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DEEP-SEATED ABIOGENIC ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM:

FROM GEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TO PHYSICAL
THEORY
Vladimir G. Kutcherov1 and Vladilen A. Krayushkin2
Received 28 May 2008; revised 15 April 2009; accepted 29 July 2009; published 12 March 2010.
[1] The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum recognizes that natural gas and petroleum are
petroleum is a significant part of the modern scientific primordial materials of deep origin which have migrated
theories dealing with the formation of hydrocarbons. These into the Earth’s crust. Experimental results and geological
theories include the identification of natural hydrocarbon investigations presented in this article convincingly confirm
systems, the physical processes leading to their terrestrial the main postulates of the theory and allow us to reexamine
concentration, and the dynamic processes controlling the the structure, size, and locality distributions of the world’s
migration of that material into geological reservoirs of hydrocarbon reserves.
petroleum. The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of
Citation: Kutcherov, V. G., and V. A. Krayushkin (2010), Deep-seated abiogenic origin of petroleum: From geological assessment to
physical theory, Rev. Geophys., 48, RG1001, doi:10.1029/2008RG000270.
1. INTRODUCTION [3] For the historical perspective on the debate surround-

ing the theory, we refer the interested reader to Glasby [2006].
[2] The main goal of this article is to summarize the Our review aims to support the theory of the abyssal abio-
conclusions of modern petroleum science dealing with the genic petroleum origin. Opposing arguments are presented
generation, structure, size, and location of the world oil and by Clark [1934] and American Association of Petroleum
gas potential resources and to provide convincing argu- Geologists [1971].
ments from both laboratory experiments and geological data
supporting the theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of 2. PRINCIPLES OF THE THEORY OF ABYSSAL
petroleum. This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 ABIOGENIC ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND ITS
describes the principles of the theory of the abyssal abio- EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION
genic origin of petroleum, including the possibility of
hydrocarbon generation in mantle conditions as confirmed 2.1. Theory
by distribution characteristic of petroleum and by experi- [4] The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petro-
mental results obtained. Section 3 provides evidence contra- leum is an extensive body of scientific knowledge which
dicting the lateral migration of oil and gas at their deposit covers the subjects as follows: (1) chemical genesis of the
formation. Sections 4– 14 give geological data (structure, hydrocarbon molecules, (2) physical processes leading to
size, and location of the world’s hydrocarbon reserves) their terrestrial concentration, (3) dynamic processes placing
which cannot be explained by the biotic hypothesis of hydrocarbons into geological reservoirs of petroleum, and
petroleum origin but can be explained by the theory of (4) the location and commercial production of petroleum.
the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum. In section 15, The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum
considerations regarding the petroleum potential of the recognizes that petroleum is a primordial material of deep
Earth’s mantle are presented confirming the inexhaustible (mantle) origin. This theory, which has been developed in
nature of the hydrocarbon resources of our planet. the last 50 years in Russia and Ukraine, explains that
hydrocarbon compounds generate in the mantle of the Earth
and migrate through the deep faults into the crust of the
1 Earth. There they form oil and gas deposits in any kind of
Division of Heat and Power Technology, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. rock (crystalline basement, volcanic, and volcanogenic
2
Laboratory of Inorganic Petroleum Origin, Institute of Geological sedimentary rocks) and in any kind of structural position.
Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, Kiev, Ukraine.
Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union. Reviews of Geophysics, 48, RG1001 / 2010
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8755-1209/10/2008RG000270 Paper number 2008RG000270
RG1001
19449208, 2010, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2008RG000270 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [08/12/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
RG1001 Kutcherov and Krayushkin: NONBIOTIC PETROLEUM ORIGIN RG1001
Figure 1. A scheme of petroleum deposit formation.
Thus, the accumulation of oil and gas is considered as a part (MgCO3), and calcite (CaCO3) for carbon and (2) water as
of the natural process of the Earth’s outgassing, which was, supercritical fluid and hydroxyl group in some minerals
in turn, responsible for the creation of its hydrosphere, (biotite and muscovite) for hydrogen. All the above men-
atmosphere, and biosphere (Figure 1) [Kudryavtsev, 1951; tioned substances are present in the mantle in sufficient
Kropotkin and Shakhvarstova, 1959; Porfir’ev, 1974; amounts [Murakami et al., 2002; Isshiki et al., 2004],
Krayushkin, 1984, 1989; Chebanenko et al., 2005]. although quantitative estimates of their abundances vary.
[5] Until recently, the obstacle to accepting the theory of [7] Thermodynamically favorable reaction environment
the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum was the lack of (reducing conditions) could be created by a presence of
reliable and reproducible experimental results confirming FeO. The presence of FeO in basic and ultrabasic rocks of
the possibility of the synthesis of complex hydrocarbon upper mantle is documented [Anderson, 1989].
systems under the conditions of the upper mantle of the [8] Thus, abiogenic synthesis of hydrocarbons can take
Earth. According to this theory the following conditions are place in the basic and ultrabasic rocks of the upper mantle in
necessary for the synthesis of hydrocarbons: (1) adequately the presence of FeO and donors/sources of carbon and
high pressure and temperature, (2) donors/sources of carbon hydrogen. The possible reaction of synthesis in this case
and hydrogen, and (3) a thermodynamically favorable could be presented as follows: (1) reduced mantle substance +
reaction environment. Theoretical calculations based on mantle gases ! oxidized mantle substance + hydrocarbons
methods of modern statistical thermodynamics have estab- or (2) combination of chemical radicals (methylene (CH2)
lished that (1) polymerization of hydrocarbons takes place and methyl (CH3)). Different combinations of these radicals
in the temperature range 600°C– 1500°C and at pressures define all scales of oil and gas hydrocarbons and also cause
ranging from 20 to 70 kbar [Kenney et al., 2002] and analogous properties and genetic similarity of oils from dif-
(2) these conditions prevail deep in the Earth at depths of ferent deposits of the world.
70– 250 km [Carlson et al., 2005] (Figure 2). [9] In the theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of
[6] Donors/sources of carbon and hydrogen are the petroleum the generation of petroleum accumulations/
following: (1) carbon dioxide (CO2), graphite, magnesite deposits occurs in four steps as follows: (1) hydrocarbon
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diamonds in kimberlite ejecta in the crust of the Earth.)

The high-pressure chamber that was used in the experi-
ments is described by Nikolaev and Shalimov [1990]. Both
stainless steel and platinum reaction cells with a volume of
0.6 cm3 were used. All were constructed to prevent con-
tamination by air and to provide impermeability during and
after each experimental run. The reaction cell with initial
components was placed into the high-pressure chamber
and was brought from 1 bar to 50 kbar gradually, at a rate
of 2 kbar/min, and from room temperature to the elevated
temperatures of investigation at the rate of 100°C/min. The
reaction cell and high-pressure chamber were held for at
least an hour at each temperature for which measure-
ments were taken in order to allow the hydrocarbon system
to come to thermodynamic equilibrium. The samples were
thereafter quenched at the rate of 900°C/s to 200°C and
from 200°C to room temperature over several minutes,
while maintaining the high pressure of investigation. The
pressure was then reduced gradually to 1 bar at the rate of
1 kbar/min. For analyses of reaction products the standard
Figure 2. Thermobaric conditions in a variety of con- mass spectrometer and chromatograph with a connected
tinental areas [Ionov et al., 1993; Rudnick and Nyblade, desorber were used. Chromatographic analyses were carried
1999]. The straight line is the diamond-graphite phase out simultaneously with two detectors and three chromato-
boundary [Kennedy and Kennedy, 1976], and the short- graph columns at the temperatures of desorption from
dashed and long-dashed lines show the positions of adiabats 150°C to 850°C.
for potential temperatures of 1350°C and 1400°C, respec-
[11] Experiments to demonstrate the high-pressure gene-
tively [Rudnick and Nyblade, 1999]. From Carlson et al.
[2005]. sis of petroleum hydrocarbons have been conducted using
99.9% pure, solid iron oxide, FeO, and marble, CaCO3, wet
with double-distilled water. There were no biotic com-
pounds or hydrocarbons admitted to the reaction chamber.
fluids are generated in the upper mantle; (2) where and At pressure of 50 kbar with a temperature of 1200°C, the
when overlying rocks of the Earth’s crust break up/fracture, synthesis is due to the reaction as follows:
petroliferous fluids rise from the mantle through the deep
faults and their feather joints or fissures; (3) the tremendous nCaCO3 þ ð9n þ 3ÞFeO þ ð2n þ 1ÞH2 O ! nCaðOHÞ2
pressure injects the petroliferous fluids from the faults and
þ ð3n þ 1ÞFe3 O4 þ Cn H2nþ2 : ð1Þ
feathers into any rock with porous (sedimentary rocks) or
fractured (basement rocks) pore space; and (4) the petrolif-
Most of the experiments were performed with initial
erous fluids flood the reservoir. (For details, see section 3.)
mixtures for which the reagent abundances had been
These favorable conditions for deep hydrocarbon generation
calculated to provide the maximal output of condensed
are not available everywhere in the mantle. This explains
hydrocarbon phases. All experiments were carried out
the nonuniformity of spatial accommodation of hydrocar-
twice and repeated 6 months later to confirm their reliabil-
bon deposits on the Earth.
ity and reproducibility. Results of chromatographic analyses
[Kutcherov et al., 2002] shown in Table 1 indicate that the
2.2. Laboratory Experiments mixtures of the initial members of alkanes, alkenes, and
[10] Since petroleum is generated at high pressures and aromatic hydrocarbons throughout have been obtained as a
high temperatures, a special high-pressure apparatus which result of chemical reactions in the system CaCO3-H2O-FeO
permits investigations at pressures to 50 kbar and tem- at pressures of 30– 50 kbar and at temperatures of 900°C–
peratures to 1200°C has been designed. The challenge 1200°C. (Characteristics for gas-liquid inclusions of
was to establish the above mentioned conditions in high- granitoid rocks from the White Tiger oil field (Vietnam)
pressure equipment that is capable of preventing contami- [Areshev et al., 1997] presented in Table 1 show that during
nation by air, is fully sealed for several hours at pressures high-pressure experiments the system spontaneously
of 50 kbar and temperatures of 1200°C, and also allows a evolved hydrocarbon mixtures in distribution characteristic
rapid drop of temperature while maintaining high pressures. of natural petroleum.)
To be able to examine the spontaneous reaction products the [12] Part of our experimental results were confirmed by
system must be rapidly quenched to ‘‘freeze in’’ its high- experiments conducted by Scott et al. [2004]. The authors
pressure, high-temperature distribution. (Such a mechanism have presented in situ observations of hydrocarbon forma-
is analogous to that which occurs during eruptive transport tion via carbonate reduction at upper mantle pressures and
processes responsible for the stability and occurrence of temperatures. They have shown that methane was formed
3 of 30
TABLE 1. Content of Synthesized and Natural Hydrocarbon conditions does not depend substantially on the form in
Mixture
which carbon participates in a reaction. (2) A cooling rate
Content (m3/Mt)
during high-pressure experiments influences significantly
the content of the products of the reactions.
50 kbar, 30 kbar, White [14] In the new series of experiments, carbon, iron, and
Hydrocarbon 1473 K 1153 K Tiger distillated water were used as initial substances. Experi-
Methane (CH4) 57.3 89.6 94.0 ments were done using the large-volume multianvil press
Ethane (C2H6) 5.9 2.8 0.57 apparatus BARS [Pal’yanov et al., 1990]. A general view of
Ethylen (C2H4) 5.9 2.5 0.55 the apparatus is shown in Figure 3. Chepurov et al.’s [1999]
Propane (C3H8) 3.6 0.9 1.77
Propylen (C3H6) 8.7 3.2 0.13 method of high-pressure experiments was similar to the
Isobuthane (iso-C4H10) 0.2 0.1 0.9 method which we used for the ring anvil (CONAC)-type
Butane (n-C4H10) 2.1 0.3 0.9 chamber. The cell and reaction chamber were held for
Isopenthane (iso-C5H12) 0.4 0.15 0.4
Pentane (n-C5H12) 1.2 0.25 0.3 30 min at pressure of 50 kbar and temperature of 1200°C.
Isohexane (iso-C6H14) 0.12 0.01 0.26 The samples were then cooled at different rates (several
Hexane (n-C6H14) 0.6 0.1 0.27 seconds, 2 h, and 4 h) to room temperature, while main-
Other 13.98 0.09 0
taining the high pressure of investigation. The pressure was
then reduced gradually to 1 bar. The reaction cell was then
from FeO, CaCO3-calcite, and water at pressures between gently placed in the chromatograph for analysis. The
50 and 110 kbar and temperatures ranging from 500°C to chromatographic analysis was carried out at temperature
1500°C. of 150°C. Besides hydrocarbons, a content of H2O, CO2,
[13] In our new experiments the following suggestions and CO was determined. The results of chromatographic
were checked: (1) The hydrocarbon synthesis under mantle analysis of the products of reactions for three experiments
Figure 3. General view of BARS apparatus.

