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Module 2
Fluid Statics

Introduction
In a static fluid or in a fluid undergoing rigid-body motion, a particle of the fluid retains its identity for all
time and the fluid elements do not deform, therefore, only normal stress is present or in other words, only
pressure is present. In this module, you will study fluids that are not in motion or with velocity zero, denoted as
hydrostatic condition. The principles of hydrostatics have many applications such as pressure distribution, design
of pressure-measuring devices, forces in submerged surfaces, buoyancy and stability of submerged and floating
bodies, and relative equilibrium of liquids.

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this module, you should be able to
1. Find the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest.
2. Determine pressures by applying the concept of manometers.
3. Compute the total hydrostatic force on plane and curved surfaces.
4. Compute the buoyant force acting on floating and submerged bodies.
5. Analyze the stability of floating and submerged bodies.
6. Analyze the rigid-body motion of fluids in containers during linear acceleration or rotation.

Lesson 2 – Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

All surfaces submerged in a fluid are subjected to forces, called hydrostatic forces, which develop on the
surface due to the fluid. The design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures involve the
determination of the hydrostatic forces for the engineers to be able to design these structures satisfactorily.

Horizontal Surface

FR = pA = γhA
where: FR = resultant force acting through the centroid of the area
p = unit pressure
γ = unit weight of fluid
h = height of liquid from the free surface
A = area

Inclined Surface
In the figure that follows, assume that the fluid surface is open to the atmosphere. The plane in which the
surface lies intersect the free surface at O and makes an angle θ with this surface. The x–y coordinate system is
defined so that O is the origin and y = 0 (i.e., the x-axis) is directed along the surface as shown. The direction,
location, and magnitude of the resultant force acting on one side of this area due to the liquid in contact with the
area is to be determined. At any given depth, h, the force acting on dA is dF = γh dA and is perpendicular to the
surface. Thus, the magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing these differential forces over the
entire surface.

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In equation form
FR    hdA    y sin  dA
A A

where h = y sin θ. For constant γ and θ,

FR   sin   y dA
A

The integral appearing is the first moment of the area

with respect to the x-axis, so we can write

A y dA  yc A
where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A
measured from the x axis which passes through O.
Therefore,
FR   A yc sin or FR   hc A
where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to
the centroid of the area.

Note that the magnitude of the force is independent of the angle θ. It depends only on the specific weight of
the fluid, the total area, and the depth of the centroid of the area below the surface. In effect, the above equation
indicates that the magnitude of the resultant force is equal to the pressure at the centroid of the area multiplied
by the total area. Since all the differential forces that were summed to obtain FR are perpendicular to the surface,
the resultant FR must also be perpendicular to the surface.
The y coordinate, yR, of the point of application of the resultant force can be determined by summation of
moments around the x axis. That is, the moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the distributed
pressure force, or
FR y R   ydF    y 2 sin dA
A A

but FR = γ A yc sin θ, then

A y dA
2

yR 
yc A

A y dA  I x , which is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), with respect to an axis
2
From calculus,
formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface and the free surface (x axis). Thus,
Ix
yR 
yc A
We can use the parallel axis theorem to express Ix as
I x  I c  Ay c2
Note that Ic is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing through its centroid and parallel to
the x axis. Thus,
Ic
yR   yc
yc A
This equation shows that the resultant force does not pass through the centroid but, for nonhorizontal surfaces,
I
is always below it, a distance equal to e  c .
Ayc
Following similar steps, we can find the x coordinate, xR, of the point of application of the resultant force.
Thus,
FR x R   xdF    xysin dA
A A
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and, therefore,
xR 
A xydA  I xy
yc A yc A
where Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes. Again, using the parallel axis theorem, we can
write
I xyc
xR   xc
yc A
where Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing through the centroid
of the area formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system. If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect
to an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or y axes, the resultant force must lie along the
line x = xc, since Ixyc is identically zero in this case. The point through which the resultant force acts is called the
center of pressure.

