Advancing Banana and Plantain R&D in Asia and The Pacific - Vol. 11

Advancing banana and
plantain R&D in Asia

and the Pacific - Vol. 11
Proceedings of the 1st BAPNET Steering Committee
∼
meeting held in Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines,
7-10 October 2002
A.B. Molina, J.E. Eusebio, V.N. Roa, I. Van den Bergh

and M.A.G. Maghuyop, editors
The mission of the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain
(INIBAP) is to sustainably increase the productivity of banana and plantain grown on smallholdings
for domestic consumption and for local and export markets.
The programme has four specific objectives:
To organize and coordinate a global research effort on banana and plantain, aimed at the
development, evaluation and dissemination of improved banana cultivars and at the conservation
and use of Musa diversity.
To promote and strengthen collaboration and partnerships in banana-related activities at the
national, regional and global levels.
To strengthen the ability of NARS to conduct research and development activities on bananas and
plantains.
To coordinate, facilitate and support the production, collection and exchange of information and
documentation related to banana and plantain.
INIBAP is a programme of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), a Future
Harvest center.
The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international
scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for
the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of the 16 Future Harvest Centres supported
by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public
and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and
proverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its
headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide.
The Institute operates through three programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2)
the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme and (3) the International Network for the
Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP).
The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January
2003, had been signed and ratified by the Governments of Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Benin,
Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cyprus,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel,
Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritania, Morocco, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda
and Ukraine.
Financial support for IPGRI’s research is provided by more than 150 donors, including governments,
private foundations and international organizations. For details of donors and research activities
please see IPGRI’s Annual Reports, which are available in printed form on request from ipgri-
[email protected] or from IPGRI’s Web site (www.ipgri.cgiar.org).
The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do
not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRI or the CGIAR concerning
the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the views of these organizations.
Mention of a propriety name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for
information.
Cover: (Clockwise) Bananas transported in jeepneys; Filipino banana backyard farmer with his
family; Bananas transported in a carabao-driven cart; Popular bananas in the Philippines - Bungulan,
Latundan, Saba, Lakatan and Señorita.
Citation: Molina A.B., J.E. Eusebio V.N. Roa, I. Van den Bergh and M.A.G. Maghuyop, editors.
2003. Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific - Vol. 11. Proceedings of the
1st BAPNET Steering Committee meeting held in Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 7-10 October
2002. International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain - Asia Pacific, Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines.
INIBAP ISSN 1729-0805
© International Plant Genetic Resources Institute 2003.
IPGRI Headquarters INIBAP INIBAP-AP
Via dei Tre Denari 472/a Parc Scientifique Agropolis II c/o IRRI, GS Khush Hall
00057 Maccarese 34397 Montpellier Cedex 5 Los Baños, Laguna 4031
Italy France Philippines
Advancing banana and
plantain R&D in Asia
and the Pacific - Vol. 11
Proceedings of the 1st BAPNET Steering Committee

meeting held in Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines,
7-10 October 2002
A.B. Molina, J.E. Eusebio, V.N. Roa, I. Van den Bergh

and M.A.G. Maghuyop, editors
ii
Acknowledg
Acknowledgement
knowledgement
Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET) is grateful to all participants of

the 1 st BAPNET Steering Committee for their contribution to this
proceedings.
BAPNET would like to thank:
• Its local partners in the Philippines, the Philippine Council for

Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and
Development (PCARRD) of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) and the Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR)
of the Department of Agriculture (DA), for having provided the staff
support and local arrangements that ensured the meeting’s success
under the able leadership of Dr Patricio S. Faylon, Executive Director,
PCARRD, and Dr Eliseo Ponce, Director, BAR;
• The Crop Research Division of PCARRD headed by Dr Jocelyn E.
Eusebio, Director, for technical and logistics support during the
meeting;
• A.B. Molina, J.E. Eusebio, V.N. Roa, I. Van den Bergh and M.A.G.
Maghuyop for their conscientious work as editors of the proceedings;
• V.N. Roa who undertook the style editing, layout and design of the
proceedings.
Editorial Note
Some references have been submitted without complete publishing data. They
may thus lack the full names of journals and/or the place of publication and
the publisher. Should readers have difficulty in identifying particular references,
staff at INIBAP-AP will be glad to assist.
iii
Contents
Workshop recommendations 3
Opening ceremonies
Welcome remarks
Dr Patricio S. Faylon 9
Sec Estrella F. Alabastro 11
Mr Nicomedes P. Eleazar 15
Dr Agustin B. Molina 17
Country Reports
Banana industry status and R&D update in Australia
Mr Robert Williams 21
The banana industry status in Bangladesh
Dr Md. Shahidul Islam 63
An overview of the production and banana research in Cambodia
Dr Men Sarom 71
Production and banana R&D in China
Dr Xu Linbing 77
Status of banana industry in India
Dr M.M. Mustaffa 81
Current status of banana R&D in Indonesia
Dr Ika Djatnika 93
Banana industry and R&D in Malaysia
Dr Nik Mohd. Masdek Nik Hassan 99
The Philippine banana industry: Status and prospects
Dr Jocelyn E. Eusebio 107
Status of banana R&D, production and consumption in PNG
Mrs Rosa N. Kambuou 125
Present status of banana cultivation in Sri Lanka
Dr Chandrasiri Kudagamage 139
Banana in Thailand
Dr Prasert Anupunt 149
Update on banana R&D in Vietnam
Dr Ho Huu Nhi 155
Banana R&D in the Pacific
Mr Tom Osborn 165
Somaclonal variation approach to breeding Cavendish banana
for resistance to fusarium wilt race 4
Dr Shin-Chuan Hwang 173
iv
INIBAP programs and technical presentations

The Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET): A platform
for Musa R&D colaboration
Dr Agustin B. Molina 187
Musa diversity in Southeast Asia - An analysis of data
Ms Suzanne Sharrock 191
Preliminary analysis of the Musa Germplasm Information
System data for Southeast Asia using the Geographical
Information System Software DIVA-GIS
Ms Suzanne Sharrock 201
Using GIS to support germplasm conservation and use 209
Dr Luigi Guarino
Appendixes
Appendix 1: Programme of the 1st BAPNET Steering
Committee meeting 213
Appendix 2: 1st BAPNET Steering Committee meeting
participants 217
Appendix 3: Awards given during the meeting 223
Appendix 4: List of acronyms and abbreviations 229
Workshop R
ork ecommenda
Recommendations
ecommendations
Workshop recommendations
After the presentations of country reports by each member
representatives, a workshop was conducted. This workshop provided
the venue to exchange opinions and formulate specific regional
programs and activities of BAPNET based on the needs and priorities
of the national agricultural research systems of each member country.
It was emphasized that the role of BAPNET is to coordinate the

network information sharing, arrange for identified training needs
and coordinate technical advice from within the region. At the national
level, the projects identified will complement with each member
country proposed R&D plans and ongoing activities.
The priority research programs identified were as follows:

Sustainable cr
Sustainab op mana
crop managgement systems
systems
- Integrated pest management
• Conduct surveys and mapping of pests and diseases in Asia Pacific
particularly on viruses and the various Mycosphaerella leaf spot
diseases.
• Develop IPM technologies for important diseases (fusarium wilt,
sigatoka, viruses, moko).
• Conduct basic research on selected pests (leaf roller, scab, bacterial
wilt, fusarium wilt).
• Identify natural defence mechanisms against pests and diseases.
• Develop diagnostic tools for banana viruses.
- Integrated farming systems
• Identify various banana cropping systems (i.e. annual cropping,
intercropping, crop rotation).
• Determine ways to improve cropping system.
• Conduct trials under farmers’ field.
- Integrated nutrient and water management
• Identify proper nutrient and water management systems and
evaluate crop performance. This includes use of both organic and
inorganic fertilizers.
• Determine ways to improve current systems.
• Conduct trials under farmers’ field.
Genetic diversity management, development and utilization
- Collection and conservation
• Establish strategies for regional conservation/use
4 Advancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the P
Adv acif
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• Collect, survey and map wild species.

• Develop regional core collections.
- Characterization and evaluation
• Identify useful germplasm for farmers’ use.
• Screen for pest and disease resistance.
• Evaluate for high yield.
• Publish variety catalogues.
- Germplasm improvement
• Develop new varieties with high yield, resistance to pests and
diseases and tolerance to drought/waterlogging.
• Conduct genetic transformation studies.
- Germplasm multiplication and exchange
• Exchange, multiplication and dissemination of improved cultivars.
• Strengthen disease indexing and quarantine capability.
• Develop improved propagation techniques.
• Formulate policies and guidelines on germplasm exchange.
Supply chain management
• Conduct regional inventory of banana products and uses to
determine how products can be improved and identify possible
markets.
• Conduct national survey on postharvest handling and technologies
to determine improved practices.
• Conduct field trials employing improved technologies under farmers’
field.
Human resources development
• Organize training on MGIS/GIS.
• Study tour/Training on the different aspects of banana production.
• Conduct training on plant genetic resources management.
− Diversity analysis
− Conservation technologies
• Organize exchange visits of banana scientists.
Information management and exchange
• Strengthen production and information exchange through the
Regional Information System for Banana and Plantain (RISBAP).
• Develop market information systems for bananas.
• Develop a database on banana.
− Names and synonyms of banana in Asia and Pacific (with photos)
− GIS on pests and diseases
− Nutrient and water management
Extension
• Promote high-yielding banana varieties among smallholders.
• Disseminate postharvest technologies for banana.
• Disseminate technologies on processing of banana for various uses.
W
Opening Ceremonies
Opening session 9
Welcome remarks
Patricio S
S.. Faylon*
Fa
Our friends and colleagues from the Asia Pacific region, ladies and
gentlemen, good morning.
On behalf of PCARRD and the entire Philippine National Agriculture
and Resources Research and Development System (NARRDS), and as
current Chair of the Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET), it is a
privilege for me to welcome all of you to the Philippines. I hope you all
had a pleasant travel coming to this country, and may your stay here
be both enjoyable and rewarding.
I am confident that our meeting today will be as memorable and
productive as last year’s meeting, although I hope that this time, we
will be able to come up with specific programs and activities, in
consideration of the needs and priorities of all the partner NARS, on
banana and plantain R&D.
At this point, allow me to extend to you the apologies of our Science
Secretary Estrella F. Alabastro, for her inability to join us in today’s
important gathering. While she had confirmed her attendance to this
meeting, she had to beg off due to a very crucial matter she has to
attend to, which is the budget deliberation called upon by our legislative
body, aimed at rationalizing government investment to all its agencies/
organizations. In fact, I was also required to attend the said budget
deliberation, but I had to decline and justify the need for me to be here
with you today, this being an equally important activity for us in the
R&D sector.
I would like to inform you, though, that Secretary Alabastro has
promised to join us all during the closing ceremonies – so that she will
have a chance to meet all the participants of this meeting. In view of
her absence, allow me then to read to you her welcome message.
*Executive Director, DOST-PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Opening session 11
Strengthening NARS partnership towards