4 of 30
TABLE 2. Results of Gas Chromatograph Analyses at 150°C for Two Series of Experiments
Concentration (mg/kg)
Experiment Details CH4 C2H6/C2H4 C3H8/C3H6 C4H10/C4H8 H2 O2 CO2
Previous experiment, CaCO3 + FeO + H2O, 155 4.9 0 0 0.1 0 0

p = 30 kbar, T = 1500 K, quenching (900°C/s)
New experiment 1, C + Fe + H2O, p = 50 kbar, 40 3 0 0 7 0 0
T = 1500 K, quenching (900°C/s)
T = 1500 K, sample was cooled during 2 h at 50 kbar
T = 1500 K, sample was cooled during 4 h at 50 kbar
made at different cooling rates are shown in Table 2. The tion of oil and gas accumulations formed this way depends
new results presented confirm that hydrocarbon synthesis on the cooling rate of the fluids during their injection into
does not depend on the type of carbon donor. A drop of the the rocks of the Earth’s crust. When and where the further
cooling rate leads to formation of heavier hydrocarbons and supply of injected hydrocarbons from the mantle stops, the
increases the amount of saturated hydrocarbons detected in fluids do not move further into any forms of the Earth’s
the reaction products. The experimental results obtained by crust (anticline, syncline, and horizontal and tilted beds)
independent groups of researchers in the different laborato- without the restart of the injection of the abyssal petrolif-
ries discussed above confirm one of the main postulates of erous fluids.
the theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum: [16] The most convincing evidence of the above men-
complex hydrocarbon systems could be spontaneously tioned mechanism of oil and gas deposit formations is the
generated deeply in the Earth under the upper mantle existence of such giant gas fields as Deep Basin (Figure 4),
conditions. Milk River, and San Juan. They are located in Alberta,
Canada, and Colorado, United States. The formation of
these giant gas fields questions the existence of any lateral
3. FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN LIGHT migration of oil and gas during the oil and gas accumulation
OF ABIOGENIC ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM process. Those giant gas fields occur in synclines where gas
must be generated but not accumulated, according to the
[15] The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petro- hypothesis of biotic petroleum origin and hydrodynamically
leum denies the lateral migration of oil and gas in their controlled migration. The giant gas volumes (12.5 1012 m3
reservoirs unless a hydrodynamic (hydraulic) fluid move- in Deep Basin, 935 109 m3 in San Juan, and 255 109 m3
ment exists. Capillary forces which are related to the pore in Milk River) are concentrated in the very fine grained,
radius and to the surface tension across the oil-water (or gas- tight, impermeable argillites, clays, and shales and in tight
water) interface (the process is described by Laplace’s sandstones and siltstones. These rocks are usually accepted
equation) are, generally, 12– 16 thousand times stronger as source rocks and caprocks/seal rocks in petroleum
than the buoyancy forces of oil and gas (according to the geology but by no means are universally recognized reser-
Navier-Stokes equation) in the natural porous, permeable voir rocks of oil and natural gas. All the gas-saturated tight
media of the subsurface. This was confirmed by the respec- rocks here are graded updip into coarse-grained, highly
tive modeling experiments [Krayushkin, 1967, 1989]. In porous, and highly permeable aquifers with no visible
these experiments, natural gas was injected in the bottom tectonic, lithological, and stratigraphic barriers to prevent
part of water-saturated sands placed in a transparent tank, updip gas migration. Therefore, the tremendous gas vol-
a model of a gas bed. In all experiments, injected gas umes of the above mentioned gas fields have tremendous
remained in the bottom part of the tank. Updip gas migra- buoyancy, but it never overcomes capillary resistance in
tion was never observed. Change of sand porosity in a wide pores of the water-saturated reservoir rocks.
range did not influence the results of the experiments. This [17] Existence of the above mentioned giant gas fields
was also supported by the practice of subsurface gas store indicates the following:
building in the tilted or horizontal water-saturated sands and [18] 1. The models of lateral migration of oil and gas at
sandstones. Natural gas that was injected in the gas store their deposit formation are not consistent with the stand-
remained around an injected well. Updip gas migration was point of the classic physics laws describing the relation
never observed in this case also. According to the theory of between capillary and buoyancy forces of oil and gas in the
the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum, oil and gas fields natural porous media. A mechanism of the separation of the
are born as follows. Rising from subcrust zones through the phases and undeniable presence of fluid contacts is caused
deep faults and their feather joints or fissures, the petrolif- by the capillary phenomena. This is a subject of petroleum
erous fluid of the mantle is injected under high pressure into engineering, which is why we did not consider this mech-
any rock and distributed there. The hydrocarbon composi- anism in detail in our paper.
5 of 30
Figure 4. Cross section of Alberta showing gas-saturated sands of Deep Basin [from Masters, 1979].
Gas is concentrated in the tight impermeable sand, which is transformed progressively and continuously
updip into the coarse-grained, highly porous, and highly permeable sand saturated by water.
[19] 2. These fields were formed as a result of the migra- methane have been discovered every 20– 40 km between
tion of the mantle petroliferous fluid from the depths to the 12°N and 37°N along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) over a
surface of the Earth. distance of 1200 km. MAR’s sites, trans-Atlantic geotraverse
(TAG) (26°N), Snake Pit (23°N), Logatchev (14°450N),
Broken Spur (29°N), Rainbow (37°170N), and Menez Gwen
4. NATURAL GAS AND OIL IN THE RECENT (37°500N), are the most interesting.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING CENTERS [22] 2. At the Rainbow site, where the bottom outcrops
are represented by ultramafic rocks of mantle origin, the
[20] Petroleum of abyssal abiogenic origin and its em- presence of the following substances was demonstrated (by
placement into the crust of the Earth can occur in the recent chromatography/mass spectrometry): CH4, C2H6, C3H8,
seafloor spreading centers in the oceans. Igneous rocks CO, CO2, H2, H2S, and N2 as well as petroleum consisting
occupy 99% of the total length (55,000 km) of them, while of n-C16 – n-C29 alkanes together with branched alkanes and
the thickness of sedimentary cover over the spreading diaromatics [Charlou and Donval, 1993; Charlou et al.,
centers does not exceed 450– 500 m [Rona, 1988]. Addi- 2002]. Contemporary science does not yet know any microbe
tionally, subbottom convectional hydrothermal systems dis- which really generates n-C11 – n-C22 alkanes, phytan, pri-
charge hot (170°C– 430°C) water through the sea bottom’s stan, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
black and white ‘‘smokers.’’ Up to now, more than 100 hydro- [23] 3. At the TAG site, there were no bottom sediments,
thermal systems of this kind have been identified and studied sedimentary rocks [Simoneit, 1988; Thompson et al., 1988],
in scientific expeditions using submarines such as Alvin, buried organic matter, or any source rocks. The hydrother-
Mir, Nautile, and Nautilus in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian mal fluid is too hot (290°C– 321°C) for any microbes. There
oceans. Their observations pertaining to the deep abiogenic are the Beggiatoa mats, but they were only found at some
origin of petroleum are as follows: distances from smokers.
[21] 1. The bottom smokers of deepwater rift valleys vent [24] 4. Active submarine hydrothermal systems produce
hot water, methane, some other gases, and petroleum fluids. the sulfide metal ore deposits along the whole length of the
Active ‘‘plumes’’ with heights of 800 – 1000 m venting East Pacific Rise (EPR). At 13°N the axis of EPR is free of
6 of 30
any sediment, but here aliphatic hydrocarbons are present in sions of hydrocarbon gas were registered in only one of the
hot hydrothermal fluids of black smokers. In the sulfide mines mentioned above. The total quantity of methane
metal ores here the methane and alkanes higher than n-C25 produced through the ventilation system of these mines
with prevalence of the odd number of carbon atoms have exceeds 5 108 m3/yr [Hugo, 1963]. In 2004 –2006 the oil
been identified [Simoneit, 1988]. fields Kingfisher, Mputa, and Waraga were discovered on
[25] 5. Oil accumulations have been studied by the Alvin the eastern coast of Lake Albert in Uganda (Figure 5).
submarine and by the deep marine drilling in the Gulf of ‘‘In-place’’ oil resources of these oil fields are 210 106 t
California (the Guaymas Basin) and in the Escanaba Trough [Patton et al., 1995]. There are only Precambrian crystalline
in the Gorda Ridge [Gieskes et al., 1988; Koski et al., 1988; rocks and Quaternary clays surrounding Lake Albert.
Kvenvolden and Simoneit, 1987; Lonsdale, 1985; Peter and
Scott, 1988; Simoneit, 1988; Simoneit and Lonsdale, 1982; 5.2. Baltic Region
Thompson et al., 1988] of the Pacific Ocean. These sites are [30] In the Baltic Shield, 240 km northwest of Stockholm,
covered by sediments. However, petroleum fluids identified oil was discovered at the depth of 2883 m in the 1 Stenberg
there are of hydrothermal origin according to Simoneit and well and at the depth of 6800 m in the 1 Gravberg well.
Lonsdale [1982], and no source rocks have yet been Both of these wells were drilled in the Precambrian granites
identified there. only [Aldhous, 1991; Brown, 1991]. All Precambrian igne-
[26] 6. As for other sites around the globe, scientific ous rocks in the Kola segment of the Baltic Shield contain
investigations with submarines have established that meth- from 90 to 110 g/t of Vaseline-like bitumen consisting of
ane plumes occur over sea bottom smokers or other hydro- n-C27 –n-C31 alkanes (32% of mass) as well as cyclo-
thermal systems in the Red Sea, near the Galapagos Isles, in alkanes and arenes [Petersilje et al., 1967]. The 3-SG-Kola
the Mariana and Tonga deepwater trenches, in the Gulf of ultradeep well penetrating Precambrian rocks discovered the
California, etc. [Baker et al., 1987; Blanc et al., 1990; Craig same oil-saturated igneous rocks at the depth range of
et al., 1987; Evans et al., 1988; Horibe et al., 1986; Ramboz 7004–8004 m [Oil and Gas Journal, 1991, 1992a; Krayushkin,
et al., 1988]. Nonbiogenic methane (105 – 106 m3/yr) 2000].
released from a submarine rift off Jamaica [Brooks, 1979] 5.3. Canada
has been also known. A recent investigation along the Mid-
[31] The pulse influx of methane along with chloride-
Atlantic Ridge 2300 miles east of Florida confirms that the
saturated solution under the abnormally high pressure
hydrogen-rich fluids venting at the bottom of the Atlantic
(8.1 MPa at the depth of 510 m) was met in the Precambrian
Ocean in the Lost City Hydrothermal Field were produced
shield crystalline rocks during the work to increase the
by an abiotic synthesis of hydrocarbons in the mantle of the
depth of the Underseal Mine. This mine is very rich in
Earth [Proskurowski et al., 2008]. Quantitatively speaking,
native copper which occurs in the voids, interstices, and
the seafloor spreading centers may vent 1.3 109 m3 of
fractures of the Precambrian crystalline rocks near Lake
hydrogen and 16 107 m3 methane annually [Welhan and
Superior, Ontario, Canada. In the adjacent Central Patricia
Craig, 1979].
Mine, which is also rich in commercial copper ores, the
[27] Data discussed in this section confirm the following:
methane emissions from the Archean crystalline rocks were
(1) source rocks accounting for the volume of the petroleum
very abundant: 135 flashes and explosions of methane were
venting described are not available and (2) the natural gas
registered in both mines during 1940 –1950 [Tigert, 1951].
and petroleum fluids in the recent seafloor spreading centers
In the White Pine mining district that is situated on the
can be explained as a result of the vertical migration of
Michigan shore of Lake Superior, Precambrian crystalline
mantle fluids.
rocks comprising copper ores in commercial grade and
quantity are impregnated with liquid crude oil. This crude
5. NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM FLUIDS IN seeps from fractures, fissures, and caverns in the face, top,
THE PRECAMBRIAN CRYSTALLINE SHIELDS and walls of the copper mine and consists of the full and
typical petroleum spectrum hydrocarbons including the
[28] Additional evidence confirming the abyssal abiogenic optically active alkanes, porphyrins, phytane, and pristane
petroleum origin is an abundant presence of natural gas and [Barghoorn et al., 1965; Kelly and Nishioka, 1985].
petroleum fluids in the Precambrian crystalline shields
(African, Baltic, Canadian, Greenlandian, Sino-Korean, 5.4. Greenland
and Ukrainian shields) with no source rocks around as [32] In western Greenland near Peninsula Nuussuaq the
follows. Precambrian crystalline rocks of the Greenlandian shield are
dissected with numerous faults and intruded with the
5.1. Africa Tertiary age plateau basalts. Having a total thickness of
[29] An abundant presence of natural gas in the Precam- more than 6500 m they overlap regionally in the shield’s
brian igneous and crystalline metamorphic rocks of the rocks. In 1993 one exploration well was drilled to a total
Caapvaal Craton, South Africa, has been observed. In many depth (TD) of 448 m. This well penetrated to a series of
gold mines of the Witwatersrand mining district, natural gas porous zones in basalt and indicated the presence of liquid
is abundantly detected to occur in Archean crystalline rocks petroleum down to the depth of 90 m in basalt. In eastern
filling an ancient graben. Till 1958, more than 190 explo- Greenland, where the Paleocene plateau basalts overlap the
7 of 30
Figure 5. (a) Geological map of the Albert Graben and its commercial petroleum fields. Data are from
Oil and Gas Journal [2006l]. (b) Generalized structural section, Alberta Graben. Data are from Patton et
al. [1995]. Patterns are as follows: 1, gneisses and granite gneisses; 2, crystalline schist; 3, granites;
4, volcanic; 5, sand; 6, fault.
Precambrian crystalline rock mass of the shield, the liquid talline limestones, dolomites, and marbles. Their total
bitumen was found in 1992 as an active natural seepage of thickness exceeds 9000 m. The isotopic age of carbonates
heavy viscous oil/bitumen. It seeps from the Tertiary plateau varies from 800 to 1850 Ma. Here 65 native liquid oil and
basalts exposed near a base of the Paleocene lava pillow. All solid bitumen shows have been mapped in outcrops of Tilin
the interstices, voids, and vugs of lava and basalt are filled and Vumishan crystalline carbonates, whereas the Lontang-
fully with bitumen in the area of 1 km along the strike chou lenticular bituminous basal quartzite (the isotopic age
and of several hundred meters capwise [Schiener and is 1000 Ma) occurs on the more ancient crystalline rocks of
Leythaeuser, 1978; Requejo et al., 1989; Oil and Gas Journal, the aulacogen. In this quartzite the concentration of bitumen
1993a]. varies from 8% to 15% of mass. The host rock of the
bituminous quartzite (Zyamalyang Formation) was intruded
5.5. Sino-Korean Region with the gabbro-diabase sills (the isotopic age is 763 Ma).
[33] In northern China the Yanshan aulacogen is filled The bitumen of the above mentioned quartzite is considered
predominantly with the Middle and Later Proterozoic crys- to be a residue or remnant of an ancient oil accumulation
8 of 30
which has undergone a thermodestruction during the early which was reported at the level of 3 g/kg (V. S. Zubkov,
Riphean time [Wang, 1991]. Heavy hydrocarbons in mantlean fluid of the Earth, synop-
sis of thesis prepared by Dr. Ph., A. P. Vinogradov Institute
5.6. Ukraine of Geochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk,
[34] Covered predominantly with the Tertiary and Qua- 2005). C1-C6 alkanes with concentrations from 4.09 to
ternary beds and being exposed in the deep entrenched river 63.35 L/t were found in primary fluid inclusions of albite,
valleys and ravines, the Ukrainian Precambrian shield with apatite, nepheline, sphene (titanite), aegirine, and eudialite
its surface area of 200,000 km2 is an uplifted geologically from the olivine-titanium-augite gabbro and urtites in east
complex crystalline basement of the East European Platform. Siberia [Petersilje et al., 1967]. In the Pamir Mountains