Centroidal coordinates and moments of inertia for some common areas

A  r 2
r 2r sin 
x
 3
x
 r4
2  sin 2 
O
Ix 
8
where 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 180°

(f) Circular Sector

Pressure Prism
Consider the pressure distribution along a vertical wall of a tank of constant width b, which contains a liquid
having a specific weight γ. Since the pressure must vary linearly with depth, we can represent the variation as is
shown in the figure, where the pressure is equal to zero at the upper surface and equal to γh at the bottom. It is
apparent from this diagram that the average pressure occurs at the depth h/2 and therefore the resultant force
acting on the rectangular area A = bh is
h
FR  p ave A     A
2
The pressure distribution shown applies across the vertical
surface so we can draw the three-dimensional representation
of the pressure distribution as shown. The base of this
“volume” in pressure-area space is the plane surface of
interest, and its altitude at each point is the pressure. This
volume is called the pressure prism, and it is clear that the
magnitude of the resultant force acting on the rectangular
surface is equal to the volume of the pressure prism. The
resultant force must pass through the centroid of the pressure
prism.

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Sample Problems
1. A submersible has a viewing window that is 60 cm in diameter. Determine the pressure force of the water on
the window if the center of the window is 30 m below the surface and the window is (a) horizontal, (b) vertical,
and (c) on a 45° angle.
WS WS
a. WS b. c.

30 m 30 m
30 m

45°

F  hc A F  hc A F  hc A

     
F  9.81(30) (0.6) 2  F  9.81(30) (0.6) 2  F  9.81(30) (0.6) 2 
4  4  4 
F = 83.211 kN F = 83.211 Kn F = 83.211 kN

2. A rectangular plane surface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical plane in water. Determine the total
pressure and position of center of pressure on the plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal and
a) coincides with water surface, b) 2.5 m below the free water surface.

a. h  1.5 m
hp Using the formula:
Total pressure: F  hc A  9.81(1.5)(3)(2)  88.29 kN
1
(2)(3) 3
Ic
Center of pressure: hp  h   1.5  12 2m
Ah 2(3)(1.5)

Using the pressure prism:

Total pressure:
hp pb  h  9.81(3)  29.43 kPa
1
F
F  pb (3)(2) (area of the triangle × width)
2
1
F  (29.43)(3)(2)  88.29 kN
2
pb
2
Center of pressure: h p  (3)  2 m (centroid of a triangle)
3

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b. h  1.5  2.5  4 m
Using the formula:
hp Total pressure: F  hc A  9.81(4)(3)(2)  235.44 kN
1
(2)(3) 3
Ic 12
Center of pressure: hp  h  4  4.1875 m
Ah 2(3)(4)

Using the pressure prism:

Pressures p1 and p2 :
p2  h  9.81(5.5)  53.955 kPa
p1
hp p1  h  9.81(2.5)  24.525 kPa
Total pressure:
1
F  ( p1  p2 )(3)(2) (area of trapezoid × width)
F 2
1
p2 F  (24.525  53.955)(3)(2)  235.44 kN
2

3. A plane surface is circular with a diameter of 2 m. If it is vertical and the top edge is 0.5 m below the water surface,
find the magnitude of the force on one side and the depth to the center of pressure.

0.5 m Total pressure: Center of pressure:

hc  (1) 4
hp   Ic
F  hc A  9.81(1.5) (2) 2  hp  h   1.5  4
2m
O 4  Ah  (1) 2 (1.5)
F F  46.229 kN h p  1.667 m

4. Semicircular plane gate AB is hinged along B and held by horizontal force FA applied at A. The liquid to the left
of the gate is water. Calculate the force FA required for equilibrium.

hc

e 4R e 4R
3 F 3

4R 4(10)
Total pressure: F  hc A ; hc  25 
 25   20.756 ft
3 3
 
F  62.4(20.756) (10) 2   203444.227 lb
2 
4
I 0.11R 0.11(10) 4
Center of pressure: e  c    0.3374 ft
Ahc  R 2 h  2
(10) (20.756)
c
2 2

   4R
M B  0 FA (10)  F 


 e   0 ; FA (10)  203444.227
 4(10)


 0.3374   0 ; FA = 79480.455 lb
 3   3 
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5. A plane gate of uniform thickness holds back a depth of water as shown. Find the minimum weight needed to
keep the gate closed.
x

hc
3
Total pressure: F  hc A ; hc  sin 30  0.75 m
2 yP
F  9.81(0.75)(3)(2)  44.145 kN
1 F
(2)(3) 3
Ic 12
Center of pressure: y p  yc  1.5  2m
Ayc 2(3)(1.5)

M hinge 0  Fy p  Wx  0 ;
3
x  cos 30  1.299 m
2
44.145(2)  1.299W  0 ; W = 67.966 kN

6. As water rises on the left side of the rectangular gate, the gate will open automatically. At what depth above
the hinge will this occur? Neglect the mass of the gate.