the advancement of the banana industry in
the Asia Pacific region
Estrella F
Estrella F.. Alabastr
Alabastr o*
bastro*
Distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen, a pleasant good

morning to all.
On behalf of the Philippine NARS, allow me to extend my warmest
welcome to all the representatives of the different NARS of the Asia-
Pacific Region to this 1st Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET)
Steering Committee Meeting. The whole Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) family feels deeply honoured to host this very
significant regional event, and to be one with BAPNET in advancing
your vision to make banana and plantain R&D benefit the region’s
poor.
We likewise extend our sincere appreciation to the Department of
Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR) for co-hosting
this meeting, and to the International Network for the Improvement
of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) for organizing this important
gathering.
In many parts of the Asia Pacific Region, populations continue to rise,
coupled with growing rates of resource extraction, uneven distribution
of resources and inability to access available food. Attaining food
security and addressing widespread poverty are not mainly
demographic issues. For the most part, agricultural and natural
resources R&D is a crucial requirement to attend to the needs of a
gradually expanding number of people, as well as, the increasing level
of standard of living in the region.
The multi-faceted and interconnected nature of regional development
issues, such as food security, loss of biodiversity, widespread poverty,
and unsustainable extraction of resources, necessitates consolidation
of efforts at the regional level of agricultural systems. Experiences in
the past point to the weaknesses of independent and fragmented
national R&D systems working on challenges of agricultural
productivity and sustainability. Many NARS had to contend with
resource limitations to address R&D needs; yet, some of these concerns
*Secretary, DOST, Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines.
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have already been attended to by the more advanced NARS.

Within the context of regional partnership and collaboration, vast
opportunities are open to the NARS. The formation of commodity-
based regional networks now better harmonize R&D activities in the
region. Where there is so much to be done and very little resource to
do with, the need for NARS partnership becomes vital toward bringing
the best of advanced research to each partner country.
Our commitment to host this 1st BAPNET Steering Committee meeting
is very well fitting in the context of regional partnership towards the
enhanced exchange of science-based knowledge, which has now
become the yardstick of progress and development. Commodity-based
networks now have a more crucial role in advancing technological
interventions in agricultural production and distribution. From simply
providing for demands of our respective local market, our agricultural
R&D goals have broadened to include meeting the standards of
globalization. Harnessing regional partnership such as the BAPNET
has now become vital, particularly among us countries of the Asia-
Pacific Region, where we have ecological correlations and common
R&D concerns.
Primarily because of our geographical advantages, countries in Asia
and the Pacific have the competitive advantage of producing bananas
for local and export markets. This edge has encouraged most countries
in the region to strengthen their respective national banana R&D
programmes. Through the continuous conception of knowledge,
germplasm and technologies made available by INIBAP, banana R&D
in the region is continuously enhanced.
Particularly in the Philippines, banana dominates the tropical fruit
industry in terms of hectarage and production. It occupies more than
half of the total area planted to different tropical fruits. The banana
industry contributes more than $200 million annually, ranking 2nd
among the top Philippine agricultural exports for the past two years.
As part of our commitment to the upliftment of the region’s banana
industry, our country has been the host of the Asia-Pacific germplasm
collection based in Davao in the southern Philippines.
Realizing the present benefits and great potentials of the banana
industry, R&D efforts for its improvement is very evident in our national
programs. Banana is considered one of the priority horticultural crops
under the Small Enterprise Technology Upgrading Program (SET-UP)
of the DOST, the High Value Commercial Crops Programs (HVCC) of
the DA-BAR, and the Investment Priority Plant of the Board of
Opening session 13
Investments-Department of Trade and Industry (BOI-DTI). Moreover,

under the DOST-PCARRD Medium Term Plan, biotechnology
researches on the development of disease-resistant banana varieties
are now making headways. Aside from improved varieties, our efforts
are also being directed towards postharvest technologies to improve
the quality of banana products for the world market.
Our respective national programmes on banana address common needs
and interests. In these trying times, most if not all of the NARS in the
region are faced with limited R&D resources. Thus, in the process of
uplifting our banana industries, complementation of activities toward
a unified effort is the challenge that the BAPNET has to surmount. On
this note, we pledge our full support to BAPNET and to the member-
countries of this network in coming up with focused programmes and
initiatives to realize the full potentials of the region’s banana industry.
We are hopeful that this activity becomes the venue to critically plan
the specific programmes and the direction that the banana and plantain
industry of the Asia-Pacific Region will pursue in the coming years.
Your participation to this very first Steering Committee Meeting of
BAPNET is vital in terms of laying the foundation for a coordinated
R&D approach toward the sustainable development of banana and
plantain in the region.
BAPNET, as a collaborative undertaking, must be anchored on a
coherent R&D strategy based on the needs and priorities of the different
NARS. We are confident that with the expertise of the representatives
from the participating NARS present here today, we can achieve the
objective of setting the groundwork for a coordinated R&D approach.
We strongly appreciate your active commitment and dedication to the
vision of BAPNET. We hope that our long journey together to achieve
this vision will be a fruitful and productive one, for the benefit of the
millions of marginalized banana farmers in Asia and the Pacific.
Again, welcome to the Philippines, and Mabuhay!
Opening session 15
Message
Nicomedes Eleazar*
Distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen. a pleasant day to all of

you. In behalf of Secretary Leonardo Montemayor of the Department
of Agriculture, it is my pleasure, to welcome you in this important
event in the banana industry. It is the Philippine’s pride and honour
to host this first ever, Banana Asia Pacific Network Meeting.
From, its wild origins in Asia and the Pacific, banana has spread
throughout the tropical world – Africa, South and Central America
and the Caribbean. As food and important source of income, banana
has been elevated to a new level of importance in global trade and
commerce from its humble beginning in the Pacific. In the Philippines,
it is a fact that banana is one of the top high value commercial crops.
But the industry’s road to greatness is surrounded by challenges. The
onset of the destructive fungal disease, black sigatoka during the 1980s
started the global level cooperation in controlling the concerns that
plagued the banana industry. The creation of INIBAP served as the
germination period for international cooperation for the upliftment of
the industry.
This meeting is a good venue for sharing experiences, data and
information on banana and plantain and in the conduct of collaborative
programs and projects in the spirit of regional cooperation in
agricultural research and development particularly on this high value
crops. Through our collective effort, it is hoped that we will continue
to face the challenges ahead.
In this era of globalization, creation of partnership and support in
areas of research and production, is timely and shall ensure our success
in response to the aforementioned challenges.
Again, in behalf of the organizers of this meeting, I welcome you all in
this momentous event and I wish you a productive and fruitful results.
Thank you and good day to all.
*Assistant Director, DA-BAR, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.

Opening session 17
Message
Agustin B
B.. Molina*
On behalf of the Director of INIBAP, Dr Emile Frison, I would like to

welcome you to the first Steering Committee meeting of the relaunched
BAPNET. Emile wanted to attend this important meeting but he has
other prior equally important commitments. He has always been
following up the developments of our Banana Asia Pacific Network.
He asked me to convey his best wishes to all and that we will have a
productive and successful meeting.
I would like to express our sincere thanks to the Philippine NARS,
PCARRD and BAR. I really appreciate the presence of Dr Patricio S
Faylon for locally hosting and organising the first planning meeting
of the relaunched BAPNET. Dr Faylon is supposed to defend the
PCARRD budget but because of the importance of this meeting, he
delegated this responsibility to his deputy. Thank you, Pat. And of
course, I also appreciate the BAR for co-hosting this important
occasion.
The relaunching of the BAPNET is the culmination of the successful
existence of the Asia and Pacific network (ASPNET). INIBAP has
initiated the creation of ASPNET in 1991 as a regional network to
enhance regional collaboration in banana R&D. Its 10 years of
existence have resulted in productive collaboration, particularly in
the area of germplasm management, that is in collection, conservation,
characterization and evaluation. INIBAP through ASPNET also had
supported activities in the area of information development and
exchange, and human resource development through trainings,
seminars and workshops. Thanks to the participation of the NARS,
because INIBAP works with the NARS, and to my predecessor, Dr
Ramon Valmayor and the previous Regional Advisory Committee
members. Some are still here in the presence of Dr Hwang, Bob
Williams, Tom Osborn. After 10 years, we have to go to the next level.
However, through the years, ASPNET was viewed as an INIBAP
network; well for good reasons being a creation of INIBAP, and most
of its activities are INIBAP-initiated activities. INIBAP has several
programmes that can help the region to advance Musa R&D and we
have done so. But we have to go to the next level of challenges – to
*Regional Coordinator, INIBAP - Asia Pacific, c/o IRRI, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
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have a network that is strongly NARS-based, initiated by the NARS.