The Archean rock mass of that shield consists of amphib- bitumen was found in the mantle xenoliths embedded in
olites, apoporphyrites, calciphyres, crystalline schists, dio- igneous rocks. Here also primary fluid inclusions occur in
rites, ferriferous quartzites, gneisses and graphitic gneisses, xenoliths of the garnet pyroxenites (the mantle rocks),
granites, marbles, metaconglomerates, metasandstones, and explosion pipe rocks and dykes of fergusite-porphyres or
quartzites intruded with the Proterozoic igneous rock bodies tinguaites (derivatives of mantle magma), amphibolites,
such as the Korosten, Korsun-Shevchenko, near – Azov Sea, granites, hyperbasites, charnockites, basic granulites, and
and Novomirgorod plutons. The Proterozoic crystalline eclogites (granulite-basite layer). The average petroleum
complex of the shield is distributed broadly and comprises fluid concentration of the primary fluid inclusions varies
amphibolites, gabbro, gabbro-norites, labradorites, norites, in the range of 6 – 8 g/t, decreasing regularly in the direction
gneisses and graphitic gneisses, granites, diabases, carbo- from the Earth’s mantle to the granite/gneiss layer. This is
natites, calciphyres, crystalline schists, ferriferous quartz- evidence of the abyssal nonbiogenic origin of bitumen
ites, felsites, leptites, marbles, metasandstones, tuffs, and [Mogarovski et al., 1980]. In Ukraine, primary fluid inclu-
alkali ultrabasites. Both the Archean and the Proterozoic sions of pegmatite quartz comprise n-C1 – n-C4 alkanes in
rocks here do have petroleum fluid indications over large the Proterozoic age Korosten, Korsun-Shevchenkovo, and
areas. Liquid crude oil was observed in fissures and Novomirgorod plutons of the Ukrainian shield (Z. I. Kova-
fractures of amphibolites and granite core samples recov- lishin, Geochemical investigations of the abyssal origin
ered from several boreholes at the depth of 380– 900 m in gases on inclusions in minerals, synopsis of thesis prepared
the northeast area of the Ukrainian shield [Porfir’ev et by Dr. Ph., Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of
al., 1977]. As indicated by gas chromatography of gas Combustible Minerals, Lvov, Ukraine, 1986).
mixture samples from pulverized Precambrian rocks of the
Ukrainian shield, they contain 0.001 – 0.204 cm3/g of 6.3. Antarctica
methane [Semenenko et al., 1985]. [38] The Shackleton Ridge of eastern Antarctica is rich in
Precambrian supracrustal volcanogenic sedimentary rocks
5.7. Conclusions
and their zonal metamorphic forms (kyanite-sillimanite
[35] Examples discussed in sections 5.1– 5.6 indicate that facial series). Primary fluid inclusions of 13 garnet crystals
(1) petroleum shows/deposits have been found in Precam- samples from parametamorphites of the Shackleton Ridge
brian crystalline shields all over the world, (2) presence of comprise methane and heavy hydrocarbons [Prasolov et al.,
oil and gas deposits in the Precambrian crystalline shields 1986]. Mantle xenoliths found in the Quaternary lavas of
without sedimentary rocks cannot be explained from the Mount Erebus Volcano [Sugisaki and Mimura, 1994] (Ross
traditional biotic petroleum origin point of view, and (3) pet- Island, East Antarctica) are dunites, garzburgites, and
roliferous fluid of the mantle could be the only possible pyroxenites. Gas content of their primary fluid hydrocarbon
source of petroleum deposits in the Precambrian crystalline fluid inclusions is 0.2– 1.0 g/t.
shields.
6.4. Africa
[39] Primary petroleum fluid inclusions (PFI) are fre-
6. PETROLEUM FLUID INCLUSIONS IN MINERALS quently reported in the Precambrian shield rocks of south-
OF IGNEOUS AND OTHER CRYSTALLINE ROCKS west Africa. PFI of quartz contain CH4, C2H6, C3H8, CO,
CO2, H2O, H2, N2, and Vaseline-like heavy crude oil
6.1. Victoria, SE Australia [Kvenvolden and Roedder, 1971; Walter et al., 1996]. This
[36] The Pleistocene alkali basalts of Victoria (SE Aus- oil is geochemically prominent because it has an extraordi-
tralia) are found at the southern termination of the Mesozoic- narily high concentration of isoprenoidic hydrocarbons.
Recent basaltoid belt. They contain mantle xenoliths. These Primary fluid inclusions of this oil comprise identical
are the spinel lherzolites with numerous primary fluid quantities of hydrocarbon molecules with their odd and
inclusions which contain up to 6 g/t of aliphatic hydro- even carbon atom numbers as well as the noncyclic iso-
carbons with measured d 13C values of 28.9% [Sugisaki prenoids, pristane, phytane, and pharnesane.
and Mimura, 1994].
6.5. Brazilian Shield and Baltic Shield
6.2. Russia and Ukraine [40] Mesozoic age basalts breaking through the Precam-
[37] Lherzolites from the recent Baikal Rift belt are rich brian crystalline rocks of the Brazilian shield (Santa Cata-
in primary fluid inclusions, the methane concentration of rina) are unweathered; poor in fractures; and rich in geodes,
9 of 30
TABLE 3. Results of Investigation of Gas Mixtures From hydrocarbons in mantle rocks confirms that abiogenic
Native Diamonds, Carbonado, and Kimberlites
abyssal origin of hydrocarbons is a reality. (3) The content
Region Gas Mixture Concentration (vol %)
of CO, CH4, and other hydrocarbons in the amphibole-
bearing xenoliths indicates that in certain parts of the upper
Africa, diamonds CH4, C2H4, C3H6, solid hydrocarbons, mantle, favorable reduction conditions necessary for nona-
C2H5OH, Ar, CO, CO2, H2, O2, H2O, biotic synthesis of hydrocarbons could take place [Matson
and N2.
Congo, Brazil, and Zaire, 5.8 of CH4, 0.4 of C2H4, 2.0 of C3H6, and Muenow, 1984].
diamonds traces of C4H8, C4H10, and solid
hydrocarbons.
Arkansas, United States, 0.9 – 5.8 of CH4, 0.0 – 5.2 of CH3OH, 7. BITUMEN AND HYDROCARBONS IN NATIVE
diamonds 0.0 – 3.2 of C2H5OH, 1.2 – 9.4 DIAMONDS, CARBONADO, AND KIMBERLITES
of CO, 5.3 – 29.6 of CO2, 1.5 – 38.9
of H2, 2.9 – 76.9 of H2O, 0.0 – 87.1
of N2, and 0.0 – 0.2 of Ar. [44] A presence of bitumen and hydrocarbons in native
Brazil, carbonado The homologies of naphthalene (C10H8), diamonds, carbonado, and kimberlites could be taken into
phenanthrene (C14H10), and pyrene
(C16H10). Total concentration varies consideration as evidence confirming the abyssal petroleum
from 20 to 38.75 g/t. origin. Studying the native diamonds, carbonado, and kimber-
East Siberia, Russia, C6H6, C12H10, C20H12, C16H10, and other lites under the microscope, many scientists from several
diamonds and kimberlites polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
Total concentration is 0.136 g/t. countries have found numerous primary fluid inclusions
which have been opened due to the specific methods. Fluid
contents of primary fluid inclusions have been recovered with-
out any contamination and studied by mass spectrometry/gas
voids, and interstices filled with liquid crude oil [Powers, chromatography. Results of such investigations carried out on
1932]. Something similar was also found in the Baltic the samples from Africa, Asia, Europe, and North and South
Shield, Sweden. Although there are no sedimentary rocks America can be summarized as follows.
in or around the Arendal area, the dolerite (crystallization [45] The well-known diamond-producing mines such as
temperature is more than 1000°C– 1200°C) dykes intersect- the Dan Carl, Finsh, Kimberley, and Roberts Victor mines
ing the Archean gneisses have many interstices and amyg- are located in the kimberlite pipes of South Africa. There
daloidal voids filled with liquid petroleum of n-C10 – n-C22 the African shield is characterized by the remarkable
alkanes with some admixture of isoprenoid hydrocarbons. disjunctive dislocations and nonorogenic magmatism which
Evans et al. [1964] have concluded that this petroleum has produced a great number of the carbonatite and kim-
doubtlessly is of nonbiogenic origin. berlite intrusions and explosion pipes in the area around
Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, and Lake Victoria between
6.6. United States 70 and 3000 Ma [Irvine, 1989]. These lakes are in the Great
[41] Matson and Muenow [1984] studied the volatiles in East African Rift Valley. The valley’s margins and disjunc-
amphiboles from the mantle xenoliths, Vulcan’s Throne, tive edges consist of the African shield crystalline rocks.
Grand Canyon, Arizona, United States. The amphiboles Two hundred and fifty-eight samples of diamonds from this
there contain CH4, C2H4, C3H8, and the heavier hydro- area have been investigated under the microscope [Deines et
carbons. Methane concentrations vary from 200 to 500 g/t. al., 1989]. The investigation has shown the presence of
The above mentioned hydrocarbons have d 13C equal to primary fluid inclusions in all samples investigated. These
26.0% ± 0.5% that is typical for the noncarbonate carbon samples have been disintegrated into small particles in a
in ultramafic igneous rocks where d 13C varies from 22.2% vacuum of 1.3 106 Pa and 200°C. The gas mixture
to 27.1%. According to experiments, amphibole-bearing from each sample was received. Mass spectrometric/gas
xenoliths crystallize at the depth of 65 km. chromatographic studies of the mixtures are shown in
[42] Sugisaki and Mimura [1994] carried out the most Table 3. The same hydrocarbons and gas mixtures were
extensive study of petroleum presence in pores, vugs, voids, detected in natural diamonds from Congo, Brazil [Melton
interstices, caverns, fractures, fissures, and primary fluid and Giardini, 1974], and Zaire [Giardini et al., 1982]
inclusions which occur within basalts, gabbro, granites, (Table 3).
peridotites, and their mantle xenoliths. A collection of those [46] The composition of the primary fluid inclusion
rocks consisted of 227 samples from all over the world. All composition has been studied by mass spectrometry in
samples contain CH4, while ultramafics also contain n-C14 – seven native Arkansas diamonds. The result of the investi-
n-C33 alkanes with total concentrations of 0.1 –2.3 g/t and gation has confirmed the presence of different kinds of
d 13C = 23% to 28.9%. hydrocarbon in all samples (Table 3) [Melton and Giardini,
1974].
6.7. Conclusions [47] In a Brazil, carbonado primary fluid inclusions
[43] The examples shown in sections 6.1– 6.6 show the comprise a set of heavy hydrocarbons (Table 3). Pyrope
following: (1) The petroleum fluid content of mantle rocks (Mg3Al2(SiO4)3) and olivine, which were recovered from
including primary inclusions was formed in the conditions diamond crystals and kimberlites of the Mir, Ruslovoye,
of the mantle of the Earth. (2) The presence of complex and Udatchnoye Eastern diamond-bearing pipes, east Siberia,
10 of 30
TABLE 4. Mineral Associations Related to the Different carbonado, and kimberlites testifies that hydrocarbon man-
Facies and Depths for Juine Later Cretaceous Kimberlites
tle fluids were a material for synthesis of these minerals in
Mineral Association Inclusions Depth (km)
the mantle. (3) Presence of abiotic hydrocarbon fluids in the
mantle of the Earth is scientifically proven evidence.
Upper mantle association low-chromos clinopyroxene 120 – 180
in diamonds
Transitional zone mphacite, major garnet, 120 – 180 8. PETROLEUM IN METEOR IMPACT CRATERS
association and pyrotite
Upper/lower mantle border (Mg, Fe)SiO3 670
association
[52] Petroleum reserves in meteor impact craters possess
First lower mantle corundum, aluminum-bearing 750 – 1000 great potential. At the present moment, there are 170
association pigeonite meteor impact craters identified on all continents and in the
Second lower mantle Al, Na, and Ca(Mg, Fe)SiO3 >1000
association
world ocean bottom. Among them there are giants with
diameters of several hundred kilometers. Impact fracturing
can occur to depths of 35– 40 km and penetrate into the
Russia, contain a number of different hydrocarbons (Table 3) Earth’s mantle. The parameters of the biggest meteor impact
[Kulakova et al., 1982; Kaminski et al., 1985]. craters are shown in Table 5 [Masaitis et al., 1980; Carter
[48] According to Makeev and Ivanukh [2004], 9 – and Campbell, 1990; Hildebrand and Boynton, 1990; Kerr,
27 forms of metallic films were found and studied upon 1990; Donofrio, 1998; Oil and Gas Journal, 2006f].
the crystal faces of diamonds from Brazil and from the [53] The impact fractures are the result of impacts of
Middle Timan, Ural, and Vishera diamonds in the European asteroids, bolides, and comets on the Earth. When a massive
part of Russia. These films consist of aluminum, cadmium, cosmic object impacts the Earth surface with velocity in the
calcium, chrome, cerium, copper, gold, iron, lanthanum, range from 15 to 70 km/s, it is accompanied by an
lead, magnesium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, silver, tin, explosion. A meteorite with a density of 3500 kg/m3, mass
titanium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, zirconium, and precious of 2.5 1014 g, velocity of 20 km/s, and diameter of 500 m
metals including even Au2Pd3. The thickness of these films during the moment of impact releases 5 1019 J of kinetic
is from fractions of a micrometer to several micrometers. energy. That is the equivalent to an explosion of 12 109 t
These films are the evidence for the growth of diamonds of TNT. Such a meteorite impact generates an impact crater
from carbon dissolved in the melt of gold and palladium of 10– 15 km in diameter [Masaitis et al., 1980; Donofrio,
[Makeev and Ivanukh, 2004]. The coarseness of the dia- 1981; Kyte et al., 1988; Margolis et al., 1991]. According to
mond crystals in kimberlite and lamprophyre pipes depends experiments devoted to mechanisms and models of crater-
on the sizes of precious metal droplets in the respective ing in the Earth media, the hyperfast impact creates tem-
zone, in the Earth’s upper, transitional, and lower mantle. perature of 3000°C and pressure of 600– 900 kbar in rocks
[49] Investigation of primary fluid inclusions in diamonds of different compositions and generates their disintegration,
has shown a presence of bitumen in diamonds. The primary pulverization, vaporization/exhalation, oxidation, and hy-
inclusions preserved in natural diamonds are bitumen inclu- drothermal transformation. As the result of the above
sions and contain mantle hydrocarbons. This is evidence mentioned events and processes the meteorite (comet)
that the source materials for the abyssal, natural synthesis of impact transforms any nonreservoir rock into a porous
diamonds were the hydrocarbon fluids which have saturated and permeable reservoir rock [Curran et al., 1977; Masaitis
the outgassing mantle and enabled mantle silicates to be et al., 1980; Donofrio, 1981].
reduced to native metals. The Brazil natural diamonds were [54] Petroleum reserves were found in onshore and off-
sampled from the Juine kimberlite pipe field of Mato shore meteor impact crater carbonate, sandstone, and granite
Grosso, Brazil. The Juine Later Cretaceous kimberlites rocks over the world [Donofrio, 1998; Oil and Gas Journal,
contain five mineral associations related to the different 2006f] (Table 5). Granites compose the crystalline basement
facies and depths which are reflected in Table 4. One of the of meteor impact craters, whereas the carbonates and sand-
Juine diamonds sampled near Sao Luis Creek was the lower stones compose the sedimentary infill of the crater. Their
mantle diamond and comprised the primary fluid inclusions producing depth is determined from 61 to 5185 m; the
with the lower mantle bitumens [Makeev and Ivanukh, total production is from 4.8 to 333,879 m3/d of oil and from
2004]. 7363 m3/d to 39.6 106 m3/d of gas; and the total proven
[50] Values of d 13C for 213 diamonds from the different reserves are from 15,899 m3 to 4770 106 m3 of oil, 48
pipes were analyzed. The d 13C values ranged from 1.88% 106 m3 of condensate, and from 56.6 106 to 424.8 109 m3
to 16% [Deines et al., 1989]. The chemical and isotope of gas [Donofrio, 1998].
peculiarities of natural diamonds reflect the different mantle [55] The richest petroleum meteor impact crater, Cantar-
media and environments. Diamonds with d 13C from 15% ell, is in Mexico. Its cumulative production exceeds 1.1
to 16% come from the region at a lower depth than the 109 m3 of oil and 83 109 m3 of gas. The current remnant
natural diamonds with d 13C from 5% to 6%. recoverable reserves are equal to 1.6 109 m3 of oil and
[51] From this section, we conclude the following: 146 109 m3 of gas in three productive zones. They
(1) There is no doubt that diamonds, carbonado, and kim- produce currently 206,687 m3/d of oil, and 70% of it is
berlites are formed at great depths. (2) Presence of the recovered from carbonate breccia only. (Note that a current
inhibited primary hydrocarbon inclusions in diamonds, petroleum engineering study indicates significantly lower
11 of 30
TABLE 5. Parameters of the Biggest and Petroleum Productive Impact Craters
Impact Crater Country Age (Ma) Diameter (km)
Akreman (onshore) Australia 600 100