FH

A
FV
2.5 ft

Unit pressure at A: p A  h  D
Analyzing a foot-width:
D 1
Total horizontal force: FH  hc A  
D  D 2
2 2
Total vertical force: FV  p A A  D(5)  5D

  D 1 D
M A  0 FV (2.5)  FH  0 ; 5D(2.5)  D 2  0 ;
3 2 3
D = 8.66 ft

7. A homogeneous 4-ft wide, 8-ft long rectangular gate weighing 800 lb is held in place by a horizontal flexible
cable as shown in the figure. Water acts against the gate which is hinged at point A. Friction in the hinge is
negligible. Determine the tension in the cable.

W y  8sin 60  6.928 ft

1
hc
y y F e
x  (8) cos 60  2 ft
2
z 1
hc  (6) sin 60  2.598 ft
2

Total pressure: F  hc A  62.4(2.598)(6)(4)  3890.765 lb

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1
(4)(6) 3
Ic
Center of pressure: e  12  1; z = 3 – e = 3 – 1 =2
Ayc 4(6)(3)
M A 
 0 Ty  Fz  Wx  0 ; T (6.928)  3890.765(2)  800(2)  0 ; T = 1354.15 lb

8. A vertical rectangular gate is 8 ft wide and 10 ft long and weighs 6000 lb. The gate slides in vertical slots in the
side of a reservoir containing water. The coefficient of friction between the slots and the gate is 0.03. Determine
the minimum vertical force required to lift the gate when the water level is 4 ft above the top edge of the gate.

F Total pressure: FH  hc A  62.4(8)(8)(10)  39936 lb


4 ft
F
FR
hp hc Normal force: H 0 FH  N  0 ; N = 39936 lb
N
8 ft Friction force: FR  0.03N  0.03(39936)  1198.08 lb


FH

W = 6000 lb
Required force to lift the gate: F V 0 F  FR  W  0

F = 7198.08 lb

9. A structure is attached to the ocean floor as shown in the figure. A 2-m-diameter hatch is located in an
inclined wall and hinged on one edge. Determine the minimum air pressure, p1, within the container that will
open the hatch. Neglect the weight of the hatch and friction in the hinge.

For seawater, γ = 10.1 kN/m3

yc
10 m
F1
e 30°
2sin30° = 1 m 1m

2m
F2

 
Total pressure due to seawater: F1  hc A  10.1(10.5) (2) 2   106.05 kN
 4 
 
R4 (1) 4
Ic 4 4
Center of pressure: e    0.0119 m
Ayc R 2 yc  (1) 2 (21)
 
Total pressure due to air: F2  p1  (2) 2   p1
4 
M hinge 0  F1 (e  1)  F2 (1)  0 ; 106.05 (0.0119  1)  p1 (1)  0
p1 = 107.313 kPa

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10. An area in the form of an isosceles triangle with a base width of 6 ft and an altitude of 8 ft lies in the plane
forming one wall of a tank which contains a liquid having a specific weight of 79.8 lb/ft 3. The side slopes
upward, making an angle of 60° with the horizontal. The base of the triangle is horizontal and the vertex is
above the base. Determine the resultant force the fluid exerts on the area when the fluid depth is 20 ft above
the base of the triangular area. Locate the center of pressure.

Center of gravity:
20 8
yc    20.427 ft
sin 60 3
hc  y c sin 60  17.691 ft
Total force:
 6(8) 
F  hc A  79.8(17.691)   30881 lb
 2 
Center of pressure:
6(8) 3
I 36
y p  yc  c  20.427   20.601 ft
Ayc 6(8 )
(20.427)
2

11. Gate AB is 5 ft wide into the paper, hinged at A, and restrained by a stop at B. The water is at 20°C. Compute
(a) the force on stop B and (b) the reactions at A if the water depth h = 9.5 ft.

