately over a digital channel (typically 9.6 kbps or higher
bandwidth).

Phase comparison schemes include fault detectors to control signal transmission and to supervise
tripping. Typical schemes use two overreaching overcurrent elements.

Phase comparison schemes are difficult to apply to multiterminal lines. These schemes do not allow
for transformers in the differential zone. Because of the superior performance of line differential
protection, future applications of phase comparison will be limited to simple schemes using narrow-
band channels.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The figure shows logic and time diagrams of a phase comparison protection scheme. The scheme
d t t the
detects th currentt zero crossing
i att eachh line
li terminal
t i l andd forms
f a square wave signal.
i l TheTh local
l l endd
receives the remote end square wave signal after a given channel time delay CD. A time delay LD is
introduced in the local signal to compensate for the channel time delay of the received signal. For
internal faults, Currents iL and iR are in phase, the output of the AND gate lasts one half cycle, the
timer times out and issues a trip. For external faults, iL and iR are 180 degrees out of phase, the output
of the AND gate is zero, and the timer does nothing.

If LD = CD, the AND gate behaves as a coincidence detector of the positive half cycle of currents iL
and iR. The coincidence timer issues a trip output when the coincidence time of SL and SR is equal to
or greater than the pickup time T. The T setting determines the angular width of the phase
comparator characteristic. For T equals one-quarter cycle, the characteristic is 90 degrees wide.
That is, the logic will allow tripping if the currents are out of phase by up to 90 degrees. The dropout
timer setting T provides a trip output latch and should be greater than T – T, where T is the
fundamental frequency period.

Signals SL and SR are never exactly in phase or 180 degrees out of phase. The main sources of phase
angle error for external faults are charging current, CT saturation, and time-delay compensation
errors. For internal faults, the nonhomogeneity between the sources and the line impedance causes a
phase shift.

This scheme will fail to trip for an internal fault during a communications channel failure.
Alternatively, a logic inversion can be introduced in the square wave that is sent to the remote line
terminal. Likewise, the received signal is inverted before the phase comparison. This logic enhances
dependability and allows tripping when no signal is received, but can misoperate for an external fault
during a communications channel failure.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The system depicted on the previous slide is a half-wave comparison scheme. That scheme provides
a comparison for the positive half cycle only. This introduces a half-cycle latency in the trip decision.
Alternatively, you can use a full-wave or dual phase comparison scheme. Two sets of square waves
are formed at each line terminal and compared independently. AND 1 detects the time coincidence of
the positive half-cycle square waves SL+ and SR+. AND 2 detects the time coincidence of the negative
half-cycle square waves SL– and SR–. The system can make a tripping decision on either half cycle,
thus providing faster operating speed.

For simplicity, local and channel time delays are not shown in the figure.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The most widely used phase comparison scheme is the old nonsegregated scheme. The pulse
generated at each line terminal is a composite signal that combines the phase currents to form a
unique single-phase voltage. A typical composite signal VF is a weighted combination of the current
symmetrical components.

The high bandwidth of modern digital communications channels permits implementation of

segregated phase comparison schemes. These schemes fulfill an independent phase comparison for
each phase current. These schemes provide faulted-phase identification for single-pole tripping
applications and enhance the protection behavior for evolving faults, cross-country faults, intercircuit
faults, and series-compensated line faults.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The basic phase comparison scheme described earlier uses phase angle information only. This
scheme fails to operate for internal faults with outfeed (a condition where one current flows into and
the other current flows out of the line).

The figure shows a possible outfeed condition, a situation involving a high-resistance internal fault
for which the load current is greater than the fault current.

In order to accommodate outfeed, you must add the current magnitude information to the signal
comparison process. Offset keying is an enhancement to phase comparison that uses both phase and
magnitude information. Offset-keying phase comparison derives the square waves by comparing the
currents with a threshold value that is greater than the maximum expected outfeed current.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Microprocessor-based line differential schemes compare digitized current samples or current phasor
values. Each relay that receives current data from all line terminals operates in a master mode: it time
aligns data, executes a differential protection algorithm, and trips its breaker when required. Each
relay that serves data but does not receive all the remote data operates in a slave mode: a direct
transfer trip received from a remote master relay allows a slave relay to trip its breaker.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Traditional line differential schemes use percentage differential elements, which compare operating
current IOP with restraining current IRT. The element generates a tripping signal if IOP is greater than a
percentage of IRT and is also greater than a minimum pickup current IPU. The element operating
characteristic is typically a plot of IOP as a function of IRT. The figure depicts two typical percentage
differential characteristics. The operating region is the region above the operating characteristic. A
variable-percentage or dual-slope characteristic (dotted lines in the figures) increases relay security at
higher fault current levels.