Ames (onshore) oil and gas deposits United States 470 ± 30 15
in carbonates and granites
Avak (onshore) gas deposits in sandstones United States 3 – 95 12
Can-Am (onshore) Canada and United States 500 100
Calvin (onshore) oil deposits in carbonates United States 450 ± 10 8.5
Chicxulub (offshore) oil and gas deposits Mexico 65 240
in carbonates
Kara (onshore) Russia 60 65
Marquez (onshore) oil and gas deposits United States 58 ± 2 12.7
in carbonates and sandstones
Newporte (onshore) oil and gas deposits United States <500 3.2
in carbonates and sandstones
Popigai (onshore) Russia 39 100
Red Wing Creek (onshore) oil and gas United States 200 ± 25 9
deposits in carbonates
Sierra Madera (onshore) gas deposits United States <100 13
in carbonates
Shiva (offshore) India 15 500
South Caribbean crater (offshore) Colombia 65 300
South Cuban crater (offshore) Cuba 65 225
Steen River (onshore) oil deposits in Canada 91 ± 7 25
carbonates and granites
Viewfield (onshore) oil and gas deposits Canada 190 ± 20 2.5
in carbonates
Wredefort (onshore) South Africa 1970 140
remaining reserves than calculated earlier.) Its porosity is icance of petroleum accumulations in volcanic rocks and
8% – 12%, and the permeability is 3000 – 5000 mdarcy. volcano-sedimentary bed complexes is discussed. These
Occurring at the Tertiary-Cretaceous boundary, this breccia petroleum accumulations could be divided into two groups:
is genetically related to the Chicxulub impact crater, the deposits in buried volcanoes and accumulations that occur
diameter of which is now measured to be 240 km [Grajales- in the buried layers of volcanic agglomerates. There are
Nishimura et al., 2000]. 46 oil- and gas-producing buried volcanoes around the
[56] Calculating with an average porosity, permeability, world (Table 6). But more often, the commercial oil and
and water saturation of the over-crater breccia and fractured gas accumulations occur in the buried layers of volcanic
bedrocks of the undercrater crystalline Earth crust together agglomerates, ashes, lapilli, andesites, basalts, dolerites, and
with the rocks which surround the crater, the petroleum other volcanites as well as in the rock masses consisting of
potential of a single meteor impact crater having a diameter sedimentary beds which intercalate with volcanic rocks.
of 20 km can exceed the total proven oil and gas reserves of They were found in 79 sedimentary basins of 38 countries
the Middle East [Donofrio, 1981]. Donofrio [1981] also around the world. Among those accumulations, there are
estimates that during the last 3000 Myr the meteorite-comet 35 giant and supergiant ones, including eight gas fields, four
bombardment of the Earth must have created 3060 onshore gas and oil fields, and 23 oil fields. Brief information about
meteor impact craters of similar diameters. Krayushkin these giant deposits is presented in Table 7.
[2000] calculates that 7140 submarine meteor impact craters [58] The data are taken from Powers and Behre [1932],
can be equal to 12 1014 m3 of oil and 7.4 1014 m3 of Waldschmidt [1948], Kertai [1959], Belov et al. [1961],
gas. The oil and gas in the meteor impact craters cannot be Pletikapić et al. [1964], Bagiryan et al. [1965], Brognon
biogenic since (1) any intercrater source rocks are and Verrier [1966], Wopfner [1966], Vysotski [1968a,
destroyed, disintegrated, melted, and pulverized together 1968b], Lindtrop et al. [1970], Pippin [1970], Vercellino
with all the other rocks at the site of the meteorite impact and Rigo [1970], Williams et al. [1975], Oil and Gas
[Masaitis et al., 1980] and (2) after the impact any lateral Journal [1971], Oilweek [1971], Gas World [1971], Nesterov
petroleum migration from the noncrater zones into the crater et al. [1971], Čverčko and Rudinec [1972], Rudinec and
through concentric ring uplifts of 100– 300 m high and Tereska [1972], Jankŭ [1972], Karović et al. [1973],
concentric ring trenches of 100 – 300 m deep which sur- Soeparjadi and Slocum [1973a, 1973b, 1973c], Soeparjadi
round the central uplift of the crater is not enabled. et al. [1975], Hopkinson and Nysaether [1975], Krayushkin
[1975, 1984, 2000], Selley [1975], Watson and Swanson
[1975], Alekseeva et al. [1976], McCaslin [1976], Vysotski
9. COMMERCIAL PETROLEUM POTENTIAL OF [1976a, 1976b], Zhuravlev et al. [1973], Porfir’ev et
VOLCANIC AND VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY ROCKS al. [1977], Porfir’ev and Klochko [1982], Katz [1979],
Scott [1979], Sanford [1980], P’an [1982], Zhabrev [1983],
[57] Commercial oil and gas deposits are found not only Tappmeyer [1985], Lindner [1985], Y. G. Shakhghildyan
in sedimentary rocks. In this section the commercial signif- (Geological principles of development for the volcanogenic
12 of 30
TABLE 6. Oil- and Gas-Producing Buried Volcanoes
Country Volcano Source of Information
Azerbaijan Agdam-Khatchintchai, Borsunlu, Dalmamedly, Y. G. Shakhghildyan (unpublished manuscript, 1985) and

