Chapter The Nature of Probab: By Dr. Abdelfattah Mustafa Associate Professor of Mathematical Statistics ‘Mathematics Department, Faculty of Science, Islamic University of Madinah, KSA References: Allan G, Bluman, Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach, 8 edition, McGraw-Hill, 2012 January 10, 2024 arco ctr ck PRE ap Contents @ Descriptive and Inferential Statistics © Variables and Types of Data © Data Collection and Sampling Techniques ee ae Dae ap 3111: General Statistics January 10, 2024 asi1-1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics © Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data. @ A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values. @ Data are the valucs (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume. @ Variables whose values are determined by chance are called random variables. @ Data can be used in different ways. The body of knowledge called statistics is sometimes divided into two main areas, depending on how data are used. The two areas are Brose at ae an January 10, 2024 ay @ Descriptive statistics: consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data © Inferential statistics: consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and making predictions © Here, the statistician tries to make inferences from samples to populations. Inferential statistics uses probability. e A population consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied, © A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.f Data 1-2 Variables and Types of Data Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative: © Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct categories, according to some characteristic or attribute. For example, gender (male or female), religious preference and geographic locations. @ Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked. For example, age, height and number of children. © Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups (a) Discrete variables assume values that can be counted (b) Continuous variables can assume an infinite number of values between any two specific values. oy sy steak OAc 51 January 10, 2024 s/n Quantitative Discrete Continuous © In addition to being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables can be classified by how they are categorized, counted, or measured @ The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive (non-overlapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data. For example, Zip code, Gender (male, female), Eye color (blue, brown, green, hazel), Political affiliation, Religious affiliation, Major field (mathematics, computers, etc.), Nationality. oe Br cs r 3111: General Statistics@ The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist For example, Grade (A, B, C, D, F), Judging (first place, second place, etc.) Rating scale (poor, good, excellent), Ranking of tennis players. © The interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero. For example, SAT score, IQ, Temperature © The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members of the population. For example, Height, Weight, Time, Salary, Age. Dh mr ct STAT 3111; General Statistics 1-3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques Data can be collected in a variety of ways: @ Telephone surveys have an advantage over personal interview surveys in that they are less costly. @ Mailed questionnaire surveys can be used to cover a wider geographic arca than telephone surveys or personal interviews since mailed questionnaire surveys are less expensive to conduct. © Personal interview surveys have the advantage of obtaining in-depth responses to questions from the person being interviewed. © Data can also be collected in other ways, such as surveying records or direct observation of situations. oe Br cs 3111: General Statistics January 10, 2024 TTYeae © The researchers use samples to collect data and information about a particular variable from a large population. © To obtain samples that are unbiased. ie., that give each subject in the population an equally likely chance of being selected-statisticians use four basic methods of sampling: random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Random Sampling: © Random samples are selected by using chance methods or random numbers. © One such method is to number each subject in the population. Then place numbered cards in a bowl, mix them thoroughly, and select as many cards as needed. The subjects whose numbers are selected constitute the sample. Dh my ctr ck STAT 3111; General Statistics January 10, 2024 ey © Since it is difficult to mix the cards thoroughly, there is a chance of obtaining a biased sample. For this reason, statisticians use another method of obtaining numbers. They generate random numbers with a computer or calculator. 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Samples within the strata should be randomly selected. © Cluster Sampling: Researchers also use cluster samples. Here the population is divided into groups called clusters by some means such as geographic area or schools in a large school district, etc. Then the researcher randomly selects some of these clusters and uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of the samples. Dh Gy ete ck STAT 111: General Statistics January 10, 2024 wy