The percentage differential principle, originally developed for the protection of transformers and
generators, was extended to the protection of short transmission lines in the 1930s. The traditional
scheme uses a telephone-type pilot wire channel to exchange analog information between the line
terminals. Composite sequence networks form voltage signals that contain magnitude and phase
information on the currents at the line terminals. Percentage differential relays at each end respond to
the currents derived from the comparison of these voltages through the pilot wire. The scheme
operates as a percentage differential scheme at lower levels of fault current. At higher currents, the
scheme becomes a phase comparison scheme because of the effect of the saturating transformer
included in the scheme. The transformer is intended to provide isolation from ground potential rise in
the copper conductor channel. The introduction of fiber-optic channels permitted the application of
the percentage differential characteristic for all levels of fault current.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Percentage differential elements compare an operating current (also called a differential current) with
a restraining current. The operating current IOP is the magnitude of the phasor sum of the currents
entering the protected element.

IOP is proportional to the fault current for internal faults and approaches zero for other operating
(ideal) conditions.

The slide shows the most common alternatives for obtaining the restraining current IRT.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The differential current is not exactly zero for external faults. The most common causes of fictitious
differential current in line differential relays are the following:

• Line-charging current

• Tapped load

• Channel time-delay compensation errors

• Current transformer saturation

Line-charging current is significant in cable lines or long overhead lines.

The fictitious differential current created by tapped loads may be the result of load current, low-side
faults, or inrush current in the tapped transformer.

The effect of line-charging current and load current can be mitigated by using a negative-sequence or
zero-sequence differential element.

Channel time-delay compensation errors and current transformer saturation contribute to fictitious
differential current in all types of differential elements. To address these two sources of error, the
operating characteristic of the differential element needs to be carefully designed.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Current-only line protection schemes may perform phase comparison or differential comparison of
quantities derived from the currents at the line terminals. It is customary to use a polar diagram to
represent the operating characteristic of phase comparison schemes. A scalar diagram showing the
operating current as a function of the restraining current is the typical way of representing the
differential element operating characteristics.

Taking into account that relay input signals are complex quantities, the most comprehensive way to
represent relay characteristics is to use a complex plane defined by the ratio of the relay input signals.
For relays with current and voltage input signals, the complex plane could be an impedance or an
admittance plane. For relays with only current or voltage inputs, the complex plane is a current-ratio
or a voltage-ratio plane, respectively.

For a differential relay, we can define a complex variable given by the ratio of the remote current to
the local current. The equation shown on this slide is the basis for the Cartesian-coordinate or polar-
coordinate versions of the current-ratio plane. Warrington introduced the term Alpha Plane to
designate this plane.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The figure shows the Alpha Plane representation of a family of percentage differential element
characteristics for different values of the Slope m. These characteristics correspond to the relay
having a slope characteristic that crosses the origin of coordinates. The element restraining quantity is
the magnitude of the difference of the input currents. Relay characteristics are circular.

The operating region is the area outside of the circle, and the restraining region is the area inside of
the circle. Note that the –1 + j0 point, which corresponds to an ideal through-current condition, is
inside the relay restraining region.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The figure depicts another family of characteristics corresponding to a percentage differential

element with a slope characteristic that crosses the origin of coordinates. The element restraining
quantity for this case is the magnitude of the sum of the input current absolute values. The relay
characteristics are not circular. Note that the value of Slope m determines not only the size, but also
the shape of the relay characteristic.

Dual-slope differential relays may have two different types of slope characteristics. The first slope
characteristic may be a straight line crossing the origin of coordinates or may intersect on the
restraining current axis. The second slope characteristic always intersects on the restraining current
axis.

Thus, the dual-slope differential relay will have two different characteristics on the Alpha Plane. The
restraining current value determines the characteristic that is active for a given power system
operating condition.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

The figure depicts the Alpha Plane representation of power system load and fault conditions. For ideal
through current conditions (power flow or external faults with no CT errors),
through-current errors) the magnitudes of IL and IR are
equal, and their phases are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, IL / IR = 1180°. Hence, through-load and external
fault conditions plot at point 1180° on the Alpha Plane.

For internal faults, currents IL and IR are in phase under ideal conditions. These faults plot on the positive real
axis of the Alpha Plane. In general, the angles of IL and IR for internal faults depend on the source voltage
angles (prefault power flow condition) and the angles of the system impedances at both sides of the fault point.
This figure shows the internal fault region on the Alpha Plane as an angular sector that accommodates source
voltage and impedance angle differences. Negative- and zero-sequence differential elements do not respond to
balanced power flow. Hence, the Alpha Plane internal fault region is narrower for these elements because it
considers only system nonhomogeneity.