Total Force F:
F  hc A  62.4 (9.5  2)(4)(5)  9360 lb
Center of pressure:
5(4) 3
FA
e 12  0.178 ft
5(4)(9.5  2)
e
a) Force on the stop B:
F
FB M A  0 F (e  2)  4 FB  0
9360(0.178  2)  4 FB  0
FB  5096.52 lb
b) Reaction at A:
M B  0 FA (4)  F (2  e)  0
4 FA  9360(2  0.178)  0
FA  4263.48 lb

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Summary
In this lesson, you have learned the following:
 The force exerted by a static fluid on a vertical, horizontal, or inclined plane
immersed surface is

where γ = specific weight of fluid

A = area of the im1mersed surface
= depth of the center of gravity of the immersed surface from
the free surface of the liquid
 The center of pressure is the point of application of the resultant pressure.
 The depth of the center of pressure measured along the axis of the surface is

where yc= distance of the center of gravity from the free surface
Ic = centroidal moment of inertia of the area
 The center of pressure is always below the center of gravity a distance equal to
.

Learning Activity
EXERCISE 2.1

1. Determine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which is placed vertically in water in such a
way that the center of plate is 2 m below the free surface of water. Find the position of the center of pressure.

2. Panel ABC in the slanted side of a water tank is an isosceles triangle with the vertex at A and the base BC = 2
m. Find the water force on the panel and its line of action.

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3. An open tank has a vertical partition and on one side contains gasoline with density 700 kg/m3 at a depth of
4 m, as shown. A rectangular gate that is 4 m high and 2 m wide and hinged at one end is located in the partition.
Water is slowly added to the empty side of the tank. At what depth, h, will the gate start to open?

4. Forms used to make a concrete basement wall are shown in the figure. Each 4-ft-long form is held together by
four ties—two at the top and two at the bottom as indicated. Determine the tension in the upper and lower
ties. Assume concrete acts as a fluid with a weight of 150 lb/ft3.

5. The circular gate ABC has a 1-m radius and is hinged at B. Compute the force P just sufficient to keep the gate
from opening when h = 8 m. Neglect atmospheric pressure.

6. A horizontal 2-m-diameter conduit is half filled with a liquid (SG = 1.6) and is capped at both ends with plane
vertical surfaces. The air pressure in the conduit above the liquid surface is 200 kPa. Determine the resultant
force of the fluid acting on one of the end caps, and locate this force relative to the bottom of the conduit.

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7. A gate having the cross section shown in the figure closes an opening 5 ft wide and 4 ft high in a water reservoir.
The gate weighs 500 lb and its center of gravity is 1 ft to the left of AC and 2 ft above BC. Determine the
horizontal reaction that is developed on the gate at C.

8. The gate shown is hinged at H. The gate is 3 m wide normal to the plane of the diagram. Calculate the force
required at A to hold the gate closed.

9. The gate shown is 3 m wide and for analysis can be considered massless. For what depth of water will this
rectangular gate be in equilibrium as shown?

10. In Fig. P2.58, the cover gate AB closes a circular opening 80 cm in diameter. The gate is held closed by a 200-
kg mass as shown. Assume standard gravity at 20°C. At what water level h will the gate be dislodged? Neglect
the weight of the gate.

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Answers
1. 34.67 kN, 2.07 m 6. 639 kN; 0.99 m
2. 131 kN 7. 6,330 lb
3. 3.55 m 8. 111 kN
4. 8,740 lb, 21,260 lb 9. 2.66 m
5. 7690 N 10. 0.40 m

References:
1. Finnemore, E.John and Joseph B. Franzini. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering applications, Tenth Edition.
2. Munson, Bruce R., Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, and Wade W. Huebsch. Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, Sixth Edition. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2009.
3. Potter, Merle and David C. Wiggert. Fluid Mechanics, Schaum’s Outline Series. New York: McGraw-Hill,
2008.
4. Pritchard, Philip J. and John C. Leylegian. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Eighth Edition. New Jersey: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2011.
5. http://www.musaliarcollege.com/e-
Books/ME/Fluid%20Mechanics%20&%20Hydraulic%20Machines.pdf
6. https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/fluid-mechanics-and-hydraulics
7. http://www.vssut.ac.in/lecture_notes/lecture1427495313.pdf
8. https://home.czu.cz/storage/52485_engineering-fluid-mechanics.pdf
9. https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0057863/Subjects/Chapter%202.pdf

Fluid Mechanics mvbmunar 2020