Programs and activities are priorities of the region and planned by the
NARS. That is the reason why we came to attend the workshop last
year in Sri Lanka and that was the creation of BAPNET. And this is
the first Steering Committee meeting. Even the name of the committee
has changed. It used to be Regional Advisory Committee; it connotes
that it is only advising, now it is the Steering Committee. It means
that it will steer the future activities of the network. So we have to
identify the priorities and create programs. And INIBAP will continue
as the secretariat to put people together to enhance this collaboration.
And I hope that in this first Steering Committee meeting, we will be
able to come up with actual activities and projects of the network.
And again, INIBAP will always be behind to enhance this regional
initiative. INIBAP also has its own global programmes that I hope
can also enhance the activities of the network. Again, I appreciate
very much your presence and I hope that in the next 2-3 days we will
have a very productive meeting and we come up with good
programmes that would uplift the banana industry in our region.
Thank you.
19
Country Repor
Re ts
ports
Banana industry status and R&D update in Australia 21
Banana industry status

and R&D update in Australia
Robert Williams*
General pr
General oduction issues
production
Banana production in Australia over the past 18 months has been
through a period of very difficult times. In north Queensland, the major
production area for Cavendish, an outbreak of black sigatoka occurred
in April 2001. This is the first occurrence of black sigatoka in the
production area. An intense controlled management program of zero
disease tolerance was implemented, and no detections have been made
since August 2001. A detailed report on the outbreak and process and
progress is presented in Annex 1.
In Northern Territory, no further outbreaks of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
cubense (Foc) tropical race 4 have been detected, although there are
now only two major growers in the area. The fusarium-testing site is
operating very well in screening cultivars for tolerance.
Drought conditions in the southern production areas of Queensland
and northern New South Wales, together with the presence of Banana
Bunchy Top Virus and Foc race 1 and 4 is restricting the expansion of
Lady Finger in this area.
Current Australian production is just over 22 million cartons (297 000
tonnes) for approximately 14 000 hectares. Consumption has continued
to increase to just over 15 kilograms/head/year.
The majority of production is AAA Cavendish types (Williams, Mons
Mari and Grande Naine) grown in tropical areas north of the Tropic of
Capricorn, whilst AAB Pome – Lady Finger are grown in southern or
higher altitude regions. Small quantities of ABB Ducasse (Pisang Awak)
and AAAB Goldfinger are providing a demand in niche markets. Some
potential exists for the development of specialist markets for organically
grown or eco-labelled bananas together with new varieties for both
dessert and cooking types.
The major cultivars grown are: Cavendish (90%), Lady Finger (7%),
Goldfinger (2%) and other varieties (1%).
*Programme Leader, Tropical Tree Fruits, Queensland Horticulture Institute, Agency

for Food and Fibre, South Johnstone, Queensland, Australia.
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A
Restraints on the industry
Similar to all other banana producing countries, the Australian industry
is very labour intensive. However, the cost of labour in Australia is
very high compared to other countries, so our production systems are
significantly different in an endeavour to reduce labour cost.
Compounding this labour issue, the government, consumers and the
community have expectations on the way the industry conducts its
business by imposing regulations such as workplace health and safety,
environmental protection, freshcare and intra and interstate
quarantines.
Research pr
esearc og
ogrrams
prog
Outcomes and progress in the research and development projects have
been significant. Abstracts of many of the projects are attached in
Annex 2.
The R&D program is focusing along four major themes:
Competitive production systems
• IPM: Developing a systems approach to pest and disease control;
• Decision support: Production and management systems that
maximise efficiency;
• Irrigation/Nutritional management to maximise inputs but
minimise environmental impacts;
• Diagnostic tools for pest and disease detection;
• Mechanisation of production and packaging systems.
Environmental sustainability
• Soil health: Developing monitoring tools as indicators of
environmental impact;
• Environmental management systems combining the various
productions and management.
Product innovation
• Breeding/Selection
• Marker technology
• Food solutions
Supply chain solutions

• Market access disinfestation
• Postharvest handling
• Quality assurance systems
• Identifying customer needs
Banana research agencies in Australia
• Queensland Horticulture Institute (QHI)
• Queensland Agricultural Biotechnology Centre (QABC)
• Queensland University (UQ)
• Queensland University of Technology (QUT)
• Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Plant Protection
(CRCTPP)
• New South Wales Department of Agriculture
• Western Australia Department of Agriculture
• Northern Territory Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
Peak industry body
Australian Banana Growers Council (ABGC)
Collabor
Collabor ation pr
bora ospects
prospects
Australia has over many years collaborated extensively with many
Asia-Pacific countries in a wide range of research projects. This
collaboration has resulted in Australia having an extensive strong team
in:
• Fusarium
• Viruses of banana
• Nematodes of banana
• Erwinia
• Mycosphaerella spp (sigatoka diseases)
• Integrated pest management
• Banana tissue culture
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A
• Banana characterisation
• Banana genome
• Biotechnology
• Cropping system management
• Information systems.
Research agencies within Australia are keen to join in collaboration
with neighbouring countries in research projects, which align with
priority areas for all agencies.
Annex 1
Black sigatoka eradication programme in Australia

Tully banana production area (TBPA)
Background
Previous findings of black sigatoka

Since 1981, black sigatoka (BS) has been found on eight previous occasions in
the Cape York area. Level of infection at each finding ranged from a few plants
(Upper and Lower Pascoe River, Upper Daintree, Bloomfield) to throughout
townships (Bamaga and surrounding communities, Weipa) to a commercial
plantation (Daintree).
At each finding, the following procedure was followed:
− Identification confirmed;
− Survey to determine extent of disease;
− Assessment of action required; depended on location of outbreak,

extent of disease, etc;
− Eradication of all diseased plants plus plants in a buffer area;
− Replacement of diseased plants with resistant plants;
− Follow-up surveys, one to two per year.

All findings were successfully eradicated and except for Bamaga, no re-
occurrences of BS have been detected in the regular intensive surveys of all
locations. Bamaga was the area where BS was first found in 1981 and early
eradication programs were not as intense or detailed as subsequent programs.
All areas where BS was found were linked, mainly through the Alternate Lifestyle
Communities/Groups. These groups are gardeners and collectors of plants.
Planting material for the communities is collected from a wide range of sources.
Tully finding
BS was confirmed on a sample from near Tully on 3 April 2001.
Surveys
• Extensive surveys in the April-June period defined the outbreak to the Tully
area.
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• In the 12-week period, 2773 samples of diseased leaf tissue were sent to
the laboratory for identification.
• Sixteen were positive for BS (Mycosphaerella fijiensis); 11 samples were
from commercial farms and 5 from unmanaged plants (feral, residents,
regrowth areas).
• Of the samples, 2432 were positive for yellow sigatoka (YS) (Mycosphaerella
musicola).
• Other diseases were identified in 1835 samples.
Biology of Mycosphaerella fijiensis
An eradication program was devised based on the biology and survival

characteristics of the fungus.
Mycosphaerella fijiensis can only invade bananas (Musa spp.). There are no
alternate hosts, neither symptomatic nor asymptomatic. Mycosphaerella fijiensis
does not produce specialised survival/dormant structures. It produces three spore
types: conidia, ascospores and spermatia.
• Conidia – produced on the surface of stage 4 and early stage 5 leaf lesions,
are readily dislodged by water and can be dispersed in water droplets to
leaves, but most are washed onto the soil. No evidence of conidia being re-
dispersed from soil to leaf tissue and resulting in a disease.
• Ascospores – produced in structures (perithecia) inside leaf tissue. Mature
ascospores are forcibly ejected from the perithecia into the air when the
surrounding tissue, including cells of the perithecia, absorbs moisture.
o Ascospores are ejected following rain (>1 mm), irrigation, but dews rarely
result in the release of ascospores.
o Perithecia continue to produce and eject ascospores while the leaf tissue
remains intact. Perithecia are known to continue to eject ascospores for
more than 5 months where the leaves hang in the canopy but for only 1-2
months when the leaves are placed on the ground and decompose.
• Spermatia – are involved in the spermatisation (fertilisation) of the proto-
perithecia resulting in the production of ascospores. Spermatia require a
film of water over the leaf surface to be dispersed from the spermogonia to
the proto-perithecia. The optimum temperature for M. fijiensis is 27-28 oC
and little growth including ascospore production occurs below about 20 oC or
above 34 oC. The optimum temperature for M. musicola is 1-2 degrees lower
with few ascospores produced below 18 oC.
In north Queensland, preliminary data suggest that during most seasons,
production of perithecia/ascospores by M. musicola is extensive during the wet
season, but is very limited during the periods June to August, due to cool
conditions and August to October/November due to dry conditions. Ascospores

released/ejected in the spring/early summer period have been carried over the
winter and spring periods in the perithecia produced during the late autumn (April-
May) period.
Removal/deleafing of necrotic disease lesions in the winter/spring period
substantially reduces inoculum production in spring and early summer periods.
Deleafing reduces potential ascospore release by >80%.
Normal weather pattern in the TBPA is for the period July to August to be cold
(night temperatures well below 20 oC) and for the period August to October to be
dry.
Eradication program
The program was devised in May/June 2001, to eradicate M. fijiensis from the
Tully area based on:
• Surveys indicated M. fijiensis was restricted to the Tully valley area.
• Survey data suggested the outbreak was relatively recent (16 positive BS
samples from 2773 examined, few with mature lesions)
• Program was based on deleafing/removal of all diseased tissue from the
plants in the TBPA, an intense spray program to prevent new infections and
the destruction of all unmanaged plants in the area.
• Under an inspectors’ approval, the following regulations were introduced:
o All properties had to achieve and maintain a zero visible disease level
o Where an inspector detected disease, a Direction Section 11 was issued
which prevented the movement of fruit until all visible disease was
removed.
o The program was divided into four stages:
∗ Stage 1: April to June 2001 - surveillance;