Damirtepe-Udabno, Gyurzunda, Jandarghel, Z. R. Gajiev (unpublished manuscript, 1986)
Japharly, Kazanbulag, Muradkhanly, Tarsdallyar,
Terter, Shikhbaghy, and Zardob
Cuba Bachakero, Guanabo, Jaruco, and Santa Maria Powers and Behre [1932] and Oil and Gas Journal [2006c]
U.S.A. Buchanan, Chapman, Dale, Litton Springs, Powers and Behre [1932], Oilweek [1971], and Gas World [1971]
Schimmel Buttes, Troll, and Marysville Butte
Republic of Ninotsminda, Patardzeuli, Rustavi, Samgori, Krayushkin [1984], Y. G. Shakhghildyan (unpublished manuscript,
Georgia Taribani, and Teleti 1985), and Ovanesov et al. [1988]
Ukraine Dolina, Glinsko-Rozbyshev, Isatchki, Lelyaki, Porfir’ev et al. [1977]
Novo-Troitskoye, Rypne, Solotvino, Spas, Struten,
Talalayevka, and Vitvitsa
Slovakia Kapushany, Maltchitse, Ptruksha, Stretava, and Zatin Čverčko and Rudinec [1972], Jankŭ [1972], and Rudinec
and Tereska [1972]
type reservoir rocks in the Samgori-Patardzeuli and dolerite sills in oil fields such as Alamo, Chapopote, Ebano,
Muradkhanly fields, synopsis of thesis prepared by Dr. Ph., Furbero, Casiano, Los Naranjos, Panuco, Tlacolula, etc.
Institute of Geology and Development of Combustible Since 1 January 1976, Mexico’s Poza Rica giant oil and gas
Minerals, Moscow, 1985), Z. R. Gajiev (Petroleum potential field has already produced more than 330 106 m3 of oil
evaluation in the Eocene beds of the Yevlakh-Agjabedin
Depression, synopsis of thesis prepared by Dr. Ph., Institute
of Geological Sciences, Baku, Azerbaijan, 1986), Pieri and TABLE 7. Giant and Supergiant Petroleum Deposits in
Mattavelli [1986], Maksimov [1987a, 1987b], Xiaojun Volcanic or Volcano-Sedimentary Rocks
[1987], Ovanesov et al. [1988], Taylor et al. [1991], Hunt
Deposit Country Proven Reserves
et al. [1992], and Rach [2005].
[59] Proven reserves of the giant and supergiant petro- Hassi R’Mel (gas field) Algeria 1522 109 m3
leum fields mentioned in Table 7 are equal to a total of Indefatigable (gas field) UK 226 109 m3
Leman Bank (gas field) UK 340 109 m3
4.1 1012 m3 of natural gas and 10.6 109 t of oil. Those Viking (gas field) UK 130 109 m3
compose 6% of the total world proven reserves of oil Kenai (gas field) United States 150 109 m3
(180.5 109 t as of 1 January 2007, according to Oil and Monroe (gas field) United States 266 109 m3
San Juan (gas field) United States 935 109 m3
Gas Journal [2006m]) and 2.4% of the total world proven Niigata (gas field) Japan 70 109 m3
reserves of natural gas (175 1012 m3 as of 1 January 2007, Daqing/Quigshen China 1860 106 t of oil
according to Oil and Gas Journal [2006m]). (oil and gas field) and 99 109 m3
of gas
[60] In the volcanic and volcano-sedimentary sequences, Gagliano (oil and gas field) Italy 25 106 t of oil
commercial oil and gas deposits are found at depths ranging and 120 109 m3
from 187 m (Chapman, Texas, United States) to 4000 m of gas
Poza Rica (oil and gas field) Mexico 373 106 t of oil
(Muradkhanly oil field, Azerbaijan) [Sellards, 1932; Ovanesov and 120 109 m3
et al., 1988]. The reservoir rocks are andesites, basalts, of gas
dolerites, and other volcanic rocks with flow rates varying Saraji (oil and gas field) Iran 160 106 t of oil
and 142 109 m3
from 0.13 to 1500 t/d of oil and from 1000 to 500,000 m3/d of gas
of natural gas. Oil with a density of 820 –893 kg/m3 has Ankleshwar (oil field) India 150 106 t
been produced from serpentinite which filled the crater of Bombay High (oil field) India 1640 106 t
Ghandar (oil field) India 200 106 t
buried volcanoes in petroleum fields such as, e.g., Bacuranao, Bekasap (oil field) Indonesia 75 106 t
Guanabo, Jaruco, and Santa Maria in Cuba [Powers and Duri (oil field) Indonesia 258 106 t
Behre, 1932; Oil and Gas Journal, 2006c]. Porosity of rocks Jatibarang (oil field) Indonesia 90 106 t
Minas (oil field) Indonesia 953 106 t
in these petroleum fields ranges from a tenth of a percent to Dagang/Daqang (oil field) China 102 106 t
22%– 36%, permeability ranges from several m2 to 2.0 Liaohe (oil field) China 120 106 t
1012 m2, and thickness of petroleum pay zones ranges from Buzatchi North (oil field) Kazakhstan 500 106 t
Karazhanbas (oil field) Kazakhstan 500 106 t
1 to 600 m. Ebano-Panuco (oil field) Mexico 157 106 t
[61] There are also the territories where petroleum shows Naranjos Cerro Azul (oil field) Mexico 192 106 t
are frequently observed in the volcanic rocks exposed on Forthies (oil field) UK 348 106 t
Piper (oil field) UK 246 106 t
the Earth surface. In the coastal plain of Gulf of Mexico, in Gela (oil field) Italy 176 106 t
the rich petroliferous region of Tampico-Tuxpam (Mexico), Raguza (oil field) Italy 290 106 t
there are tens of thousands of active natural seepages of Hassi Messaoud (oil field) Algeria 1491 106 t
Koturdepe (oil field) Turkmenistan 230 106 t
oil and asphalt in andesites, basalts, dolerites, and other Mendoza (oil field) Argentina 100 106 t
exposed volcanic rocks. It is also known that the oil accu- Sacha (oil field) Ecuador 70 106 t
mulation is associated with andesite and basalt stocks or Verkhnetchon (oil field) Russia 260 106 t
13 of 30
Figure 6. The commercial oil and gas fields in the volcanic rocks at the Etna volcano, Sicily. Produced
by V. Krayushkin with data from Vercellino and Rigo [1970] and Pieri and Mattavelli [1986]. Regions
are as follows: 1, Pliocene hollow Trapani; 2, Miocene foothill belt; 3, metamorphic basement complex;
4, central Pliocene hollow; 5, platform Ibleo.
and 106 109 m3 of natural gas from lower Eocene and [63] It was commented above that the Earth’s mantle
Cretaceous beds which had been intruded with Mecatepec gases escape through the serpentinites in the recent spread-
Plato basalts. Generally, basalts are extensively present ing centers and axes at the sea bottom of the world ocean.
within the Old Gold Belt, the oldest petroleum-producing Similar ultrabasics related to outgassing can be observed at
district of Mexico. three sites within Turkey as follows:
[62] Vercellino and Rigo [1970] and Pieri and Mattavelli [64] 1. On the Mediterranean shore, 25 km southwest of
[1986] reported nine commercial gas fields around the Etna Iskenderun, in the village of Ekber and around the high
volcano, Sicily, Italy. Bronte, Casalini, Feudo Grande, mountains which are composed of serpentinites, the serpen-
Miraclia, and Rizzo gas fields (Figure 6) have supplied tinite is heavily fractured, and the fractures/fissures exhale
natural gas to Catania, Cisina, Palermo, and other towns and combustible gases that have been burning for many centuries.
settlements in Sicily during more than 30 years [Vercellino [65] 2. Farther in Turkey, the ophiolite massif of the
and Rigo, 1970; Pieri and Mattavelli, 1986]. As for oil, oil eastern Taurus Mountains is also petroliferous near Van
shows are regularly associated with basalts, dolerites, and Lake. Five kilometers south of the village of Kurzot the
pyroclastites (Francavilla, Kozzo Grillo, Likodia Evbea, great body of serpentines is exposed between volcanic
Modjio, Passero, Paterno, Scikli, and Vizzini, near the Etna breccia, dark-colored effusives, recrystallized limestones,
volcano). A commercial quantity of oil is predominantly and crystalline schists. In a tunnel driven in 1919, crude
produced from the Triassic-Jurassic carbonates intruded oil has been produced in enough quantities to supply the
with numerous dykes and veins of basalt, gabbro, or other entire boat fleet on Van Lake with the extracted fuel.
volcanic rocks. Sometimes, the intrusive igneous bodies [66] 3. One of the most intensive outgassings of the
themselves are reservoir rocks, e.g., as in the Raguza oil Earth’s mantle has been detected in the seashore of Antalya
field [Kafka and Kirkbride, 1961; Vercellino and Rigo, Bay, 40 km south of the Antalya mountain. Here the
1970]. natural gas proceeds come from serpentinites. This gas
14 of 30
contains 83% of methane and 14% of ethane and has been in 29 countries of the world. Additionally, there are 496 oil
known to burn uninterruptedly for 2500 years. All attempts and gas fields in which commercial reserves occur partly or
to extinguish the flame have proved unsuccessful. The entirely in the crystalline rocks of that basement. Fifty-five
temperature of serpentinites around the burning gas gusher of them are classified as giant fields (>500 megabarrels
is very high, and this is why even if the fire was somehow (Mbbls)) with 16 nonassociated gas, 9 gas-oil, and 30
extinguished, a spontaneous inflammation renewed the fire undersaturated oil fields among them (Table 8). They
[Powers, 1932; Tasman, 1959; Dott and Reynolds, 1969; contain 9432 109 m3 of natural gas and 32,837 106 t
Owen, 1975]. of crude oil, i.e., 18% of the total world proven reserves of
[67] As for recent volcanoes, Markhinin [1985] estab- oil and 5.4% of the total world proven reserves of natural
lished the presence of petroleum in extrusive products of gas (as of 1 January 2007).
recent active volcanoes in Kamchatka and on the Kurile [71] In the crystalline basement the depths of the produc-
Isles, Russia (Avatcha, Bezimyanny, Klyutchevskoy, Shive- tive intervals vary from 900 to 5985 m. The flow rates of the
lutch, Tolbatchik, Uzon, Alaid, and Tyatya), as well as on wells are between 1 – 2 and 2400 m3/d of oil and 1000–
the island of Bali, Indonesia (Agung volcano). All samples 2000 and 2.3 106 m3/d of gas. The pay thickness in
of volcanic ashes, bombs, and slags cut without any outside a crystalline basement is highly variable. It is 320 m
contamination from the above mentioned volcanoes contained in the Gomez and Puckett fields, United States; 680 m in
n-C15 – n-C36 alkanes, C18 – C26 iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, Xinglontai, China; and 760 m in the Dnieper-Donetsk Basin
and monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (DDB)’s northern flank. The petroleum saturated intervals
[Markhinin, 1985]. are not necessarily right on the top of the crystalline
[68] Numerous petroleum shows/indications were also basement. Thus, oil was discovered at a distance of 18–
registered in kimberlite of the Udatchnaya diamond-bearing 20 m below the top of the crystalline basement in the La Paz
pipe (Siberia, Russia) and in its encompassed sedimentary and Mara fields (western Venezuela) and 140 m below the
rocks (the Middle and Upper Cambrian). Here the petro- basement’s top in Kazakhstan’s Oimasha oil field. In the
leum is present in the form of yellowish liquids, black Baltic Shield, Sweden, the 1 Gravberg well produced 15 m3
malthas, and asphalt. The kimberlite body is also intensively of oil from the Precambrian igneous rocks of the Siljan Ring
saturated with heavy oil and bitumen, which occur in the impact crater at the depth of 6800 m. In the Kola segment of
fractured and brecciated zones of the kimberlite body. This the Baltic Shield several oil-saturated layers of Precambrian
oil contains n-alkanes, 12- and 13-methyalkane, porphyrin igneous rocks were penetrated by the Kola ultradeep well at
complexes, etc. [Safronov et al., 2005]. It was estimated that the depth range of 7004 – 8004 m.
the sedimentary rocks which composed the Udatchnaya [72] One of the most successful stories of the practical
diamond-kimberlite pipe must have contained 3.4 109 t application of the theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of
oil before being degraded [Budanov et al., 1986]. According petroleum in exploration is the exploration in the DDB,
to Goldberg and Makarov [1966] the zones which were Ukraine [Chebanenko et al., 2002]. It is a cratonic rift basin
exposed to a thermal action of the kimberlite melting had running in a NW – SE direction between 30.6°E and 40.5°E.
not contained bitumen but had been rich in liquid oil. Its northern and southern borders are traced from 50.0°N to
Therefore, Goldberg and Makarov [1966] are convinced 51.8°N and 47.8°N to 50.0°N, respectively. In the DDB’s
that there were not any oil shows in the kimberlite field area northern, monoclinal flank the sedimentary sequence does
until the formation of the pipe: oil and other hydrocarbons not contain any salt-bearing beds, salt domes, or stratovol-
migrated there during the post – Later Devonian to pre – Later canoes and contains no source rocks. Also, this flank is
Permian time; that is, the oil and gas that accumulated there characterized by a dense network of numerous synthetic and
after the kimberlite explosion are not of biotic origin and antithetic faults. These faults create the mosaic fault block
migrated from a distance into the fractured reservoir space structure of the crystalline basement and its sedimentary
generated by the explosion. cover, a large number of fault traps (the faulted anticlines)
[69] The presence of oil and gas deposits in volcanic and for oil and natural gas, and alternation uplifts (horsts) and
volcano-sedimentary rocks can support the abiogenic origin troughs (grabens). The structure of the DDB’s northern
of petroleum where there is no geochemical evidence flank excludes any lateral petroleum migration across it
confirming genetic connection between the oil and gas in from either the Donets Foldbelt or the DDB’s Dnieper
volcanic and crystalline rocks and corresponding source Graben.
rocks. It is highly probable in areas where petroleum [73] Consequently, the DDB’s northern flank was quali-
accumulated in volcanic rocks exposed on the Earth’s fied earlier as not a prospect for petroleum production due
surface with no potential source rocks around. to the absence of any ‘‘source rock of petroleum’’ and to the
presence of an active, highly dynamic artesian aquifer.
10. OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN THE PRECAMBRIAN However, after a while the prospectivity of this area was
CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS reinterpreted and reexamined in compliance with the theory
of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum starting with
[70] The crystalline crust of the Earth is the basement of the detailed analysis of the tectonic history and geological
60 sedimentary basins with commercial oil and gas deposits structure of the crystalline basement in the DDB’s northern
15 of 30
TABLE 8. Giant and Supergiant Petroleum Deposits in the Precambrian Crystalline Basement
Deposit Country Proven Reserves
Achak (gas field) Turkmenistan 155 109 m3

