Oswaal CBSE Chapterwise Quick Review, BIOLOGY, Class-XII [ 63

 Rhizobium
• It is a symbiotic bacteria found in root nodules of leguminous plants that fixes atmospheric N2.
• Free-living bacteria in the soil such as Azospirillum and Azotobacter enrich the nitrogen content of the soil.
 Mycorrhiza
• It is a symbiotic association of fungi (e.g. the genus of Glomus) with the roots of higher plants.
• The fungus gets food from the plant.
• The fungal symbiont help to absorb phosphorous from soil and passes it to the plant, give resistance to root-
borne pathogens and tolerance, to salinity and drought and also gives an overall increase in plant growth and
development.
 Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae) :
• They are autotrophic microbes that fixes atmospheric nitrogen. e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, etc.
• In paddy fields, Cyanobacteria serve as an important biofertilisers.
• It also adds organic matter to the soil and increases its fertility.

Know the Terms

 BOD : Biochemical oxygen Demand
 KVIC : Khadi and Village Industries Commission
 GAP : Ganga Action Plan
 LAB : Lactic acid Bacteria
 YAP : Yamuna Action Plan
 STPs : Sewage Treatment Plants
 IPM : Integrated Pest Management
 IPM : Integrated Pest Management
 Primary sewage treatment: It is a mechanical process involving the removal of coarse solid materials.
 Secondary sewage treatment: It is a biological process involving the action of microbes.
 Flocs: They are masses of bacteria associated with fungal filaments to form mesh-like structures.
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the method of determining the amount of oxygen required by
microorganisms to decompose the waste present in the water supply.
 Biocontrol: It refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests.
 Biopesticides: The biological agent which are used to control weeds, insects and pathogen are called biopesticides.
 Methanogens: Micro-organisms that produce methane along with CO2 and H2 under anaerobic conditions are
called methanogens.
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UNIT - IX : Biotechnology and its Application

Chapter - 11 : Biotechnology: Principles and Processes

TOPIC-1
Principles of Biotechnology and Tools of Recombinant
DNA Technology

Quick Review
Introduction
 Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or their enzymes for products and processes useful
to humans.
 The term biotechnology was given by Karl Ereky (1919).
 The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines Biotechnology as ‘the integration of natural science
and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services’.
 Biotechnology deals with :
• Microbe-mediated processes (making curd, bread, wine etc).
• In vitro fertilisation (‘test-tube’ baby programme)