∗ Stage 2: July to November 2001 - zero disease
∗ Stage 3: December 2001 to June 2002 - monitoring for zero disease
∗ Stage 4: July 2002 to June 2003 - disease monitoring - area freedom;
[Growers responsible for disease control programmes from June 2002].
• For market access into New South Wales and regulatory issues (disease
levels) in relation to the outbreak and proposed BS eradication program, all
banana plants in the TBPA were deemed to be diseased with BS.
• The TBPA was defined as the area extending from latitude 18.172 near
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Dallachy Creek in the south to latitude 17.773 near Kurrimine Beach in the
north and west to the range. These boundaries established on natural breaks
in areas planted to bananas and were >20 km from known infected sites.
• The TBPA included nearly 4400 ha of commercial bananas on 162 properties
(137 growers).
• Eradication program consisted of three components:
Zero visible disease
o All leaves with any visible sigatoka lesions were removed from all
commercial banana plants throughout the TBPA and placed on the ground.
o Deleafed leaves placed on top of previously deleafed leaves to reduce
ascospore release.
o All plants deleafed of all diseased tissue at 2-4 week intervals.
o All plants free of lesions within 2 months (August) of the program
commencing and all trash containing lesions were placed on the ground
for 3-4 months (December) before the wet season.
o All bananas monitored for disease at 4-6 week intervals by trained
monitors.
o Samples of all leaf spot detected submitted to the QHI Plant Pathology
Laboratory at the Centre for Tropical Agriculture in Mareeba for
identification.
Spray program
o An intense spray program applied to prevent the establishment of new
infections from ascospores released before the trash has decomposed.
o Spray program included both protectant and systemic fungicides.
o Petroleum oil included with all fungicides.
o Systemic fungicides applied as per Fungicide Resistance Action
Committee (FRAC) recommendation for bananas to reduce the risk of
resistance.
o Systemic fungicides rotated.
o Sprays applied weekly with the protectant fungicides applied between
all applications of the systemic fungicides.
o Spray program coordinated to ensure all areas were sprayed and all
areas received the same fungicides.
o A special spray program devised for Organic Growers.
Eradication of unmanaged plants

o Unmanaged plants to include feral plants, residential plants and regrowth
plants.
o All feral bananas (on roads, creeks, rivers, etc.) located and destroyed.
o All residential (urban and rural) blocks visited and all unmanaged bananas
destroyed.
o All residents who wished to keep their bananas required to keep the
plants free of leaf disease (spray and deleaf).
o All regrowth banana plants in old banana blocks/abandoned banana areas
destroyed.
o Samples of all leaf diseases detected submitted to the laboratory for
identification.
Surveillance for black sigatoka outside TBPA
Surveillance of banana areas surrounding the TBPA was undertaken to
determine if BS was restricted to the TBPA.
All properties in the Innisfail and Kennedy Banana Production Areas (within
50 km of the TBPA) visited and sampled for leaf spot. A piece of leaf with
stage 4/5 lesions collected at 100 m intervals in every 4-5th row (a sample =
15-20 pieces of leaf/10 ha).
The buffer area, Kurrimine line to the South Johnstone River, sampled at the
rate of a sample/5 ha.
All samples of disease submitted to the laboratory for identification.
Summary of results to date
Data as of May 2002 strongly suggest that the eradication program was
successful.
Conditions, suitable for infection, occurred on a number of occasions from
January to April with extended periods in late January (rain on 7 consecutive
days), February (13 days), early April (16 days) and late April - early May
(13 days).
BS only at 25 sites – 13 managed plantations and 12 unmanaged banana
sites (9134 samples examined, 3114 by PCR)
o No BS detected on commercial plantations since 13 August 2001 (>9
months and 4115 samples examined since 13 August).
o No YS detected in 56% of plantations/46% of banana areas in TBPA in
round 4, with another 36%/44% at extremely low levels (<15 pieces of
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leaf/plantation 1-342 ha). In round 5, >96% of plantations and area were
at zero or at extremely low levels of disease.
o All disease lesions found in the plantations with extremely low levels of
sigatoka were examined and all were YS demonstrating that the vast
majority of bananas in the TBPA are free of BS.
o Samples from the other 3-4% of bananas were also examined and all
were again YS. All remaining disease on these plantations was deleafed
to zero within 2 days (no Directives were issued in 5).
o No BS detected on unmanaged plants since 16 November 2001 (>6
months and 478 samples examined).
o All land parcels in TBPA (7629) were visited from January to March and
all unmanaged bananas located were examined for disease and all disease
was identified. No BS was found in 474 samples collected and examined
from unmanaged banana plants.
o Mycosphaerella fijiensis cannot survive outside a banana leaf for more
than a few days and no more than 5-6 months inside leaf tissue on the
plant and <3 months in tissue on the ground.
Annex 2
Banana research programmes in Australia
Introduction
This document summarises most of the RD&E projects currently being conducted
within Australia.
Presented for each project is an overview of the project objectives and summary
of the progress to date.
Project title: Plant protection extension in the Queensland banana
industry
Project duration: 1 July 1999 - 30 June 2002
Continued productivity and maintenance of fruit quality are major issues for banana
producers in Queensland. Appropriate management of pests and diseases is a
major factor in meeting the market requirements for quality and the productivity
requirements for profitability. This project aims to facilitate the development of
better pest and disease management practices by Queensland banana growers
by providing better communication and information transfer. This can be achieved
with the following activities:
* Continued production and distribution of ‘Bananatopics’ newsletter for growers;
* Assistance for the production of the annual grower publication, ‘Banana
Protection’;
* An industry awareness program for exotic and endemic quarantine threats;
* Industry activities aimed at extending the results of pest and disease research;
* Industry extension of regulatory requirements for growers.
Production of the newsletter, ‘Bananatopics’, and industry extension for pest
and disease management have been identified as high priorities by the Banana
Sectional Group Committee of the QFVG.
This project aims to continue industry extension work started by the project
FR96022. This proposal will also link with the existing and proposed research
projects on banana pests and diseases affecting quality and productivity:
* Erwinia corm rot
* Burrowing nematode control
* Banana streak virus
* Banana rust thrips
* Yellow sigatoka (YS) resistance monitoring.
Summary of milestones
Integrated nematode management
• Significant progress has been made in the development and implementation
of IPM practices for burrowing nematode, especially the use of non-host
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fallow crops – 200 hectares of specific non-host fallows planted in north
Queensland in 2001.
• The use of ‘Callide’ Rhodes grass in fallows has presented the opportunity
for commercial seed harvesting, and a seminar was held with a commercial
seed merchant for interested growers on the seed industry and its
requirements. This has led to technical staff from the seed merchant assisting
growers in the Tully and Innisfail district with production advice. Seed
harvesting is beginning in June 2002.
• Training workshops on IPM for burrowing nematode are being conducted in
the NQ production regions. From this workshop, publications are being
prepared for ‘Bananatopics’ and ‘Australian Bananas’.
IPM for banana bunch pests
• The project officer’s involvement with Crop Care Australia and IBS in Innisfail
have resulted in the development of a mechanical application device for the
SusCon® ribbon. Consequently, Crop Care has proceeded with registration
of the product, and it is expected to be available to producers by July 2002.
The project officer has been involved in field demonstrations for producers
with Crop Care.
• Results from research trials on biopesticides and ‘new chemistry’ insecticides
for bunch pest management have been published in ‘Bananatopics’.
Leaf disease management
• The project officer was involved in presenting information at 12 regional YS
management workshops in April and May in NQ production area.
• The project officer works with chemical companies and regional local
agribusiness outlets to update banana fungicide resistance strategy to include
new strobilurin fungicides.
Next steps
• Continue industry-wide extension training in integrated nematode
management as required for Queensland production regions. Articles for
industry publications are being published from this work.
• Continue to monitor performance of fallow crop trial sites to determine period
between replanting and nematode population reaching damaging levels.
• Actively collaborate with project leader FR99011 to update and produce grower
manual on integrated management of burrowing nematode.
• Assist in the communication and extension of results from research project
on IPM for bunch pests.
• Continue to conduct grower and agribusiness discussion groups in NQ
production region. It is intended to use these groups to help evaluate project
actions and outcomes.
Communication/Extension activities
• The full colour banana quarantine threats information sheets have been posted
to all registered banana producers in Queensland to complement previous
activities in Tully and Innisfail.
• A seminar on commercial seed production from fallows of ‘Callide’ Rhodes

grass was held for producers in Tully in February 2002. The prospect of a
financial return from fallows has raised enormous interest in the use of fallows
for management of burrowing nematodes.
• The project officer has actively participated in 12 leaf disease management
workshops for producers in NQ in April and May.
• The project officer has actively participated in 4 field days for producers in
NQ demonstrating the new SusCon® ribbon for bunch pest management.
• The BAGmen group (agribusiness discussion group) has agreed to review
the banana fungicide resistance strategy to include the new strobilurin
fungicides.
• A weekly radio spot is used to inform growers of pest and disease information
and activities in the local region.
Project title: Integrated systems for managing nematodes on
bananas
Project duration: 1 January 2000 - 31 December 2002