Gugurtli (gas field) Turkmenistan 86 109 m3
Brown-Bassett (gas field) UK 73 109 m3
Bunsville (gas field) United States 85 109 m3
Gomez (gas field) United States 283 109 m3
Lockridge (gas field) United States 103 109 m3
Chayandinskoye (gas field) Russia 1,240 109 m3
Luginetskoye (gas field) Russia 86 109 m3
Myldzhinskoye (gas field) Russia 99 109 m3
Durian Mabok (gas field) Indonesia 68.5 109 m3
Suban (gas field) Indonesia 71 109 m3
Gidgealpa (gas field) Australia 153 109 m3
Moomba (gas field) Australia 153 109 m3
Hateiba (gas field) Libya 411 109 m3
Bach Ho (oil and gas field) Vietnam 600 106 t of oil and 37 109 m3 of gas
Bombay High (oil and gas field) India 1640 106 t of oil and 177 109 m3 of gas
Bovanenkovskoye (oil and gas) Russia 55 106 t of oil and 2400 109 m3 of gas
Tokhomskoye (oil and gas field) Russia 1200 106 t of oil and 100 109 m3 of gas
Coyanosa (oil and gas field) United States 6 106 t of oil and 37 109 m3 of gas
Hugoton-Panhandle (oil and gas) United States 223 106 t of oil and 2000 109 m3 of gas
Peace River (oil and gas field) United States 19000 106 t of oil and 147 109 m3 of gas
Puckett (oil and gas field) United States 87.5 106 t of oil and 93 109 m3 of gas
La Vela (oil and gas field) Venezuela 54 106 t of oil and 42 109 m3 of gas
Amal (oil field) Libya 583 106 t
Augila-Nafoora (oil field) Libya 178 106
Bu Attifel (oil field) Libya 90 106
Dahra (oil field) Libya 97 106
Defa (oil field) Libya 85 106
Gialo (oil field) Libya 569 106
Intisar ‘‘A’’ (oil field) Libya 227 106
Intisar ‘‘D’’ (oil field) Libya 182 106
Nasser (oil field) Libya 575 106
Raguba (oil field) Libya 144 106
Sarir (oil field) Libya 1150 106
Waha (oil field) Libya 128 106
Claire (oil field) UK 635 106
Dai Hung (oil field) Vietnam 60 – 80 106
Su Tu Den (oil field) Vietnam 65 106
Elk Basin (oil field) United States 70 106
Kern River (oil field) United States 200.6 106
Long Beach (oil field) United States 121 106
Wilmington (oil field) United States 326 106
Karmopolis (oil field) Brazil 159 106
La Brea-Pariñas-Talara (oil field) Peru 137 106
La Paz (oil field) Venezuela 224 106
Mara (oil field) Venezuela 104.5 106
Mangala (oil field) India 137 106
Renqu-Huabei (oil field) China 160 106
Shengli (oil field) China 3230 106
Severo-Varieganskoye (oil field) Russia 70 106
Sovietsko-Sosninsko-Medvedovskoye Russia 228 106
(oil field)
monoclinal flank. Subsequently, respective geophysical and Ponomarenko, and G. D. Zabello were awarded the State
geochemical prospecting programs were accepted primarily Prize of Ukraine in the Field of Science and Technology in
for exploring deep-seated petroleum. 1992 [Chebanenko et al., 2002].
[74] In the late 1980s to early 1990s, 61 wells were [75] The geochemical peculiarity of the DDB’s northern
drilled in the DDB’s northern flank. Thirty-seven of them flank petroleum province is that oil and gas are accompa-
proved commercially productive (the exploration success nied by unusually high quantities of helium, which is most
rate is as high as 57%), discovering commercial oil and gas abundant in natural gas and crude oil from the crystalline
strikes in the Khukhra, Chernetchina, Yuliyevka, and other basement. For example, the Yuliyevskoye giant oil and gas
areas. A total of 12 oil and gas fields was discovered, worth condensate field contains not less than 180 106 m3 of
$4.38 billion in the prices of 1991 and $26.3 billion in the helium. Helium is understood to generate radiogenically
prices of 2008. For the discovery of these new oil and gas from the crystalline crust in the granitic composition and
accumulations, I. I. Chebanenko, V. A. Krayushkin, V. P. can be transported to significant distances in the Earth’s
Klochko, E. S. Dvoryanin, V. V. Krot, P. T. Pavlenko, M. I. crust by a carrier fluid only (hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,
16 of 30
TABLE 9. Commercial Gas and Oil Deposits in the Dnieper- in-place prognostic petroleum resources of 6000 106 t
Donetsk Basin’s Northern Flank
of oil equivalent in an area of 22,000 km2. Here several
Location Oil and Gas Deposits
promising leads with oil shows can be found in the crystal-
line basement and its sedimentary cover [Chebanenko et al.,
Both sedimentary and Beloziorskoye, Bezlyudovskoye, 1996].
crystalline basement rocks Chernetchinskoye, Dobropolskoye, [79] The data are taken from Powers [1932], American
Kadnitskoye, Karavanovskoye,
Kiyanovskoye, Korobotchinskoye, Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin [1953], Beach
Mertchikovskoye, Ogultsevskoye, [1948], Eggleston [1948], Walters and Price [1948], Walters
Ostroverkhovskoye, Rakitnenskoye, [1953], Travis [1953], Hubbert and Willis [1956], Smith
Yevgeniyevskoye, Yulievskoye,
Zapadno-Skvortsovskoye, and [1956], Sproule [1957, 1962], Landes et al. [1960], Merriam
Zolotchevskoye et al. [1961], Rogers [1961], Khaimov [1963], Khamrabayev
Crystalline basement rocks only Gashinovskoye and Khukhrinskoye et al. [1964], Wopfner [1966], Vysotski [1968a, 1968b],
Mikić et al. [1969], Vujkov [1969], Agutenkov [1970],
Lindtrop et al. [1970], Pippin [1970], Klimushina et al.
[1971], Nesterov et al. [1971], Williams [1972], Jankŭ
and nitrogen). To accumulate 180 106 m3 of helium in the [1972], Zhuravlev et al. [1973], Janković et al. [1974],
Yuliyevskoye field, natural gas and crude oil must come Durica [1974], Soeparjadi et al. [1975], Vasquez [1975],
upward the long way through the crystalline Earth’s crust of Babikov et al. [1976], Vysotski [1976a, 1976b], McCaslin
the DDB’s northern flank. [1976], Deroo et al. [1977], Porfir’ev et al. [1977, 1978],
[76] Today there are 50 commercial gas and oil fields Porfir’ev and Klochko [1982], Clement and Mayhew
known in the DDB’s northern flank. Data obtained from [1979], Towar and Taruno [1979], Brown [1980], Stuart-
drilling in many of these areas show that the crystalline Gordon [1980], Klimenko et al. [1981], Durkee [1982],
basement of the northern flank consists of amphibolites, Gerhard et al. [1982], Gorin et al. [1982], Guangming and
charnockites, diorites, gneisses, granites, granodiorites, Quanheng [1982], P’an [1982], Koning and Darmono
granito-gneisses, migmatites, peridotites, and schists. Thir- [1984], Krayushkin [1984, 1999], Krayushkin et al.
ty-two of the commercial fields have oil and/or gas accu- [2000], Carter et al. [1986], Hallett et al. [1985], Loucks
mulations in sandstones of the Middle and Lower and Anderson [1985], Yarbrough [1985], Alsharhan and
Carboniferous age. Sixteen other fields contain reservoirs Kendall [1986], Popkov et al. [1986], Wiman [1987],
in the same sandstones but separately from them, in Maksimov [1987a, 1987b], Xiaojun [1987], Ullah et al.
amphibolites, granites, and granodiorites of crystalline [1988], Walrond and Clare [1988], Zahran and Askary
basement as well (Table 9 and Figures 7 and 8). Two fields [1988], Chen [1989], Misra [1990], Zhang [1990], Zhukov
contain oil pools in the crystalline basement only. et al. [1990], Taylor et al. [1991], Areshev et al. [1992],
[77] An exploration drilling in the DDB’s northern flank
has discovered five petroleum reservoirs in the Precambrian
crystalline basement rock complex at depths ranging from
several meters to 336 m below the top of crystalline
basement. Gas and oil shows have been found in the
Precambrian crystalline basement rocks as deep as 760 m
below the top of the crystalline basement. The seal rocks for
the reservoirs in the Carboniferous period sandstones are
shallower shale formations. This is typical for petroleum
pools in sedimentary beds. The caprock for the reservoirs in
the Precambrian crystalline basement is the impervious,
nonfractured, essentially horizontal, layer-like zones of
crystalline rock which alternate with the fractured, uncom-
pacted, bed-like zones of granite, amphibolite, and the other
crystalline rocks mentioned above [Krayushkin et al.,
2001].
[78] The exploration drilling in the DDB’s northern flank
is still in progress and continues to yield success in the 100
600 km petroliferous strip of the DDB’s northern flank. Its
proven petroleum reserves are already equal to 289 106 t
($230 billion at 50 U.S. dollars/bbl oil prices). The DDB’s Figure 7. Geological cross section of lower portion of the
northern flank is even more attractive with its total pro- Chernetchinskoye (left and middle blocks denoted by the
spective in-place petroleum resources which amount to dashed lines) and Khukhrinskoye oil fields, the Dnieper-
13,000 106 t (80,000 bbls) of oil equivalent in an Donets Basin, Ukraine. Patterns are as follows: 1, oil;
area of 48,000 km2. The petroleum potential of the DDB’s 2, crystalline basement granites; 3, basement crust of weath-
southern flank should not be neglected either, with total ering; 4, fault.
17 of 30
Figure 8. Transversal geological section of the Yevgeniyevskoye gas fields, the Dnieper-Donets Basin,
Ukraine. Patterns are as follows: 1, natural gas; 2, fault; 3, deep fault zone.
Aguilera [1993], Khalil and Pigant [1991], Oil and Gas traditional biotic petroleum origin hypothesis, i.e., the depth
Journal [1993b, 1995b], Morissey [1996], Chebanenko et of 2 – 4 km and in exceptional cases, down to the depth of
al. [1996, 2002, 2005], Roux [1997], Oil and Gas Journal 6 km.
[1999b], Kochetkov et al. [2000], Oil and Gas Journal [2000b], [84] 2. Reservoir temperature of these fields is much
Krayushkin et al. [2001], Oil and Gas Journal [2001], Young higher than the optimal temperature range of the traditional
[2001], Abraham [2004], Areshev et al. [2004], Fischer biotic hypothesis of petroleum formation.
[2004, 2005], Danilkin [2005], Rach [2005], and Oil and [85] 3. The biotic hypothesis suggests that with growing
Gas Journal [1993c, 2005f, 2006k]. depth and temperature, hydrocarbons are destroyed and
[80] Abyssal abiogenic petroleum has been discovered in reservoir rock porosity drops; thus, petroleum reserves
China as well: the giant Xinjiang gas field contains 400 should be significantly reduced. A presence of more than
1012 m3 of abiogenic natural gas [Zhang, 1990]. Chinese 1000 petroleum deposits at the depth 5– 10 km all over the
petroleum geologists estimated this quantity in volcanic world contradicts these points, as seen in sections 11.1–
island arcs, transarc zones of mud volcanism, transarc rift 11.4.
basins, transarc epicontinental basins, deep fault zones, and [86] There are more than 1000 commercial petroleum
continental rift basins. fields producing oil and/or natural gas from sedimentary
[81] In conclusion, (1) according to the traditional biotic rocks at the depths of 4500 – 10,428 m. These fields were
petroleum origin hypothesis the DDB’s northern flank was discovered in 50 sedimentary basins around the world.
qualified as possessing no potential for petroleum produc-
tion. (2) Based on the theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin 11.1. Russia
of petroleum, 50 commercial gas and oil deposits were [87] A number of oil and gas fields have been discovered
discovered in this area; this is the best evidence confirming at the depth of 4000– 4600 m in Russia. The cumulative
the theory. production of these fields is equal to 421 106 t of oil,
45.5 109 m3 of the associated oil gas, and 641 106 m3
of natural gas. Although these fields are not ‘‘ultradeep’’
11. PETROLEUM PRESENCE IN DEEP AND reservoirs, they are interesting from our point of view: they
ULTRADEEP SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are associated with deep faults intersecting the whole
sedimentary rock sequence. The ‘‘roots’’ of these deep
[82] In this section we discuss how far the distribution, faults extend underneath the basement part of the litho-
location, and reservoir conditions in the deep and ultradeep sphere. The roots form vertical columns (‘‘pipes’’) of high
petroleum deposits can be explained by the traditional biotic permeability/petroleum saturation, and chains of oil and gas
petroleum origin. The key points are as follows: accumulations are connected to them. It was established that
[83] 1. Deep and ultradeep petroleum fields are below the the traces of petroleum migration are entirely absent outside
main zone of petroleum formation determined by the of anticline crests [Istratov, 2004].
18 of 30
TABLE 10. Giant and Supergiant Petroleum Deposits in Deep and Ultradeep Sedimentary Rocks
Deposit, Country Depth (m) Proven Reserves
Bastian Bay (gas field), United States 4,880 102 109 m3