 • Synthesis and using of a gene
• Preparation of a DNA vaccine
• Correcting a defective gene
Principles of Biotechnology
The two core techniques of modern biotechnology are :
(a) Genetic engineering : The technique in which the genetic material (DNA and RNA) is chemically altered and
introduced into host organisms to change the phenotype is known as genetic engineering.
(b) Maintenance of sterile ambience : It is necessary in chemical engineering processes for growing only the desired
microbe / eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.
 Traditional hybridisation techniques lead to inclusion and multiplication of undesirable genes along with desired
genes.
 Genetic engineering helps to isolate and introduce only desirable genes into the target organism.
 A piece of DNA is not able to multiply itself in the progeny cells of the organism. But, when it gets integrated into
the recipient genome, it multiplies and inherits along with the host DNA.
 First recombinant DNA was emerged from the possibility of linking a gene of antibiotic resistance with a native
plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium. Plasmid is an autonomously replicating circular extra chromosomal DNA.
 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer (1972) constructed first recombinant DNA. They isolated the antibiotic
resistance gene by cutting out a piece of DNA from a plasmid.
Steps in Genetically Modifying an Organism
 There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism :
(a) Identification of DNA with desirable genes
(b) Introduction of the identified DNA into the host
(c) Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny.
TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
1. Restriction Enzymes (‘molecular scissors’)
 The restriction enzymes are called molecular scissors and are responsible for cutting DNA.
 In 1963, two enzymes responsible for restricting the growth of bacteriophage in E. coli were isolated. One of these
added methyl groups to DNA. The other (restriction endonuclease) cut DNA.
 The first restriction endonuclease is Hind II. Isolated by Smith, Wileox and Kelley (1968) from Haemophilus
influenzae bacterium. It always cuts DNA molecules at a particular point by recognizing a specific sequence of six
base pairs. This is known as the recognition sequence for Hind II.
 Today more than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria.
Naming of the restriction enzymes
 First letter indicates genus and the second two letters indicate species of the prokaryotic cell from which they
were isolated. e.g. EcoRI comes from E. coli RY 13, where R = the strain, Roman numbers = the order in which the
enzymes were isolated from that strain of bacteria.
 Restriction enzymes belong to a class of enzymes called nucleases.
 The nucleases include exonucleases and endonucleases.
(i) Exonucleases
They remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA.
(ii) Endonucleases
 They cut at specific positions within the DNA.
 Each restriction endonuclease can bind to specific recognition sequence of the DNA and cut each of the two
strands at specific points in their sugar-phosphate backbones.
 Each restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific palindromic nucleotide sequences in the DNA.
 The palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs that read the same on the two strands in 5’ → 3’ direction and
in 3’ → 5’ direction. e.g.
5’  GAATTC  3’
3’  CTTAAG  5’
 Restriction enzymes cut the strand a little away from the centre of the palindrome sites, but between the same
two bases on the opposite strands. This leaves single stranded overhanging stretches at the ends. They are called
sticky ends.
 They form H-bonds with their complementary cut counterparts. This stickiness facilitates action of the enzyme
DNA ligase.
 When cut by the same restriction enzyme, the resultant DNA fragments have the same kind of sticky-ends and
these are joined together by the enzyme DNA ligases.
Separation and isolation of DNA fragments :
 DNA fragments formed by restriction endonucleases can be separated by a technique called gel electrophoresis.
 DNA fragments are negatively charged. So, they can be separated by moving them towards the anode under an
electric field through a medium/matrix such as agarose (which a natural polymer of D-galactose and 3, 6 anhydro
L-galactose and which is extracted from sea weeds).
  The DNA fragments separate (resolve) according to their size through sieving effect provided by the agarose gel.
 The smaller sized fragments move farther.
 The separated DNA fragments can be visualized after staining the DNA with ethidium bromide followed by
exposure to UV radiation. Bright orange coloured DNA bands can be seen.
 The separated DNA bands are cut out from agarose gel and extracted from gel piece. This step is called elution.
 These purified DNA fragments are used in constructing recombinant DNA by joining them with cloning vectors.
2. Cloning Vectors
 They are the DNA molecules that can carry a foreign DNA segment and replicate inside the host cells. E.g.
Plasmids (circular extra-chromosomal DNA of bacteria) and bacteriophages.
 Bacteriophages (high number per cell) have very high copy numbers of their genome within the bacterial cells.
 Some plasmids have only 1-2 copies per cell. Others may have 15-100 copies per cell.
 When the cloning vectors are multiplied in the host the linked piece of DNA is also multiplied to the numbers
equal to the copy number of the vectors.
Features of cloning vector :
(a) Origin of replication (ori)
 This is a DNA sequence from where replication starts. A piece of DNA linked to ori can replicate within the
host cells. This also controls the copy number of the linked DNA. So, for getting many copies of the target
DNA it should be cloned in a vector whose origin support high copy number.
(b) Selectable marker (marker gene)
 It helps to select the transformants and eliminate the non-transformants.
 Transformation is a procedure in which a piece of DNA is introduced in a host bacterium.
 Selectable markers of E. coli include the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin, etc.
 The normal E. coli cells do not carry resistance against any of these antibiotics.
(c) Cloning sites
 In order to link the alien DNA, the vector needs very few recognition sites for restriction enzymes.
 Presence of more than one recognition sites generates several fragments, which complicates the gene cloning.
 The ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance
genes.
 E.g. ligation of a foreign DNA at the Bam HI site of tetracycline resistance gene in the vector pBR322.
 The recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due to insertion of foreign DNA. But, they can be
selected out from non-recombinant ones by plating the transformants on ampicillin containing medium.
 Then, these transformants are transferred on tetracycline medium.
 The recombinants grow in ampicillin medium but not on tetracycline medium.
 But, non-recombinants will grow on the medium containing both the antibiotics.
 In this case, one antibiotic resistance gene helps to select the transformants, whereas the other antibiotic
resistance gene gets inactivated due to insertion of alien DNA, and helps in selection of recombinants.
 Selection of recombinants due to inactivation of antibiotics requires simultaneous plating on two plates
having different antibiotics.
 Therefore, alternative selectable markers have developed to differentiate recombinants from non-
recombinants on the basis of their ability to produce colour in the presence of a chromogenic substrate.
 A recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence of an enzyme, a-galactosidase. So, the enzyme is
inactivated. It is called insertional inactivation. Such colonies do not produce any colour. These are identified
as recombinant colonies.
 If the plasmid in bacteria do not have any insert it gives blue coloured colonies in presence of chromogenic
substrate.
(d) Vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals
 Genetic tools of some pathogens can be transformed into useful vectors for delivering genes to plants and
animals. E.g. Agrobacterium tumefaciens (a pathogen of many dicot plants) can deliver a piece of DNA (T-DNA)
to transform normal plant cells into a tumor.
 These tumor cells produce the chemicals required by the pathogen.
 The tumor inducing (Ti) plasmid of A. tumefaciens is modified into a cloning vector which is not pathogenic
to the plants but is able to use the mechanisms to deliver genes of interest into plants.
 Retroviruses in animals can transform normal cells into cancerous cells. So, they are used to deliver desirable
genes into animal cells.
3. Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA)
 DNA is a hydrophilic molecule. So it cannot pass through cell membranes.
 To avoid this problem, bacterial cells are treated with a specific concentration of a divalent cation (e.g. calcium),
so as to increase the pore size in the cell wall.
 So, DNA enters the bacterium through pores in cell wall. Such cells are incubated with recombinant DNA on
ice.
 They are then placed briefly at 42°C (heat shock) and then put them back on ice. This enables the bacteria to
take up the recombinant DNA.
Other methods to introduce alien DNA into host cells :
(a) Micro-injection : In this, recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
(b) Biolistics (gene gun) method : In this, cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten
coated with DNA. This method is suitable for plants.
(c) ‘Disarmed pathogen’ vectors : These vectors, when infect the cell, transfer the recombinant DNA into the host.