Synopsis of project
Burrowing nematode is the most important nematode on bananas in Australia
and worldwide. This project investigated several options of improving nematicide
application including the strategic application of soil-applied nematicides, the
efficacy of application of nematicides in the sub-tropics and the efficacy of
pseudostem injection of systemic nematicides. With the discovery of natural
suppression of burrowing nematode in some Australian banana crops, nematode
antagonistic organisms are to be isolated and screened to suppress burrowing
nematode. The resistance of banana cultivars to Pratylenchus goodeyi and
Radopholus similis will be determined. Alternate methods to disinfest planting
material to eliminate R. similis are to be investigated. Extension material will be
updated and workshops will ensure results are disseminated to the industry.
Progress to date
The project is currently being finalised and extension material and the final project
report are being prepared. The progress in the project work areas is listed below.
Nematicide application
• Strategic nematicide application was determined to be the best method of
applying nematicides to the soil. When the currently registered nematicides
for bananas, Nemacur®, Rugby®, Counter® and Vydate®, were applied in
rotation, there was significantly less damage caused by burrowing nematode
to the roots of banana plants and reduced numbers of nematodes, relative to
both the untreated plants and plants where the nematicides were applied
consecutively every 3 months. The development of enhanced biodegradation
was also delayed when nematicides were rotated. The time of year when
the nematicides were applied was not as important as the rotation of the
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chemicals. There appears to be no cross degradation between nematicide
products, although this is still currently under investigation.
• Efficacy of nematicides in sub-tropical bananas was not as good as in the
tropics. In the sub-tropics, negative economic returns resulted from nematicide
application. Two different management regimes were used in the trial: poor
management practices increased the impact of nematodes on plants and
also reduced the efficacy of the nematicides. The investigation of enhanced
biodegradation with continual use of nematicides is being finalised.
• Pseudostem injection trials were performed with registered nematicides
Nemacur® and Vydate® as well as some new developing products. The
injection of Vydate® into the pseudostem was found to be as efficacious as
soil application. There was evidence which suggested that Nemacur® also
reduced the number of nematodes in the roots of bananas when injected into
the following pseudostem of bananas. Nemacur®, however, was more
phytotoxic than Vydate®. The efficacy of the unregistered chemicals was
poor. Some products warrant further investigation.
Biological control
Organisms with potential as biological control agents were isolated from the
rhizosphere and within the roots of banana plants. A non-pathogenic isolate of
Fusarium recovered from a farm in the sub-tropics significantly reduced the number
of nematodes in the roots system of banana plants as well as stimulating the
growth of the plant. In the tropics rhizobacteria isolate (fluorescent Pseudomonas
spp.) were also able to increase plant growth and reduce the number of nematodes
on the roots. Bacteria beneficial to banana growth and nematode suppression
were found in composted material. The use of compost may increase the natural
suppression of bananas and increase the robustness of tissue culture plants.
Cultivar resistance
Cultivar resistance to burrowing nematode was tested on tissue culture plants
as well as bits. The cultivars had a variety of genomic mix. Yangambi Km5 was
found to be the most resistant banana cultivar in all trials. FHIA-03 was also
found to be resistant relative to Williams.
Alternative planting material
Alternative planting material disinfestation methods to Nemacur® were not
successful in eliminating burrowing nematode from the corm material. Alternative
methods that were trialed included hot water, bleach and Vydate®. Nemacur
was not 100% effective in eliminating nematodes from planting material.
Extension
Extension material is currently being prepared to include the results of this project.
Workshops and field days have been conducted during the progress of the project
to update banana growers on changes in management methods.
Project title: Enhancing market penetration of Lady Finger bananas

Project Duration: 30 December 1999 - 30 June 2003
Summary
We will improve the quality and consistency of Lady Finger bananas grown and
marketed in Australia by:
• Assisting Lady Finger growers to develop and implement improved marketing
practices;
• Assisting Lady Finger growers to develop and implement ‘best practice’ for
Lady Finger production.
This is a joint project between QFVG, QDPI, NSW Department of Agriculture
and BIC, and Australian growers.
The Lady Finger industry has a well-established niche market (approximately
5.1% of Australian banana production), valued at $16.85 million. Ladyfinger
bananas are grown in many areas of Australia, from the Atherton Tableland
(Mareeba) and the Wet Tropics (Tully) in North Queensland to Coff’s Harbour in
New South Wales. A grower preference for Lady Finger bananas, especially in
many cooler and drier parts of Australia, combined with an identified segment of
consumer preference for acid-sweet bananas, justifies the promotion of a separate
but complementary niche market for this product. This project is aimed at all
Lady Finger growers in Queensland, including those in the Wet Tropics and the
Atherton Tableland.
The Lady Finger industry has many serious problems, such as:
• Lack of official quality standards for Lady Finger fruit (although there are size
standards);
• Widespread quality problems in the industry, due to a poor understanding of
best practices in growing and handling Lady Finger;
• An absence of organised Lady Finger marketing groups;
• No Lady Finger quality assurance systems, which have third party
accreditation;
• Extremely serious problems with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc)
race 1 and 4 (and possibly tropical race 4 in the future);
• High susceptibility to yellow sigatoka and speckle;
• Bunch pest problems.
This project addresses the following issues identified as priorities by the ABGC
research and development priority plan in March 1998:
1. Quality systems Priority 1
2. Professional marketing systems Priority 1
Progress to date
• Market throughput analyses completed
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• Price/Quality analyses in markets completed
• Consumer survey completed
• Retailer survey completed
• Australian size grade standards for Lady Finger bananas developed
• Product description language for Lady Finger fruit developed
• Guidelines for Lady Finger carton packing developed
• Maturity and harvesting procedures for Lady Finger bananas developed
• Newsletters sent to all Queensland Lady Finger growers
• Subtropical Agrilink kit draft completed
• Sustainable best practices growing guide developed for Lady Finger
growers by NSW Agriculture in conjunction with QDPI
• Coff’s Harbour forum addressed on results of Lady Finger project to date
Project title: Diagnosis of banana pathogens
Project Duration: 1 July 1999 - 30 June 2002

