LANGUAGES 23 Together, these two inclusions prove that S* = S** PROBLEMS 1, Consider the language S*, where S = {a, b}. How many words does this language have of length 2? of length 3? of length n? Consider the language S*, where S = {aa, b}. How many words does this language have of length 4? of length 5? of length 6? What can be said in general? Consider the language S*, where S = {ab, ba}. Write out all the words in S* that have seven or fewer letters. Can any word in this language contain the substrings aaa or bbb? Consider the language S*, where S = {a ab ba}. Is the string (abba) a word in this language? Write out all the words in this language with seven or fewer letters. What is another way in which to describe the words in this language? Be careful, this is not simply the language of all words without bbb. Consider the language S*, where S = {aa aba baa}. Show that the words aabaa, baaabaaa, and baaaaababaaaa are all in this language. Can any word in this language be interpreted as a string of elements from S in two different ways? Can any word in this language have an odd total number of a’s? Consider the language S* where $ = {xx xxx}. In how many ways can x! be written as the product of words in S? This means: How many different factorizations are there of x'? into xx and xxx? (i) Prove that if x is in PALINDROME then so is x" for any n. (ii) Prove that if y° is in PALINDROME then so is y. (iii) Prove that if z* is in PALINDROME for some n (greater than 0) then z itself is also. (iv) Prove that PALINDROME has as many words of length 4 as it does of length 3. (v) Prove that PALINDROME has as many words of length 2n as it has of length 2n—1.AUTOMATA THEORY Show that if the concatenation of two words (neither A) in PALIN- DROME is also a word in PALINDROME then both words-are powers of some other word; that is, if x and y and xy are all in PALINDROME then there is a word z such that x = z" and y = 2” for some integers n and m (maybe n or m = 1). Let S = {ab, bb} and let T = {ab, bb, bbbb}. Show that S* = T*. What principle does this illustrate? Let S = {ab, bb} and let T = {ab, bb, bbb}. (i) Show that S* # T*, but that S* C 7*. (ii) Prove in general that if $ C T then S* C T*. Find examples of $ and T for which: (iii) SCT but S # T and yet S* = T*, (iv) S* = T* but SCT and TCS. The symbol “C” means “is not contained in or equal to.” How does the situation in Problem 10 change if we replace the operator + with the operator * as defined in this chapter? Note the language S* means the same as S* but does not allow the “concatenation of no words” of S. Prove that for all sets S, @ (sty Gi) (S*)* (iii) Is (S*)* = (S*)* for all sets S? Suppose that for some language L we can always concatenate two words in L and get another word in L if and only if the words are not the same. That is, for any words w; and w2 in L where w; # w2, the word w,W2 is in L but the word w,w, is not in L. Prove that this cannot happen. By definition (S##)* = Se is this set bigger than S*? Is it bigger than 5? Give an example of two sets of strings, S and T, such that the closure of S added to (union with) the closure of T is different from the closure of the set S union 7. (In this book we will use the + sign for union of sets instead of the usual U.) What we want here are two sets, S and T, such that SET #8418 What can we say in general about sets S$ and T that satisfy (S + Tt = S* + TH?