TOPIC-2
Process of Recombinant DNA Technology
Quick Review
1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)
• To get pure DNA (free from other macro-molecules), the bacterial cells/plant or animal tissue are treated with
enzymes such as lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase (plant cells), chitinase (fungus), etc.
• The cell is broken to release DNA along with other macro-molecules (RNA,proteins, polysaccharides and lipids).
• Genes (DNA) are interwined with proteins such as histones.
• RNA is removed by treating with ribonuclease.
• Proteins are removed by treatment with protease.
• Other molecules are removed by appropriate treatments.
• When chilled ethanol is added, purified DNA precipitates out as a collection of fine threads in the suspension.
2. Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations
• Restriction enzyme digestions are performed by incubating purified DNA with the restriction enzyme, at the
optimal conditions.
3. Isolation of derived DNA fragments.
• Agarose gel electrophoresis is employed to check the progression of a restriction enzyme digestion. As DNA
is negatively charged, it moves towards the anode. The process is repeated with the vector DNA also.
• After cutting the source DNA and the vector DNA, the cut out gene (DNA segment) of interest from the
source DNA and the cut vector are mixed and ligase is added.
• This creates recombinant DNA.
4. Amplification of Gene of Interest Using PCR
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is the synthesis of multiple copies of the gene of interest in vitro using two
sets of primers and the enzyme DNA polymerase.
• The technique was developed by Kary Mullis in 1985 and for this he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1993.
• Primers are small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA.
• The enzyme extends the primers using the nucleotides and the genomic DNA (template).
• For amplification a thermostable DNA polymerase (isolated from a Thermophilic bacterium, Thermus
aquaticus) is used.
• It remains active at high temperature during the denaturation of double stranded DNA.
• Source DNA and vector DNA are cut with the same endonuclease so as to obtain the sticky ends.
• These are then ligated by mixing the gene of interest vector DNA in presence of the enzyme DNA ligase to
form recombinant DNA.
• The amplified fragment can be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning.
5. Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the Host Cell/Organism
• There are several methods of introducing the ligated DNA into recipient cells.
• Recipient cells take up DNA present in its surrounding.
• If a recombinant DNA bearing ampicillin resistant gene (a selectable marker gene) is transferred into E. coli
cells,the host cells become ampicillin-resistant cells.
• If the transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ampicillin, only transformants will grow,
untransformed recipient cells will die.
6. Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product
• The ultimate aim of recombinant DNA technology is to produce a desirable protein.
• The foreign gene gets expressed under appropriate conditions.
• If a protein encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host, it is called a recombinant protein.
• The cells with foreign genes may be grown on a small scale in the laboratory.
• The cultures may be used to extract the desired protein and purified using different separation techniques.
 • The cells can also be multiplied on large scale in a continuous culture system.
• Here, the used medium is drained out from one side while fresh medium is added from the other.
• It maintains the cells more physiologically active and so produces a larger biomass leading to higher yields of
desired protein.
 Bioreactors
• To produce large quantities of products, the bioreactors are used where large volumes (100-1000 litres) of culture
can be processed.
• Bioreactors are the vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific products, enzymes etc.,
using microbial plant, animal or human cells.
• A bioreactor provides the optimal growth conditions (temperature, pH, substrate, salts, vitamins, oxygen) for
achieving the desired product.
• There are two types of bioreactors namely,
(a) Simple stirred-tank bioreactor
(b) Sparged stirred-tank bioreactor
• The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type.
 Stirred-tank Reactor
• It is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate the proper mixing of the reacting contents.
• The stirrer facilitates even mixing and oxygen availability throughout the bioreactor.
• Alternatively, air can be bubbled through the reactor.
• The bioreactor has
(a) An agitator system
(b) An oxygen delivery system
(c) A foam control system
(d) A temperature control system
(e) pH control system
(f) Sampling ports (for periodic withdrawal of the culture)
(g) The contents are mixed by stirrer. This makes the oxygen available throughout the bioreactor.
7. Downstream Processing : All the processes to which the product is subjected to before being marketed as a final
and finished product are called as downstream processing.
• It includes a series of processes such as separation and purification of products after the biosynthetic stage.
• The product is formulated with suitable preservatives.
• Such formulation undergoes through clinical trials as in case of drugs.
• Strict quality control testing for each product is also required.
• The downstream processing and quality control testing vary from product to product.