Coyanosa (gas field), United States 4,575 99 109 m3
ElK City (gas field), United States 4,577 – 6,148 100 109 m3
Gomez (gas field), United States 4,545 – 7,015 283 109 m3
Lockridge (gas field), United States 5,673 103 109 m3
Ventura (gas field), United States 5,872 – 6,176 85 109 m3
Deep Basin (gas field), Canada 980 – 6,100 12,500 109 m3
Lack (gas field), France 4,880 249 109 m3
Meillon Rousse (gas field), France 4,544 – 4,918 99 109 m3
Shebelinka (gas field), Ukraine 1,450 – 5,722 1,200 109 m3
Wintersfeld (gas field), Switzerland 5,289 75 – 180 109 m3
Camisea (oil and gas), Peru 5,300 76 106 t (oil), 311 109 m3 (gas)
Capiagua (oil and gas), Colombia 5,066 – 5,646 165 106 t (oil), 368 109 m3 (gas)
El Furrial (oil and gas), Venezuela 5,185 124 106 t (oil), 76 109 m3 (gas)
Eugene Island-330 (oil and gas), United States 1,281 – 7,625 160 106 t of oil equivalent
Kaskida (oil and gas), United States 9,912 65 106 t of oil equivalent
Mad Dog (oil and gas), United States 6,832 128 106 t of oil equivalent
Mars (oil and gas), United States 3,050 – 6,100 94 106 t of oil equivalent
Pony (oil and gas), United States 9,752 – 9,897 68 106 t of oil equivalent
Puckett (oil and gas), United States 4,165 – 4,575 93 106 t of oil equivalent
Gehem (oil and gas), Indonesia 4,648 85 106 t of oil equivalent
Karachaganak (oil and gas), Kazakhstan 3,750 – 4,880 370 106 t (oil), 175 109 m3 (gas)
Malossa (oil and gas), Italy 6,002 47 106 t (oil), 50 109 m3 (gas)
Minbulak (oil and gas), Uzbekistan 5,248 – 5,903 65 106 t of oil equivalent
Poza Rica (oil and gas), Mexico 2,162 – 4,575 412 106 t (oil), 113 109 m3 (gas)
Shakh Deniz (oil and gas), Azerbaijan 5,892 120 106 t (oil), 859 109 m3 (gas)
Agbami (oil field), Nigeria 4,783 140 106 t of oil
Jack (oil field), United States 8,235 68.5 106 t of oil
Notty Head (oil field), United States 10,060 – 10,428 68.5 106 t of oil
Shenzi (oil field), United States 8,320 – 8,540 68.5 106 t of oil
Tahiti (oil field), United States 7,873 – 7,995 70 106 t of oil
Trident (oil field), United States 6,250 110 106 t of oil
Thunder Horse North (oil), United States 6,634 – 8,235 68.5 106 t of oil
Thunder Horse South (oil), United States 6,100 – 7,320 135 106 t of oil
Coporo (oil field), Colombia 5,490 192 106 to 256 106 t of oil
Kashagan (oil field), Kazakhstan 4,000 – 5,000 1,780 106 t of oil
Tengiz (oil field), Kazakhstan 4,500 825 106 to 1,235 106 t of oil
Monte Alpi (oil field), Italy 5,050 1,370 106 to 2,740 106 t of oil
Tempa Rosso (oil field), Italy 5,050 67 106 t of oil
Shengli (oil field), China 580 – 5,795 3,230 106 t of oil
11.2. Ukraine Cretaceous) sands has been observed. With a width of 32–
[88] Seventeen giant and supergiant gas fields were dis- 48 km and a length of 520 km this trend extends along the
covered in the Lower Carboniferous age sandstones of the Gulf of Mexico from New Orleans to the borderline
Dnieper-Donets Basin at the depth range of 4500– 6287 m. between Louisiana and Texas. Many oil and gas fields were
At these depths, the total proven reserves of natural gas is found in this formation over the area indicated at the depths
142.6 109 m3. The total recoverable reserves of conden- of 4500 – 6100 m. Most of them have anomalously high
sate is 2.3 106 t [Gozhik et al., 2006]. reservoir temperatures (Freeland field, 232°C) that are much
higher than the optimal temperature of petroleum formation
11.3. North Sea Basin from ancient organic materials. The total proven reserves of
[89] Commercial gas, condensate, and oil fields have natural gas in the Tuscaloosa trend is equal to 170 109 m3,
been found at the depth of 4880 – 5760 m in the Jurassic but there is an opinion that only the central portion of it
sandstones of the North Sea Basin. All these deposits have contains potential resources, as much as 850 109 m3 of
anomalously high reservoir temperatures of 200°C– 340°C natural gas and 240 106 m3 of condensate [King, 1979;
[Lasocki et al., 1999; Knott, 1997]. Matheny, 1979; Pankonien, 1979; Sumpter, 1979].
[91] In the deepwater portion of the Gulf of Mexico,
11.4. United States United States, 20 ultradeep oil and gas fields have been
[90] In the United States more than 7000 boreholes with found at the depth of 7300 – 10,500 m (Table 10). Their
TD deeper than 4575 m were drilled between 1963 and reservoirs are predominantly Oligocene, Eocene, and
1979. Recent discoveries Jack-1 and Jack-2 in Walker Paleocene turbidites. The petroliferous area is equal to 40
Ridge, Gulf of Mexico, confirm the presence of commercial 103 km2 with recoverable reserves of oil from 1430 106 to
oil reservoirs as deep as 8000 – 9000 m [Choudhury and 2385 106 m3. This is 42%– 70% of the total recent proven
Borton, 2007]. In the Mesozoic-Cenozoic rift system of the oil reserves in the United States (1 January 2007). Data are
Gulf of Mexico a region of deep to ultradeep (the Upper taken from following sources: McCaslin [1976], Grow
19 of 30
TABLE 11. Supergiant Oil and Gas Deposits in Saudi Arabia 3.0 mm thin beds alternating with the lightly colored, simi-
larly thin beds poor in organics. Let us make a calculation of
Deposit Estimated Reserves the oil that might have been generated inside the basins of
Ghawar 10.2 109 to 11.3 109 t of oil Saudi Arabia with an estimated original oil in place (OOIP)
and 1.5 1012 m3 of gas of 127 109 m3 [Oil and Gas Journal, 2006m]. Areas
Safaniyah 4.1 109 t of oil within the sedimentary basins where the kerogen is mature
Shaybah 2.0 109 t of oil
Abqaiq 1.6 109 t of oil (i.e., H/C ratio is 0.8 –1.3) were mapped [Ayres et al., 1982]
Berri 1.6 109 t of oil and multiplied by the thickness of the source zones. This
Manifa 1.5 109 t of oil simple calculation gives a volume of petroleum source
Marjan 1.4 109 t of oil
Qatif 1.3 109 t of oil rocks as high as 5000 km3. If we accept that (1) the volume
Abu Safah 0.9 109 t of oil of kerogen is equal to 10% of the petroleum source rock
Dammam 0.7 109 t of oil volume, (2) the coefficient of transformation of kerogen into
bitumen is equal to 15%, and (3) 10% of this bitumen can
migrate out of the petroleum source rocks, we come to the
[1998], Henderson [1998], Fischer [2001, 2004, 2005], Oil conclusion that only 7.5 109 m3 of oil could migrate out
and Gas Journal [2002a, 2004a, 2003, 2004b, 2005a, of the petroleum source rocks. This is <6% of Saudi
2006h], Ashcroft and Schmidt [2005], Oil and Gas Journal Arabia’s estimated in-place oil reserves. Note that if the
[2005b, 2005c, 2006a], Meyer et al. [2005], Rach [2005], kerogen transformation parameters are twice as high as
Oil and Gas Journal [2005d, 2005e, 2006b, 2006c, 2006d, taken here (i.e., 20%, 30%, and again 20%), the OOIP is
2006e, 2006g, 2006i, 2006j, 2006m, 2007a], and Choudhury still 60 109 m3, i.e., half of the booked value.
and Borton [2007]. [96] Where did 94% of Saudi Arabia’s recoverable oil
[92] A total of 40 giant and supergiant petroleum fields come from? This question is not a rhetorical one because
was discovered at the depths of 4500– 10,500 m over the any other sources of beds of petroleum are absent in the
world (Table 10). The data are taken from the following subsurface of Saudi Arabia as well as of all countries
sources: McCaslin [1976], Masters [1979], Zhabrev [1983], mentioned above, according to Ayres et al. [1982] and
Loucks and Anderson [1985], Wiman [1987], Maksimov Baker and Dickey [1984]. Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
[1987a, 1987b], Oil and Gas Journal [1987], Carnevali Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates,
[1988], Snyder [1973], Petzukha [1990], Anderson [1993], and Yemen reside in the same sedimentary basin, the
Heafford and Lichtman [1993], Oil and Gas Journal [1995a, Arabian-Iranian Basin, where Dunnington [1958, 1967]
1996a, 1996b, 1998, 1999a, 1999d], Connell et al. [2000], established the genetic relationship, i.e., the single common
Oil and Gas Journal [2000a], Fischer [2002, 2003, 2006], source of all crude oils.
Oil and Gas Journal [2002b], Meyer et al. [2005], Rach
[2005], and Oil and Gas Journal [2005e, 2006b, 2006c, 12.2. Canada
2006g, 2006i, 2006j, 2007a]. [97] The west Canadian sedimentary basin attracts great
attention also. There is the unique oil/bitumen belt extended
12. SUPERGIANT OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN LIGHT as the arc-like strip of 960 km length from Peace River
OF THE PETROLEUM ORIGIN THEORIES through Athabasca (Alberta) to Lloydminster (Saskatchewan).
This belt includes such supergiant petroleum fields as
[93] One of the main problems of the traditional biotic Athabasca (125 km width and 250 km length), Cold Lake
petroleum origin hypothesis is the identification of biotic (50 km width and 125 km length), Peace River (145 km
sources and material balance of the hydrocarbon generation width and 180 km length), and Wabaska (60 km width and
for most supergiant oil and gas fields. 125 km length). Here the heavy (946.5 – 1.029 kg/m3) and
viscous (several hundred to several million centipoises) oil
12.1. Middle East saturates the Lower Cretaceous sands and sandstones. These
[94] In the Middle East, proven recoverable reserves are fields contain in-place oil reserves equal to 92 109 to
equal to 101 109 t of oil and 73.5 1012 m3 of gas as of 1 187 109 m3 in Athabasca, 32 109 to 75 109 m3 in
January 2007 [Oil and Gas Journal, 2006m]. Saudi Ara- Cold Lake, 15 109 to 19 109 m3 in Peace River, and
bia’s proven reserves are 36 109 t of oil and 7 1012 m3 4.5 109 to 50 109 m3 in Wabaska and 2 109 to 5
of natural gas [Oil and Gas Journal, 2006m]. Most of these 109 m3 of oil/bitumen in Lloydminster, totaling 170 109
reserves are located in ten supergiant gas and oil fields to 388 109 m3 [Vigrass, 1968; Wennekers, 1981; Seifert
(Table 11) [McCaslin, 1976; Alhajji, 2001; Foreign Policy, and Lennox, 1985; Oil and Gas Journal, 1992b; Warters
2006]. et al., 1995].
[95] These giant oil fields give oil production from the [98] The conventional understanding is that the oil of
Jurassic-Cretaceous granular carbonates. All these crude Athabasca, Cold Lake, Lloydminster, Peace River, and
oils have very similar composition referring to a common Wabasca generated from dispersed organic matter buried
source. Such a source is the Jurassic-Cretaceous thermally in the argillaceous shales of the Lower Cretaceous Mann-
mature, thin-bedded organic rich carbonate sequence (3 – ville Group only. It is underlain by the pre-Cretaceous
5 mass %). Organic material is concentrated in dark, 0.5– regional unconformity, and its thickness varies from 100
20 of 30
TABLE 12. Estimations of the Volume of Oil/Bitumen in Place 1068– 6100 m in Upper Cretaceous – Permian beds with a
in West Canada maximum pay gas thickness of 3050 m. This supergiant
multilayer gas accumulation of 670 km length and 170 km
Source of Information Estimated Volume (m3) width extends from southeast to northwest, parallel to the
Rockies and subparallel to the Athabasca oil sand area
Lower Cretaceous sands and sandstones 170 109 to 388 109
[Vigrass, 1968; Wennekers, 1981; [Masters, 1979]. If there is no other petroleum source rock
Seifert and Lennox, 1985; besides the Mannville clays and shales, where did 12.5
Oil and Gas Journal, 1992b; 1012 m3 of the Deep Basin natural gas come from?
Warters et al., 1995]
Lower Cretaceous sands and 270 109 [103] The western termination of the Deep Basin gas
sandstones, Alberta Energy accumulation is conjugated with a deep fault, which is the
Utilities Board tectonic boundary between Rockies and the west Canadian
Lower Cretaceous sands and 397 109
sandstones, National Energy basin [Masters, 1979]. According to Tilley et al. [1989] the
Board natural gas saturates pores, the walls of which are strewed
Lower Cretaceous sands and 370 109 to 603 109 with numerous druses of hydrothermal (170°C – 195°C)
sandstones and Upper Devonian
carbonates [Wennekers, 1981; quartz crystals. These crystals contain the primary fluid
Seifert and Lennox, 1985; inclusions comprising methane, ethane, and propane, which
Hoffmann and Strausz, 1986] are the main components of the Deep Basin natural gas as
Total amount that could be received 71.5 109
from biotic source (Mannville well. The thermal history of the Deep Basin provides
clays and shales) evidence that the hot fluids migrated up the dip on perme-
able conglomerates and on fractures along bedding. The
obvious relationship of the hot fluids to the western part of
the Deep Basin area indicates that the hydrothermal con-
to 300 m. Its total volume is 190 103 km3 with a 65% vective heat and mass transfer can act throughout only tens
shale content. From the data of the total organic carbon of kilometers in the Lower Cretaceous rocks and can be
concentration, the hydrocarbon index, constant of transfor- provided with the hefty influx of fluids from only the deep
mation, and all other values from the accepted geochemical fault.
model of the oil generation from the buried organic matter
dispersed in clays and argillites, it was concluded that the 12.3. Venezuela
Mannville Group could only give 71.5 109 m3 of oil. This [104] Something similar can be observed in the Bolivar
is several times less than the total quantity of oil (see above) Coastal oil field in Venezuela. According to Bockmeulen et
estimated before 1985 in Athabasca, Cold Lake, Lloydminster, al. [1983] the source rock of petroleum here is the La Luna
Peace River, and Wabasca oil sand deposits [Moshier and limestone of Cretaceous age. The estimated oil reserves are
Wapples, 1985]. equal to 4.8 109 m3 [Foreign Policy, 2006] with an oil
[99] If we accept other estimations of the volume of oil/ density of 820– 1000 kg/m3. The same kind of calculations
bitumen in place in the Athabasca, Wabasca, Cold Lake, that were done for Saudi Arabia in section 12.1 give us the
and Peace River area (122,800 km2) conducted by Alberta following result. One cubic meter of the oil-generating rock
Energy Utilities Board (AEUB) and the National Energy contains 2.5 102 m3 of kerogen, which can generate
Board (NEB), Canada, the gap between the booked and 2.5 103 m3 bitumen, giving 1.25 104 m3 of oil
organically generated quantities is even wider (Table 12). within the accepted geochemical model of biotic petroleum
AEUB estimated 270 109 m3 of bitumen in place, while origin. Having this oil-generating potential and the 4.8
NEB estimated 397 109 m3. 109 m3 of estimated oil reserves of the Bolivar Coastal field
[100] In the above mentioned area, there are additionally as a starting point, the necessary volume of oil source rock
200 109 to 215 109 m3 of heavy (986– 1030 kg/m3) would be equal to 3.84 1013 m3. This is consistent with
and viscous (106 cP under 16°C) oil at the depth range of the oil-generating basin area of 110 km across if the oil
75– 400 m in the Upper Devonian carbonates (Grosmont source rock is 1000 m thick. The average thickness of La
Formation). They occur in the area of 70 103 km2 beneath Luna limestone is measured as only 91 m [Bockmeulen et
the Athabasca, Cold Lake, Lloydminster, Peace River, and al., 1983]. The diameter of the oil-generating basin would
Wabasca oil sand deposits [Wennekers, 1981; Seifert and be therefore equal to 370 km, and the area of this basin