Synopsis
The Australian banana industry is constantly challenged by pests and diseases
from overseas and by pests and diseases already established in Australia. The
industry has developed an Approved Planting Material Scheme, which requires
regular detection and identification of banana plant pathogens. Proposed new
planting material regulations will greatly increase the number of samples required
to be processed. Faster and more reliable detection and identification methods
being developed in this project will help ensure the success of the planting material
scheme and reduce its cost and prevent further losses to the industry from
established and exotic pests and diseases.
Banana Streak Virus (BSV) is widely distributed in Australia, and has been
found in all commercially important cultivars. BSV is highly variable and all isolates
characterised are different. Research done overseas suggests that all banana
cultivars have BSV sequences integrated into the banana genomic DNA. In some
cultivars, it is thought that this integrated DNA may be activated by stresses
such as tissue culture and artificial breeding, giving rise to new virus infections.
This project will characterise the extent of variation of BSV in Australia and
assess whether they differ in biological properties such as host range and reaction
on bananas. The easiest approach to investigating biological properties will be to
produce infectious DNA clones, which will be used to inoculate plants by biolistics.
BSV sequences that are integrated into the genomes of commercially important
cultivars will be characterised and compared with those obtained from field
infections in a range of cultivars.
All four races (1, 2, 3 & 4) of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) are
present in Australia. Races can be identified using vegetative compatibility group
(VCG) analysis. However, VCG analysis is expensive and time-consuming.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is an extremely rapid, accurate and sensitive
method for the identification of fungi and should be capable of identifying Foc in
infected host tissue as well as in pure culture. It will also identify genetic variability
within a VCG. DNA fingerprint analysis of Australian isolates has already identified
seven different genotypes amongst the four races of the pathogen (33 genotypes
of Foc have been identified worldwide). The identification of Foc in Australian
plantations will be continued with VCG analysis and the development of a PCR-
based detection system. To improve regulation of quarantine restrictions in
Australia and to prevent the introduction of more strains from overseas, we will
develop a DNA-based identification system to accurately characterise all strains
that occur in Australia and generate a DNA fingerprint database. We will also
develop a system to detect the pathogen directly from plant tissue.
Four nematodes are precluded from approved planting material and these are
detected in routine testing of root samples. Radopholus similis (burrowing
nematode) is a major pest of Queensland’s banana industry. Recent studies
have revealed the presence of an undescribed species of Radopholus in Northern
Territory. This and populations of R. similis from Queensland vary in their ability
to reproduce on a range of cultivars. If new ‘resistant’ cultivars are introduced to
manage burrowing nematode, variation between nematode populations is likely
to result in ‘failure’ of some cultivars. This project will collect and culture
populations from throughout Queensland and test them for their ability to reproduce
on representative range cultivars. This will determine the distribution of different
pathotypes and the reaction of cultivars.
This project will ensure implementation of practical and reliable quarantine
schemes.
Progress to date
Host range of BSV isolates determined
As reported in June 2001, mealybug inoculation was found to be an inefficient
technique for screening large numbers of banana genotypes for susceptibility to
BSV. A new approach was therefore adopted to determine the natural host
range of the different strains of BSV. The DPI plant virology group has collected
206 specimens of banana streak disease from more than 50 different banana
genotypes and 17 countries. This collection was screened using specific PCR
assays for six strains of BSV, namely BSV-OL, BSV-Mys, BSV-GF, BSV-Cav,
BSV-IM and BSV-Lac.
Positive PCR reactions were obtained with 106 of the diseased specimens. Failure
to detect BSV in the remaining specimens may reflect deterioration during storage,
the existence of other BSV strains in addition to those tested and/or
misidentification of symptoms. In Australia, all strains, except BSV-Lac, were
found. BSV-Lac is very uncommon, and only detected in a single specimen from
Africa. BSV-OL was the most common strain, being detected in exactly 50% of
the specimens and in many different banana genotypes, viz. Musa AA, AAA,
AAB, AAAB and ABB groups. BSV-OL is known to arise by activation of viral
sequences that are integrated into the B genome of banana. The fact that BSV-
OL was detected in a Cavendish banana (Musa AAA group) at Weipa, north
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QLD, suggests that there is natural transmission of this virus by mealybugs.
After BSV-OL, BSV-GF was the next most commonly detected strain, being
detected in 25 specimens. All cv. Mysore plants were infected with BSV-Mys,
and this strain was very uncommon outside this cultivar. BSV-Mys was detected
in a cv. Lady Finger plant from Flaxton, NSW, and a Cavendish plant from Kiama,
QLD, but in both cases, links could be made with a cv. Mysore plant growing
nearby. BSV-Cav was found in Cavendish plants from Daradgee, Babinda and
Innisfail in north QLD. These plants had a common propagation history. Outside
this group of plants, BSV-Cav was very rare, only being found in one Dwarf
Cavendish plant from Bowen, QLD. BSV-IM was also extremely rare; in Australia,
this strain was detected in new IRFA hybrids (Musa AAB group) originating from
the CIRAD (France) breeding program, a Pisang Raja (Musa AAB group) plant
from north QLD and a single Pisang Awak (Musa ABB group) plant from a
germplasm collection at Alstonville, NSW.
Specificity and sensitivity of PCR diagnostic determined for detecting Foc in
planting material
The specificity of the PCR primers for each of the Australian races and VCGs of
Foc has been established by screening them against other VCGs and genotypes
of Foc in vitro. Diagnostic PCR primers have been designed that are specific for
the race 1 strains (VCGs 0124, 0125, 01220), race 2 strains (VCG 0124 and
0128), subtropical race 4 strains (VCGs 0120, 0129, 01211) and the tropical race
4 strain (VCG 01213) of Foc.
Procedures for DNA extraction and PCR amplification directly from infected plant
material and infested soil have been investigated and optimised. Several different
DNA extraction protocols (both published methods and commercially available
kits) were tested for plant material and soil, and a method was selected that
gives a good DNA yield and minimal inhibition of PCR amplification.
The protocols for DNA fingerprinting analysis and the PCR diagnostic test for the
tropical race 4 strain of Foc were collated into a training manual for a workshop
coordinated by the CRC for Tropical Plant Protection. The workshop was held at
the Northern Territory Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (NT DPIF)
Plant Pathology Department in Darwin, during November 2001. Staff from the
NTDPI, WA Agriculture, AQIS and NAQS were trained in fusarium wilt diagnostics
and the DNA diagnostic test for tropical race 4 of Foc was implemented in the
Darwin laboratory, where several outbreaks caused by this strain of Foc have
already occurred.
Nematology section of project
The project has finished and the final report is being written. Eight isolates of
Radopholus spp. from banana crops from throughout the major banana areas of
Australia were collected (Darwin, Tully, Bartle Frere, Cudgen Tallebudgera,
Pimpama, Red Hill and Crossmaglen). The isolates have been established on
carrot cultures at Indooroopilly Research Centre. The isolates were tested on a
range of tissue cultured banana cultivars (Williams, Pisang Jari Buaya (PJB),
SH-3142, Goldfinger and Lady Finger) for their ability to reproduce and tolerate
nematodes.
The ability of the nematodes to reproduce on the banana cultivars was significantly
different between the different nematode isolates. The isolates of R. similis from
Tully and Pimpama were able to multiply equally well on all cultivars including
PJB. PJB is reported to have some resistance to R. similis and has been used in
international breeding projects to develop nematode resistant lines. All other
nematode isolates had lower reproduction on PJB relative to Williams. Williams
was used as the susceptible standard throughout the trial. The resistance to
multiplication on banana cultivars, relative Williams, depended on which isolate
of R. similis was used. While PJB was resistant to most nematode isolates, SH-
3142, Lady Finger and Goldfinger also demonstrated some resistance depending
on the isolates of R. similis. Similar results were obtained when the trial was
repeated.
The R. similis isolate from Tully was also found to be more pathogenic than all
other nematode isolates, except the isolate from Pimpama. The pathogenicity
was determined by the nematodes’ ability to reduce the root weight of banana
plants. Pathogenicity of the nematode isolate appears to be correlated with the
nematodes’ ability to multiply in the roots of the host plant. Again, similar results
were obtained when the trial was repeated.
The results suggest that resistance that is being developed in banana varieties
could be overcome by some isolates of R. similis. This is a strong indication of
the presence of pathotypes of R. similis in the Australian banana industry. The
presence of pathotypes would need to be confirmed by RAPD analysis of the
eight isolates of burrowing nematode. If banana cultivar resistance is to be used
to reduce the impact R. similis has on banana production, sources of resistance,
other than PJB need to be investigated.
Project title: Banana Fungicide Resistance
Synopsis of project
Loss of sensitivity to the demethylase inhibitor (DMI) and benzimidazole fungicide
groups in Mycosphaerella fijiensis (black sigatoka) is widespread in Central
America and has resulted in an increase in the number of fungicide applications
applied from about 20-25 to 40-45 per season. A loss in sensitivity was detected
in Mycosphaerella musicola in the Innisfail banana-growing area in 1996. An
eight-fold decrease in sensitivity was demonstrated using a technique developed
using conidia. The sensitivity appeared to return to normal over a 6- to 8-month
period in the absence of the DMI fungicides. In Central America, where a shift
was reported over many years, the sensitivity of the population did not increase
or return in the absence of the fungicides. Anti-resistance strategies were
developed for all fungicides in consultation with the banana industry and chemical
companies.
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In this project the sensitivity of yellow sigatoka populations in north Queensland
will be determined for the DMI fungicides presently used in bananas to identify
any shift in sensitivity before major problems develop as has occurred in Central
America. The stability/persistence of any less sensitive populations detected
will be monitored over time to enable the anti-resistance strategies to be
implemented to reduce the effect of any loss in sensitivity. The validity of the
test developed using conidia will be compared to that used for M. fijiensis in
Central America which uses ascospores. Baseline sensitivity data will be
generated for all systemic fungicides presently registered and those in the pipeline
to be registered for use on bananas in Queensland.
Progress to date
Baseline sensitivity data were established for the compounds benomyl,
propiconazole and tebuconazole. This was achieved by collecting wild-type
isolates from unsprayed banana plants at least 25 kilometers away from known
commercial blocks of bananas to ensure isolates had not been in contact with
any spray drift or originated from ascospores from sprayed areas. Baseline data
on percent germination were gathered tor trifloxystrobin, however, further wild-
type isolates need to be assessed to determine germtube elongation, as recently
shown in Central America, to be an indicator of small shifts in sensitivity. Base
line EC50 (effective concentration required to reduce growth/germination by 50%)
figures for each of the fungicides are as follows: benomyl – 0.045 mg/ml,
propiconazole – 0.01 mg/ml and tebuconazole – 0.016 mg/ml.
Since 1999, the north Queensland banana industry has been monitored for
resistance or loss of sensitivity to the above-mentioned fungicides. In the 1999-
2000 season, approximately 70% of samples tested for “resistance” to benomyl
registered moderate to serious shifts (>8 fold increase compared to the baseline
EC50). As this high level of resistance was detected throughout the industry, no
further testing of samples against benomyl was conducted.
Loss of sensitivity to the fungicides propiconazole and tebuconazole was also
detected throughout the north Queensland banana industry. Between 1999-2002,
greater than 90% of samples registered wither a nil or minor shift in sensitivity to
propiconazole leaving <10% of samples in the moderate to serious category (> 8
fold increase in the baseline EC50). Results of samples assessed for loss of
sensitivity to tebuconazole were the reverse with approximately 78% of samples
registering a moderate to serious shift and the remaining 22% of samples in the
nil or minor shift category.
Data suggest “resistance” to propiconazole implies 100% cross-resistance to
tebuconazole. The reverse, however, is not as high.
A selection of farms that registered a moderate to serious shift in sensitivity to
either propiconazole or tebuconazole were monitored on a regular basis to observe
if the sensitivity of the M. musicola population returned to normal in the absence
of the fungicide. In the majority of cases where a decrease in sensitivity had
occurred to propiconazole, the population returned to a normal level of sensitivity.
However, where the sample population was tested against tebuconazole, results
were not as definitive and monthly data were erratic.
Spray history where possible was obtained for the previous 12- to 18-month
period to determine if any practices could have contributed to the loss of
sensitivity. In the majority of cases where a loss in sensitivity was detected, the
anti-resistance strategy was not followed. The following appeared to contribute
to a loss of sensitivity:
• Prolonged use of DMIs (>2 back to back);
• Overuse of DMI fungicides (>6 per season);
• Applications of DMIs made during the ‘DMI free period’ (July to October);
• Applications of DMI fungicides made to severely diseased tissue.
Project title: Strategies for management of fusarium wilt of banana
Summary
Disease pressures continue to limit banana production in Australia. Fusarium
wilt is a disease, which is widespread in many of the banana producing regions
of Australia. Fusarium wilt of banana (Panama disease) is caused by a soil-
inhabiting fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc), for which there is
no commercially viable means of chemical control. Throughout the world, long-
term control of this disease is largely dependent on genetic host resistance.
Through this project, banana varieties including dessert hybrids and breeding
diploids from the four largest international banana breeding programs will be
evaluated for their reaction to the two major strains of Foc present in Australia
(race 1 and sub-tropical race 4) at separate field evaluation sites. Agronomic
data will also be taken from surviving varieties, including the postharvest evaluation
of fruit. It should be noted that disease evaluation trials are different to commercial
variety evaluation trials, the latter not being within the scope of this project.
The incidence of fusarium wilt in tissue culture-derived plants has been shown by
DPI researchers to be higher than that in plants derived from traditional planting
material (bits or suckers). It is thought that the sterile environment in which
tissue-cultured plants are raised may preclude useful or beneficial microorganisms
from establishing in the young tissue culture plantlets, delaying the onset of
naturally occurring defenses to soil borne diseases. In a complementary research
approach to the field evaluation of banana germplasm, the role of non-pathogenic,
endophytic strains of Foc will be investigated for their ability to enhance resistance
to Foc in tissue-cultured banana plants. Studies commenced in FR96018 identified
some non-pathogenic strains of Foc that afforded levels of protection to tissue-
cultured banana plantlets against Foc in small-scale trials. These and new strains
were included in this investigation. This research also complements that of
FR98006, investigating the potential of mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobacteria for
developing healthier banana roots in relation to banana nutrition and resistance
to Foc and nematodes. This project also directly relates to FR99037 “Diagnosis
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of Banana Pathogens”, in which the host range, geographical distribution and
diversity of the different strains or Vegetative Compatibility Groups (VCGs) of the
fusarium wilt pathogen is being monitored. Knowledge of the VCGs of Foc in
Australia is important for the selection of resistant cultivars for particular locations,
depending on the strains present. The known geographical distribution of these
VCGs has also enabled the implementation of meaningful quarantine zones to
limit the spread of this pathogen by the movement of rhizomes and infested soil.
The characterisation of all new outbreaks of Foc enabled the early detection of
exotic strains such as tropical race 4 in Darwin, NT.
In addition to the evaluation of microorganisms for improving resistance of banana
to Foc, other agents such as plant activators were investigated. For example,
BION® is a plant activator that is known to have a systemic acquired resistance
(SAR) effect, and has reduced the incidence of fusarium wilt in other crops.
Field-trial evaluation of Musa germplasm for resistance to Foc is time-consuming
and expensive. The development of a reliable small plant bioassay will be
investigated to enable a more rapid and economical evaluation for new varieties,
breeding lines and disease control measures under glasshouse conditions. This
test would not replace field-trial evaluation; however, it would be a tool by which
the most promising varieties could be selected for evaluation under field conditions.
Progress to date
Field evaluation of banana varieties for resistance to races 1 and 4 of Foc
Resistance evaluation at fusarium wilt-infested field sites is ascertaining the
reaction of new varieties to Australian strains of fusarium wilt caused by the
fungus Foc. Varieties produced by the world banana breeding programs (FHIA in
Honduras; EMBRAPA-CNPMF in Brazil, IITA in Nigeria and CIRAD-FHLOR in
Guadeloupe) have been imported by DPI for evaluation.
Evaluation against Foc race 1 (VCG 0125)
Varieties resistant to Foc race 1 were FHIA-01 (Goldfinger), FHIA-18 (Bananza),
FHIA-25, SH-3640-10 (known as Highnoon in South Africa) – conflicting results,
TMBx 5295-1 (a Laknau hybrid known internationally as Bita 3).
Varieties susceptible to Foc race 1 were FHIA -02 (known as Mona Lisa in
South America), SH-3641 and Lady Finger.
Full term internal ratings for the CIRAD-FHLOR varieties (IRFA -901, -910 and -
914) could not be conducted as the plants were removed and destroyed due to
development of banana streak virus (BSV) in these varieties after planting.
Evaluation against Foc race 4 (VCG 0120)
Varieties resistant to Foc race 4 were FHIA-01, FHIA-18, SH-3640-10, SH-3656,
IRFA -909, IRFA -914 and TMBx 5295.
Varieties susceptible to Foc race 4 were FHIA -02, FHIA-03, FHIA-17, FHIA-23,
SH-3641, IRFA -910 and Cavendish cv. Williams.