Know the Terms

 Genetic engineering : Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA), to introduce these
into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
 Restriction enzymes : Enzymes that are used to cut DNA segment at a specific site are called restriction enzymes.
 Exonucleases : Remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA molecule.
 Endonucleases : Make cuts at specific positions within the DNA molecule.
 Plasmid : Autonomously replicating circular extra-chromosomal DNA of any bacteria.
 Origin of replication : A specific DNA sequence which is responsible for initiating replication is called origin of
replication.
 Vectors : These are plasmid DNA or viruses that act as vehicle to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it.
 Palindromic Nucleotide Sequences : The palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs that reads same on the
two strands when orientation of reading is kept the same.
 Gel electrophoresis : A technique which is used to separate the fragments of DNA is known as gel electrophoresis.
 Transformation : It is a procedure through which a piece of DNA is introduced in a host bacterium.
 Insertional inactivation : The procedure of inserting a recombinant DNA within coding sequence of a functional
gene which makes that gene inactive (unable to express) is called insertional inactivation.
 Selectable Marker : The gene encoding desirable information useful in identifying and eliminating non-
transformants and selectively permitting the growth of the transformants is called selectable marker.
 Micro-injection : A technique in which recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal’s cell.
 Biolistics or Gene gun : Plant cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated
with DNA in a method known as biolistics or gene gun.
 Bioreactors : Bioreactors are vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific products,
enzymes, etc., using microbial plants, animal or human cells.
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 Chapter - 12 : Biotechnology and its Application