Lennox, 1985; Hoffmann and Strausz, 1986]. would equal 50% of the territory of Venezuela, which is
[101] The total estimated reserves of bitumen in place in geologically highly improbable.
the above mentioned area is between 370 109 and 603 [105] The geological data mentioned above confirm the
109 m3. If there is no any other petroleum source rock following: (1) A sufficient biotic source for most giant and
besides the Mannville clays and shales, which could give supergiant petroleum deposits is unknown. (2) Sedimentary
only 71.5 109 m3 of oil, where is a biotic source for the basins of the above mentioned areas are located on the
remaining 82% –88% of oil in this area? crystalline basement, which is dissected by a network of
[102] Downdip of Athabasca oil sand deposits, there is deep faults and cracks. (3) Oils in the frame of each area
the Deep Basin natural gas accumulation (original gas in mentioned above are genetically similar, i.e., from a single
place of 12.5 1012 m3) which occurs at the depth of common source. (4) A presence of deep faults under giant
21 of 30
and supergiant petroleum deposits and the genetic relation- 1012 m3 of gas hydrate methane and 5.7 1012 m3 of free
ship of petroleum correspond to the theory of the abyssal natural gas.
abiogenic origin of petroleum: mantle fluids migrated [109] Thus, the share of methane hydrate is equal to 66%
through deep faults and cracks in the crystalline basement, while the share of free natural gas below the methane
penetrated the sedimentary rocks, and created giant and hydrate equals 34% in the Outer Blake Ridge. In the
supergiant petroleum deposits. Messoyakha field the same ratio is 53.5% (share of methane
hydrate) and 46.5% (the underlaying free natural gas).
Applying these ratios to the global resources of methane
13. GAS HYDRATES: GREATEST SOURCE OF hydrate (113 1017 m3 of methane), the global resources of
ABIOGENIC HYDROCARBONS free methane underlaying the methane hydrate layer could
be in the range from 40 1017 to 53 1017 m3 of methane.
[106] Gas hydrates are clathrates. They look like ice and The global resources of methane hydrate and free natural
consist of gas and water where the molecules of hydrate- gas underlaying the methane hydrate are equal to 152
forming gas (e.g., Ar, CH4, C2H6, C3H8, iso-C4H10, Cl, CO, 1017 to 166 1017 m3 of methane.
CO2, He, H2S, and N2) are squeezed under pressures of [110] There is another aspect concerning the origin of the
25 MPa and more into the interstices of the water (ice) tremendous global resources of gas hydrates, mode of their
crystalline cage without any chemical bonding between migration, and time of accumulation. The global amount of
molecules of water and gas. As a result, thawing 1 m3 of noncarbonate carbon is as follows: (1) the organic matter of
gas hydrate at the sea level produces 150 – 200 m3 of the atmosphere is 3.6 109 t, (2) the organic matter of
gaseous methane and 0.87 m3 of fresh water. Naturally, marine biota is 3 109 t, (3) the organic matter of land
the formation of gas hydrates takes place under a great biota is 830 109 t, (4) detrital organic matter is 60 109 t,
velocity of fluid movement and under a certain combination (5) the organic matter of peat is 500 109 t, (6) the organic
of pressure and temperature. For example, methane hydrate matter dissolved in waters is 980 109 t, (7) organics of
arises under conditions of 236°C and 2 105 MPa and soil are 1400 109 t, and (8) recoverable and nonrecover-
57°C and 1146 MPa [Klimenko, 1989; Makogon, 1997; able fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) are 5000 109 t, i.e.,
Lowrie and Max, 1999; Makogon et al., 2005]. There are totaling 8800 109 t. The dispersed organic carbon such
also data showing that the formation of gas hydrate from the as kerogen and bitumen equals nearly 1000 times the total
CH4-C3H8-CO2-H2O-H2S mixture proceeds under such a amount mentioned above [Kvenvolden, 1993] and together
high temperature increase and such a high pressure decrease with the above sum is equal to 8.8 1015 t.
that a gas hydrate of one of the above mentioned compo- [111] The atomic mass ratio between carbon and hydro-
sitions arises and exists mainly in sea bottom sediments gen in the molecule of methane is 0.75. With such a ratio
where the depth of the sea is only 50 m, e.g., in the Caspian the global reserves of carbon in the global resources of gas
Sea [Lowrie and Max, 1999]. hydrate and underlaying free gas will be equal to 114
[107] Visually, the gas hydrates (‘‘combustible ice’’) are 1017 to 124 1017 t. In other words, the amount of carbon
the aggregate growths of transparent and semitransparent in the gas hydrates and underlaying free natural gas is
white, gray, or yellow crystals. They can partially or entirely 1300– 1400 times higher than the global quantity of the
saturate the natural porous media, adding mechanical organic carbon concentrated in the atmosphere, land and
strength and acoustic hardness to sediments and sedimen- marine biota, detrital organics, peat, soil, water, recoverable
tary rocks. Boreholes and seismic surveys have established and nonrecoverable fossil fuels, and dispersed organics such
that methane hydrates occur in the polar regions of Asia, as kerogen and bitumen combined. Therefore, it is clear that
Europe, and North America and in 93%– 95% of the world the Earth’s organics cannot be the source material of the
ocean where the combustible ice is always underlaid with world reserves of gas hydrate and underlaying free gas.
natural gas [Trofimuk et al., 1975; Panaev, 1987; Collet, [112] The top of the supergiant gas hydrate and free
1993; Dillon et al., 1993; Kvenvolden, 1993]. natural gas accumulations occurs at a depth of 0.4– 2.2 m
[108] Gas hydrates represent a huge unconventional below the sea bottom in the Recent sediments of the world
resource base: it may amount to 113 1017 m3 of methane ocean. The bottom of these accumulations is subparallel to
according to the U.S. Geological Survey [Oil and Gas the sea bottom surface and intersects beds with anticlinal,
Journal, 1999c]. The global resources of natural gas which synclinal, and tilted forms. This geometry, the geographical
underlay the combustible ice were not known for a long distribution of hydrates over 93%– 95% of the world ocean,
time. Recently, they have been evaluated because of data their Recent to Pleistocene age, and the freshwater nature of
from the Outer Blake Ridge (U.S. Atlantic offshore) and combustible ice could not be explained by terms (source
from the Messoyakha gas and gas hydrate field (west rocks; diagenesis and katagenesis/metagenesis of any
Siberia, Russia). The Outer Blake Ridge contains 56.1 buried, dispersed organic matter; and lateral migration of
1012 m3 of methane, including 36.8 1012 m3 of hydrate natural gas) used in the traditional biotic petroleum origin
methane and 19.3 1012 m3 of the free natural gas hypothesis.
underlaying the methane hydrate [Makogon et al., 2005]. [113] According to the theory of the abyssal abiogenic
In the Messoyakha field the cumulative gas production origin of petroleum all gas hydrate and free natural gas
is equal to 12.2 1012 m3 of methane, including 6.5 accumulations were formed because of ‘‘one worldwide
22 of 30
act,’’ i.e., an upward vertical migration of abyssal abiogenic ethane, and some higher hydrocarbons can be naturally and
mantle fluid through all the faults, fractures, and pores of nonbiogenically generated below the sea bottom along the
rocks and sea bottom sediments. In that time, not more than mid-ocean ridges. There are numerous hot hydrothermal
200 kyr ago, those faults, fractures, and pores were trans- vents flowing with superheated fluids into seawater along
formed by a supercritical geofluid (mixture of supercritical the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The hydrocarbons (methane, eth-
water and methane) into a conducting/accumulating/inter- ane, and propane) can arise to the surface of minerals rich in
communicating media. Acting as natural ‘‘hydrofracturing,’’ iron and chrome, according to the CO2 + H2 reaction at a
the abyssal geofluid has opened up cavities of cleavage and temperature of more than 371.4°C and pressure of 41.5 MPa
interstices of bedding in rocks and sediments as well. [Fischer, 2005].
According to Dillon et al. [1993] the vertical migration of
natural gas still takes place today on the Atlantic continental 15. PETROLEUM POTENTIAL OF THE EARTH’S
margin of the United States. Along many faults there the MANTLE
natural gas continues to migrate upward through the com-
bustible ice as through a ‘‘sieve’’ that is distinctly seen as [117] How large are the petroleum resources of the
torch-shaped vertical strips in the blanking of seismographic Earth’s mantle? Giardini et al. [1982] studied primary fluid
records. inclusions and solid mineral inclusions in natural diamonds
[114] The proven natural gas reserves of the world are of Africa, Brazil, and Arkansas, United States, and arrived
equal to 175 1012 m3 [Oil and Gas Journal, 2006m]. This at the following conclusions:
is 85,000 – 95,000 times less than the global resources of [118] 1. About 52% of the gas phase volume in those
methane hydrate and its underlaying free natural gas. In inclusions consists of petroleum-forming materials such as
2006 the annual world production of natural gas was equal H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, etc.
to 2836 109 m3 [Oil and Gas Journal, 2007b]. So the [119] 2. The average composition of the gas phase of
global reserves of methane hydrate together with the global primary fluid inclusions in diamonds from Zaire (% mass) is
reserves of free natural gas underlaying the methane hydrate as follows: H2O, 69.6; CO2, 20.5; CH4, 4.7; CO, 3.0; Ne,
will be enough for the next 5 – 6 Myr if consumption is kept 1.2; H2S, 1.0; and Ar, 0.2, as well as traces of C2H4, C3H6,
at the present rate. C4H8, and C4H10.
[120] 3. The carbon isotope composition of diamonds and
14. ETHANE AND PROPANE ACCUMULATIONS IN CO2 in the primary fluid inclusions indicates that diamonds
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS and hydrocarbon substances are the products of transfor-
mation of the C-H-O system in the Earth’s mantle. The
[115] There are some new discoveries which could be depth of diamond formation varies from 70 to 370 km,
taken into consideration as evidence for the theory of the while the diamond formation media are partially the melted
abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum. One of the most silicates containing H and C. Petroleum source materials are
interesting pieces of evidence is a discovery of ethane and supposed to be concentrated in the topmost part of the
propane accumulations in sedimentary rocks and sediments. Earth’s upper mantle.
So due to the Ocean Drilling Program [Fischer, 2006] the [121] 4. For the last 3 Myr, 3 106 t of nonbiogenic
drill cores were taken off the Peruvian coast in the 396.5 m hydrocarbons have been outgassed through every square
deep sediment using the research drilling vessel JOIDES kilometer of the Earth’s surface. As a result, the Earth’s
Resolution. A team of researchers has found ethane and abyssal interior has lost 1016 t of hydrocarbons, while its
propane accumulations in the core samples. The carbon residual resources of nonbiogenic petroleum are equal to
isotope compositions are markedly different from the ther- 1015 t in the Earth’s subcrustal region [Giardini et al.,
mogenic gases formed at high temperatures [Fischer, 2006]. 1982].
[116] An ethane deposit was also found in the sedimen- [122] The data published by Giardini et al. [1974, 1982],
tary rocks of the Ross Sea, Antarctica. In the deep (400 – Giardini and Melton [1975], Melton and Giardini [1974,
1000 m) water part of the sea there are three great sedi- 1975], Mitchell and Giardini [1977], and Musatov and
mentary basins: Eastern, Central, and Victoria Land. They Mezhelovski [1982] indicate that the African, Arkansas,
strike from the north to the south and are related to the and Navajo kimberlites contain 2356 – 9187 g/t of hydro-
tensional deformation belt between East and West Antarc- carbons. According to Harris et al. [1997] and Makeev and
tica. This belt comprises the Upper Cretaceous and younger Ivanukh [2004], there are diamonds in the Earth’s lower
sedimentary rocks in a total thickness of 5 –6 km. In the mantle too.
deeper parts these three basins are separated from each other [123] It is possible to consider that the whole mantle of
with the uplifted and eroded ridges of basement rocks. In the Earth is a diamond-bearing and petroliferous substance.
the Ross Sea region the crude oil is not known, but the well The mass of the mantle according to Markhinin [1985] is
drilled here under the auspices of the Deep Sea Drilling 4.05 1021 t. So looking at the total concentration (2356–
Project has flowed with ethane [Cooper and Davey, 1986]. 9187 g/t) of hydrocarbons in kimberlites, the petroleum
A pure ethane deposit might not be generated from the potential of the Earth’s whole mantle is measured to be
organic materials. Where did it come from? Scientists from in the range of 95 1017 to 372 1017 t. This result
the Minnesota State University established that methane, corresponds to the data from U.S. Geological Survey [Oil
23 of 30
and Gas Journal, 1999c], where it was estimated that the American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin (1953),
global resources of methane are equal to 113 1017 m3 in Discussion of fractured reservoir subjects, 37(2), 314 – 330.
Anderson, D. L. (1989), Composition of the Earth, Science, 243,
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Anderson, R. N. (1993), Recovering dynamic Gulf of Mexico
reserves and the U.S. energy futurev, Oil Gas J., 91(17), 85 – 92.
16. CONCLUSIONS
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Reservoirs in fractured basement on the continental shelf of
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[125] ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Part of this research is sup- Belov, K. A., V. G. Vasiliyev, N. D. Elin, N. S. Yerofeev, and S. T.
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DEEP-SEATED ABIOGENIC ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM:

1. INTRODUCTION [3] For the historical perspective on the debate surround-

Figure 1. A scheme of petroleum deposit formation.

diamonds in kimberlite ejecta in the crust of the Earth.)

Figure 3. General view of BARS apparatus.

Experiment Details CH4 C2H6/C2H4 C3H8/C3H6 C4H10/C4H8 H2 O2 CO2

Previous experiment, CaCO3 + FeO + H2O, 155 4.9 0 0 0.1 0 0

TABLE 5. Parameters of the Biggest and Petroleum Productive Impact Craters

Impact Crater Country Age (Ma) Diameter (km)

Akreman (onshore) Australia 600 100

TABLE 6. Oil- and Gas-Producing Buried Volcanoes

Country Volcano Source of Information

Azerbaijan Agdam-Khatchintchai, Borsunlu, Dalmamedly, Y. G. Shakhghildyan (unpublished manuscript, 1985) and

Deposit Country Proven Reserves

Achak (gas field) Turkmenistan 155 109 m3

Deposit, Country Depth (m) Proven Reserves

Bastian Bay (gas field), United States 4,880 102 109 m3

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