Evaluation of FHIA-25 against Foc race 4 of is underway at the Wamuran field
site with Cavendish controls. According to the late Dr Phil Rowe, former head of
the banana-breeding program at FHIA, this cooking variety holds much promise
for the reduction of chemicals, used to control black sigatoka, and has very
impressive yield and other agronomic characteristics.
Postharvest evaluation of fruit of varieties, which are being evaluated for resistance
to Foc in infested fields
Fruit of twelve accessions or varieties that survived field challenge with Foc were
assessed for postharvest quality. The quality attributes assessed included maturity
(green life), pulp firmness and response to ethylene of the green fruit. Ripe fruit
assessments included shelf life, internal composition (soluble solids, titratable
acidity), firmness and incidence of crown rot, peel splitting and finger drop. The
varieties with the best profiles were FHIA-18, IRFA-910, IRFA-914, and SH-3656
(GZ). Key attributes of these varieties were their good shelf lives and ripe fruit
compositions that can be expected to win consumer acceptance. A specific
potential problem identified in FHIA-18 is its susceptibility to peel splitting and
finger drop when ripe. Correct ripening management will be required to protect
FHIA-18 from these defects.
Non-pathogenic Foc
Twenty endophytic isolates of Fusarium oxysporum were recovered from healthy
banana plants in “wilt-suppressive” soils. In the laboratory, no antagonistic effect
was observed in vitro between the non-pathogenic isolates and Foc. However, in
pot tests conducted in the glasshouse, four endophytic isolates appear to have
provided a significant level of protection against the development of fusarium wilt
in Cavendish cv. Williams plants. Plants colonised with these isolates prior to
inoculation with Foc expressed either mild symptoms of fusarium wilt or no
symptoms at all. Wherever Foc had infected the roots of these plants, a difference
in vascular tissue discoloration was observed at the junction of the root and
rhizome tissues. The results of these studies are encouraging and further testing,
including evaluation under field conditions needs to be conducted.
Evaluation of plant activators
BIONÒ (Acibenzolar-S-methyl) is a plant activator known to have a systemic
acquired resistance (SAR) effect. Experiments conducted in controlled
environmental cabinets to investigate the ability of BIONÒ to induce resistance in
tissue-cultured banana to races 1 and 4 of Foc yielded promising results. This
agent significantly reduced disease incidence in tissue culture-derived banana
plants.
Due to the results of these experiments, two field trials were planted at both of
our Foc field-testing sites (Foc race 1 at Duranbah, NSW and Foc race 4 at
Wamuran, QLD) to evaluate the efficacy of BIONÒ under field conditions. In
addition, a strobilurin fungicide called AmistarÒ that had shown promise in
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combination with BIONÒ against fungal leaf and fruit pathogens, such as avocado
and passionfruit, was also included in these trials.
At our race 1 field-trial site, three months after planting Lady Finger banana,
plants were expressing severe external symptoms of fusarium wilt. Phytotoxic
effects were observed in plants treated with the highest rate of BIONÒ (0.050g/l),
which caused stunting of plants.
At our race 4 field-trial site BIONÒ significantly increased growth of Cavendish
plants. This effect could only be due to reduced disease incidence. Unfortunately,
during this trial very few plants expressed external symptoms of fusarium wilt
and internal assessment of the rhizome was only to ground level, which upon
assessment revealed very few infected plants. During this trial leaf diseases
were not significant and nematodes are not known to be a problem at this site.
Therefore it is possible that if the roots of plants had been examined, fewer
infections of Foc may have been observed in BIONÒ treated plants than untreated
plant resulting in the observed growth response. These results are encouraging
and warrant further investigation.
Project title: Management options for banana bunch pest control
Project Duration: 30 December 2000 - 30 December 2003
Summary
If left uncontrolled, banana bunch pests can cause serious fruit damage resulting
in market rejection and the loss of grower income. Over the past few years,
some growers have reported chemical failure to control certain bunch pests. The
possibility of insecticide resistance, although not substantiated, is becoming an
increasingly important issue to many banana growers. The control of banana
bunch pests is primarily based on the strategic use of organophosphate
insecticides, which are unsafe to human health and the environment. Controlling
these pests is costly and can result in high chemical residues left on the fruit.
Investigations are currently under way by the National Registration Authority
(NRA) to identify, restrict or eliminate the use of registered chemicals, which
have the potential to be harmful to the environment. Reduced dependence on
synthetic insecticides is essential to promote sustainable pest management
practices and further develop integrated pest management (IPM) in the banana
industry. Preliminary research carried out by DPI researchers has identified new
naturally-occurring insecticides, which could be effective in controlling these pests.
Biopesticides are insecticides based on naturally occurring insect pathogens
and are a form of biological control. New insecticides (insect growth regulators
[IGRs] and natural botanicals) have also been identified which disrupt insect
development. These products are safe to the environment and human health,
have minimal impact on beneficial insects and only affect target pests making
them ideal for use in IPM. More extensive lab and field research is required to
evaluate these products over a range of pests and environmental conditions before
they could be recommended for use within the banana industry. This project
aims to investigate the efficacy and potential for using biopesticides, IGRs and
natural botanicals for banana bunch pest control. Other control practices to reduce
the cost of pest management will also be investigated. This project has the
potential to manage insecticide resistance by reducing the dependence on
organophosphates for bunch pest management and identifying safer insecticides
with new modes of action that are better suited to the development of IPM in
bananas. This is in line with the industry’s aim to develop pest management
practices which are sustainable and safe to human health and the environment.
Progress to date
A new technique for the mass production of banana scab moth – The development
of a successful insect-culturing technique has been achieved for the first time for
banana scab moth and has been in operation now for 21 months. This new
technique will give us better capability to carry out research against this pest
and allow artificial infestation in field trials when natural populations are low and
a ready supply of larvae for lab bioassays. An artificial diet has also been
successfully developed for this system using soybeans and wheat germ as the
diet’s base. This is the first time a successful rearing system has ever been
developed to produce large numbers of banana scab moth for research purposes.
Lab assays for banana scab moth - A series of lab trials have now been
successfully completed for banana scab moth to examine pesticide efficacy on
insect mortality.
Tropical biopesticide assays - Droplet sizes of 1ml were placed on x 4, 1st, 3rd
and 5th instar larvae and replicated four times with a control (water and wetting
agent) and a standard (chlorpyrifos). The treatments included Metarhizium
anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana and spinosad. The chlorpyrifos standard and
spinosad treatments were clearly the best performers achieving 100% mortality
after 24 hours. Both Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana achieved
100% mortality after 72 hours. Although the fungal pathogens achieved slower
insect mortality, there was no significant difference between the levels of damage
when compared to each of the biopesticide treatments and the chlorpyrifos
standard. Some phototoxicity was observed in both the Metarhizium anisopliae
and Beauveria bassiana treatments, possibly due to the oil suspension in the
insecticide formulations. These biopesticide formulations may need to be modified
before field use but the level of efficacy achieved by these insecticides was quite
acceptable.
Residual and ingestion biopestcide assays - These trials looked at the residual
and ingestion efficacy of Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, Spinosad,
Baccillus thuringiensis (Bt) and emmamectin. The most effective treatments
identified in this trial were emmamectin and spinosad which were equally as
effective as chlorpyrifos achieving 100% mortality after 24 hours. The Bt treatment
was the next best performer achieving 100% mortality after 4 days for all instars.
The Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana treatments were the least
effective in these assays and a lot slower acting compared to the other treatments
showing that residual efficacy is only partially effective when compared to direct
contact. Some phototoxicity was observed on banana fruit caused by both the
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Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana treatments possibly due to the
oil suspension in the insecticide formulations. These biopesticide formulations
may need to be modified before field use but the level of efficacy achieved by
these biopesticides was quite acceptable.
New insecticides residual and ingestion assays - Assays have just been
completed looking at new insecticides with different modes of action. Treatments
included thaimethoxam, tebufenozide, DPX-MP062 and noveluron. Tebufenozide
and DPX-MP062 performed equally effective when compared to the standard
chlorpyrifos at all instar stages of banana scab moth. All treatments were effective
in controlling banana scab moth in the first instar stage, which is the stage that
is most realistic in a field situation. As the banana scab moth larvae increased in
size, thiamethoxam and noveluron where the least effective treatments in achieving
mortality.
Field trials - Three field trials were completed investigating (1) insecticides with
different modes of action, (2) biopesticides and (3) insecticide impregnated plastics
as an alternative to bunch dusting with chlorpyrifos.
Experiment 1. Insecticides with new modes of action - in this trial three insecticides
were selected with different modes of action and compared to chlorpyrifos applied
as a bunch spray. Actara® (thiamethoxam, a Neonicitinoide compound) was
selected because of its good environmental profile and general all round control
for most insect pests. Confidor® (imidacloprid) was selected for its potential
efficacy against thrips. Mimic® (tebufenozide - IGR) was also selected for its
potential control against banana scab moth and sugarcane bud moth. Moderate
pest pressure was achieved throughout the duration of this trial. Actara®
(thiamethoxam) gave the best control against all insects compared to the standard
treatment of chlorpyrifos. The results indicate Actara® can be used as an
alternative to chlorpyrifos as a broad-spectrum insecticide against all bunch pests
although further trials need to verify this. Actara® also has a safer environmental
profile and because of the chemical group’s new mode of action may be well for
inclusion in insecticide resistance strategies. Confidor® (imidacloprid) had the
greatest efficacy against banana rust thrips and banana flower thrips. Mimic®
(tebufenozide) was the most effective against banana scab moth and sugarcane
bud moth. Further work will be carried out investigating combining various
treatments to achieve complete control against all bunch pests.
Experiment 2. Biopesticides - The next experiment was carried out to examine
the potential of using biological insecticides based on insect pathogens. This
initial trial looked at four biopesticides, which included; (1) Success® (spinosad,
spinosyns A and D natralytes produced by a Saccropolyspora spinosa bacteria),
(2) Beauveria bassiana and (3) Metarhizium anisopliea (insect fungal pathogen
supplied by CSIRO insect pathology in Canberra) and Dipel® (secondary
metabolite produced by Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria. Moderate pest pressure
was achieved throughout the duration of this trial for all insect pests. Success®
gave excellent control against all insect pests. In this trial, it was the only
insecticide that gave 100% control against banana scab moth and banana rust
thrips. Metarhizium and Beauveria also performed well when compared to