TOPIC-1
Application of Biotechnology in Agriculture and
Medicine

Quick Review
• Biotechnology essentially deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals using genetically modified
microbes, fungi, plants and animals.
• The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, and genetically modified crops for agriculture,
processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
• Three critical research areas of biotechnology are :
(a) Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism usually a microbe or pure enzyme.
(b) Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
(c) Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.
 Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture
• Three options for increasing food production
(a) Agro-chemical based agriculture
(b) Organic agriculture
(c) Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture
• The Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food supply.
• Increased yields have partly been due to the use of improved crop varieties, but mainly due to the use of better
management practices and use of agrochemicals (fertilisers and pesticides).
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) or transgenic organisms are the plants, bacteria, fungi and animals
whose genes are altered by manipulation.
 Advantages of Genetic Modification in Plants
(a) It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold,drought, salt, heat etc).
(b) It helps to reduce post-harvest losses.
(c) It increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil).
(d) It enhances nutritional value of food. e.g. Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.
(e) GM is used to create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of starches,
fuels and pharmaceuticals.
 Pest Resistant Plants
• Pest Resistant Plants reduce the use of chemical pesticide.
• It reduces the need for insecticides. e.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato, soyabean etc.
 Bt Cotton
• Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill insects like coleopterans (beetles), lepidopterans
(tobacco, budworm, armyworm) and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
• B. thuringiensis forms a toxic insecticidal protein (Bt toxin) crystal during a particular phase of their growth. It does
not kill the Bacillus as it exists as inactive protoxins.
• When an insect ingests the inactive toxin, it is converted into active toxin due to the alkaline pH of the gut which
solubilise the crystals.
• The toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and creates pores.
• It causes cells to swell and undergo lysis and ultimately leading to the death of the insect.
• Bt toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis and incorporated into crop plants such as cotton.
• Most Bt toxins are insect-group specific.
• The toxin is coded by a gene named cry. e.g. the proteins encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the
cotton bollworms and that of cryI Ab controls corn borer.
 Nematode resistance in tobacco plant
• A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in yield.
• RNA interference (RNAi) strategy is used to prevent this infestation.
• RNAi is a method of cellular defense in all eukaryotic organisms.
• It prevents translation of a specific mRNA (silencing) due to a complementary dsRNA molecule.
• The source of this complementary RNA is from an infection by RNA viruses or mobile genetic elements
(transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
• Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes (DNA) were introduced into the host plant.
• It produces both sense and anti-sense RNA in host cells.
• These two RNA’s being complementary to each other form a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi
and thus,silenced the specific mRNA of nematode.
• Thus, the parasite cannot survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.
 Biotechnological Applications in Medicine
• The recombinant DNA technology helps for the mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
• The recombinant therapeutics does not induce unwanted immunological responses as is common in case of
similar products isolated from non-human sources.
• At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human-use in the would including India.
• In India, 12 of these are presently being marketed.
 Genetically Engineered Insulin
• The management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at
regular time intervals.
• Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using bacteria.
• Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle and pigs) causes allergy or
other types of reactions to the foreign protein.
• Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chain A and chain B)
that are linked together by disulphide bridges.
• In mammals, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone.
• The pro-hormone needs processing before it becomes a fully mature and functional hormone.
• The pro-hormone contains an extra stretch called the C peptide.
• This is removed during maturation into insulin.
• In 1983, Eli Lily an American company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B chains of human
insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
• The chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form
human insulin.
 Gene Therapy :
• It is a method to correct a gene defect diagnosed in a child/embryo.
• Here, genes are inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a hereditary disease.
• It compensates for the non-functional gene.
• First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a four year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
• The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for Adenosine deaminase (the enzyme crucial for the
immune system to function).
• This can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or by enzyme replacement therapy (injection of functional
ADA). But these approaches are not completely curative.
• In gene therapy, lymphocytes from the patient’s blood are grown in a culture.
• Then, a functional ADA cDNA(using a retroviral vector) is introduced into these lymphocytes.
• Then, they are returned to the patient.
• This should be periodically repeated as these cells are not immortal.
• However, if the ADA gene (from bone marrow cells) is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could be
a permanent cure.
 Molecular Diagnosis
• Recombinant DNA technology, PCR and Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some techniques
for early diagnosis.
• The presence of a pathogen is normally suspected only when the pathogen has produced a symptom.
 • By this time, the concentration of pathogen will be already very high in the body.
• However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by
PCR.
• PCR is used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients.
• It is also used to detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients.
• It is a powerful technique to identify many other genetic disorders.
• A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridise to its
complementary DNA in a clone of cells followed by detection using autoradiography.
• The clone having the mutated gene will hence not appear on the photographic film, because the probe will not
have complementarity with the mutated gene.
• ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
• Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting
the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen.