Line-charging current and tapped load cause current to flow into the line at all terminals. They plot in the
internal fault region of the Alpha Plane. The traditional method for avoiding misoperation is setting the
differential element pickup above these currents, but this method desensitizes the differential scheme. Modern
relays accommodate line-charging current and tapped load without sacrificing sensitivity. Negative- and zero-
sequence differential elements are virtually immune to line-charging current. Overcurrent elements that
respond to the total fault current can time coordinate with tapped-load overcurrent protection. You can
supervise these elements with line differential elements.

For some internal faults, the current flows out of the line at one terminal. High-resistance internal faults with
fault current less than load current cause outfeed conditions. In series-compensated lines, outfeed occurs when
the reactance from one of the sources to the fault point is capacitive. A three-terminal line with a strong
external parallel tie between two terminals can experience outfeed at one terminal for some internal faults.

For internal faults with outfeed at one line terminal, the angle between IL and IR is close to 180 degrees, and
the magnitudes are not equal. These faults plot close to the negative real axis of the Alpha Plane but do not
coincide with the 1180° point, as shown in the figure.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Line-charging current flows into the line at both terminals and creates a false differential current. The
figure represents the current components that exist in the line for a normal load condition.

The figure also depicts the Alpha Plane locus for different values of ILOAD. The trajectory is not
circular in the general case. Note that, for small load currents, the current-ratio value lies on the right
semiplane. The only way to avoid relay misoperation is to set the relay minimum pickup current to
greater than the line-charging current value. For differential elements responding to the phase
currents, this sensitivity limitation affects the relay fault resistance coverage for internal faults. The
negative-sequence or zero-sequence components of the charging current are very low when
compared to the positive-sequence or phase values. Thus, a negative-sequence or a zero-sequence
differential element can be set much more sensitively than a phase element.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Channel delay compensation errors cause the current ratio to rotate around the origin on the Alpha
Plane. The ratio magnitude is unchanged. The rotation angle equals the angle error caused by channel
asymmetry. For example, a 1 ms error rotates the current ratio 21.6 degrees when the system
frequency is 60 Hz. This figure shows how the channel asymmetry expands the fault and load
regions of the previous slide.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

This figure shows the Alpha Plane differential element characteristic. The restraining region includes
the point 1180° and perfectly fits the shape of the through-load and external fault region depicted in
the previous slide. Setting 87LANG determines the angular extent of the restraining region. Setting
87LR determines the restraining region outer radius. The inner radius is the reciprocal of 87LR. The
differential element operates when the current ratio leaves the restraining region and the differential
current magnitude is above a minimum pickup value (a relay setting).

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

This figure compares the Alpha Plane differential element characteristic with a traditional percentage
differential characteristic. When we set both elements for the same level of tolerance of outfeed, the
percentage differential element has very low tolerance of channel asymmetry.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

If we increase the slope of the percentage differential element to accommodate a high level of
channel asymmetry, as this figure shows, the characteristic expands, and the element loses sensitivity
to internal faults with outfeed. The 87LANG setting value of 195 degrees shown in this figure
provides very high tolerance of channel asymmetry, without sacrificing sensitivity for internal faults.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

When a CT saturates, the fundamental component of the secondary current decreases in magnitude
and advances in angle. For example, if the local CT saturates and the CT at the remote end of the
protected line does not saturate, the current-ratio magnitude increases and the phase angle of the ratio
decreases, moving IL / IR away from the 1180° point.

The figure shows the Alpha Plane current-ratio trajectory resulting from CT saturation during an
external fault on a two-terminal line. To obtain this figure, we used the ElectroMagnetic Transients
Program (EMTP) and MATLAB® simulations to calculate the fundamental current phasors from the
output signals of 16 samples-per-cycle cosine filters. We then determined the ratio and plotted the
result on the complex plane. To illustrate a worst-case scenario, we selected the CT voltage accuracy
classes to achieve severe saturation of the CTs at only one terminal. The figure shows the trajectories
resulting from local CT saturation and remote CT saturation.

The figure also depicts the characteristics of a percentage differential element and the Alpha Plane
differential element. To achieve the same security, we set both elements so that their characteristics
enclose all points where the operating current is above the element minimum pickup value. With this
setting, the Alpha Plane differential element is more tolerant of outfeed than the percentage
differential element. Therefore, the Alpha Plane differential element provides higher ground fault
sensitivity during heavy power flow conditions.

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Section 13 – Line Pilot Protection

Current-only schemes do not have to be coordinated with the relays protecting the remote lines.

These schemes do not require voltage information, thereby avoiding problems related to voltage
signal loss or distortion.

Current-only schemes are almost immune to system effects such as unbalances, current reversals on
parallel lines, power swings, and zero-sequence mutual coupling.

They perform well for evolving, intercircuit, and cross-country faults.

However, current-only schemes provide no backup to adjacent lines and require a high-bandwidth
communications channel.

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