TOPIC-2
Transgenic Animals and Bioethical Issues

Quick Review
 Transgenic Animals
• These are the animals whose genome has been altered by introduction of an extra (foreign) gene by manipulation.
E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
• Over 95% of all existing transgenic animals are mice.
 Advantages or Benefits of Transgenic Animals
• To study normal physiology and development :
(a) Transgenic animals are used to study how genes are regulated, and how they affect the normal body functions
and its development.
(b) E.g. study of complex factors such as insulin-like growth factor. Genes (from other species) that alter the
formation of this factor are introduced and the biological effects are studied. This gives information about the
biological role of the factor in the body.
• To Study the contribution of genes in the development of a disease :
(a) Transgenic models help for investigation of new treatments for human diseases.
(b) E.g. transgenic models for many human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and
Alzheimer’s.
• Biological products :
(a) Some medicines contain biological products, but they are often expensive.
(b) Transgenic animals are used to produce useful biological products by introducing genes which codes for a
particular product. e.g. human protein ( -1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema, products for treatment of
phenylketonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis etc.
(c) In 1997, Rosie (first transgenic cow) produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 gm per litre).
(d) It contains the human alpha-lactalbumin and is nutritionally more balanced product for human babies than
natural cow-milk.
• Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice are being developed and used in testing the safety of vaccines before
they are used for humans. Polio vaccine is tested in mice.
• Chemical safety testing (toxicity testing) : Transgenic animals are made to know the effect of toxic chemicals.
This is also known as toxicity/safety testing.
 Ethical Issues
• Problem of unpredictable results
(a) Genetic modification may cause unpredictable results when such organisms are introduced into the
ecosystem.
(b) Therefore, Indian Government has set up organizations like GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval
Committee), which makes decisions about the validity of GM research and the safety of GM-organisms for
public services.
 • Problems of patent
(a) Certain companies have got patents for products and technologies that make use of the genetic materials,
plants etc that have been identified, developed and used by farmers and indigenous people of a specific
country.
(b) E.g. Basmati rice, herbal medicines like turmeric, neem etc.
(c) Basmati rice has unique aroma and flavour.
(d) India has 27 varieties of Basmati.
(e) In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark
Office.
(f) This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati which had actually been derived from Indian
farmer’s varieties.
(g) Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as a novelty.
(h) Other people selling Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent.
• Biopiracy :
(a) It is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other organizations without proper authorization
from the countries and people concerned.

Know the Terms

 ELISA : Enzyme linked immunosorbent Assay.
 GEAC : Genetic Engineering Approval committee.
 ADA : Adenosine deaminase deficiency. This enzyme is crucial for the functioning of the immune system.
 Probe : A probe is a piece of single-stranded DNA that is tagged with a radioactive molecule.
 Vaccines : It is a liquid containing dead or attenuated pathogen or it is an antigen that provides temporary or
permanent immunity to a disease.
 Transgenic animals : Animals that have their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra or a foreign gene
are known as transgenic animals.
 Biopatent : A patent is the right granted by a government to an inventor to prevent others from commercially
using his invention. When patents are granted for biological entities and for products derived from them, these
patents are called biopatents.
 Biopiracy : Some organizations and multinational companies exploit biological resources or bioresources of other
nations, without proper authorization from the countries concerned. This is called biopiracy.
 SCID : Severe Combined Immuno-deficiency. It is caused by a defect in the gene for the enzyme adenosine
deaminase (ADA).
 GMO : Genetically modified organisms.
 RNAi : RNA Interference.