chlorpyrifos. Dipel® was the least effective treatment in this trial, but still performed
well against banana scab moth and sugarcane bud moth. Based on these findings,
Spinosad, Metarhizium and Beauveria have the greatest potential as an alternative
to chlorpyrifos to control all the major insect pests in bananas applied as a
bunch spray. The results from these treatments against banana scab moth and
banana rust thrips suggest they may also be used as an alternative to other
insecticides when bell injecting. The rate of Dipel may need increasing to improve
efficacy and the Metarhizium and Beauveria formulations may need modification
to reduce slight problems of phytotoxicity.
Experiment 3. Insecticide impregnated plastics – This trial consisted of a total of
eight treatments which included a (1) new biodegradable plastic formulated bunch
cover (impregnated with chlorpyrifos at 1%) and three insecticide- impregnated
plastic strips which included: (2) SuScon strips (14% active ingredient) (3) Diazinon
strips (20% active ingredient) (4) Permethrin strips (8% active ingredient). The
(5-6) control treatments consisted of a “bagged no treatment” and a “no bag no
treatment”. The standard (7-8) included chlorpyrifos applied either as a bunch
spray or dust. The new chlorpyrifos-impregnated bunch covers gave the best
overall control for all bunch pests. In this trial, 100% control was achieved against
all pests except for sugarcane bud moth. The level of control against sugarcane
bud moth was still the best of all treatments. SuScon strips and Diazinon strips
gave equal control when compared to the chlorpyrifos standards of bunch spraying
and dusting. Permethrin strips were the least effective in this trial but a pest
damage decline could still be seen when compared to the controls. Equal control
was achieved against banana scab moth and banana flower thrips when compared
to the standards. The new chlorpyrifos impregnated bunch covers were the most
effective for controlling all bunch pests, possibly due to uniform distribution of
the active ingredient (chlorpyrifos), and look promising as an alternative to bunch
dusting for the control of all bunch pests. Both the SuScon and Diazinon strips
also proved effective against major pests relative to current practices. This could
be attributed to the high level of volatility of the insecticides formulated in the
plastic. An applicator has been developed for the SuScon strips for easy
application of the strip onto the bunch stalk. Permethrin was the least effective in
this trial, possibly due to a lower rate of volatilisation of the active ingredient.
However, when compared to the control treatment, a pest damage decline was
noticed.
Product registration – Spinosad, SuScon strips and impregnated bunch covers
are due for commercial registration by July 2003.
Project title: Management of banana leaf diseases in north
Queensland
Project duration: July 2000 - June 2003
Synopsis of project
Levels of yellow sigatoka (leaf spot) and the spread and apparent poor control of
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banana leaf rust is of concern to the north Queensland banana growers. This
project aims to examine various chemicals including new types of fungicides for
yellow sigatoka control, and investigate the epidemiology and control strategies
for leaf rust. Yellow sigatoka is the most important disease affecting bananas in
north Queensland and when control is not effective, plants are rapidly defoliated,
especially after bunching impairing fruit filling, inducing “mixed” ripening and
reducing yields. Leaf rust that was first identified about 8 years ago but considered
a minor disease, has spread through the industry and appears to be increasing
in significance. There are no control measures for rust.
Current chemical control measures for yellow sigatoka rely on the protectant
fungicide, mancozeb and the systemic fungicides, propiconazole, tebuconazole
and benomyl. Concerns have arisen recently regarding ‘resistance’ to these
systemics and a HRDC/QFVG funded project is examining the problem. A number
of ‘new chemistry’ fungicides (strobilurins and SARS) have shown promise for
the control of leaf diseases. A range of formulations of mancozeb and oil are
used but results are variable. Inoculum control is an integral part of yellow sigatoka
management and an understanding of local factors that influence inoculum
production is necessary.
This project comprises five components: 1) evaluation of the efficacy of ‘new
chemistry’, 2) assessment of the efficacy of mancozeb formulations, 3)
assessment of the efficacy of oils for yellow sigatoka control, 4) examination of
the seasonal production of ascospores and 5) examination of the epidemiology
and control of leaf rust.
Progress to date
Fungicide field trials (new fungicides, mancozeb) at SJRS
New chemistry evaluation - Treatment applications commenced on 4 March 2001.
Twelve treatments comprising seven fungicides and one defence activator used
alone and in spray programs with other chemicals were compared to the industry
standards mancozeb as Dithane M45® and propiconazole as Tilt®. The final disease
assessment was conducted in mid September (about 2 weeks prior to harvest).
The disease severity index (DSI) showed that the three strobilurins, Tega®,
Cabrio®and Amistar®, and the triazole JAU 6476 were more effective than
Dithane®, Calixin® and the Folicur® program.
Mancozeb (formulations x rates) evaluation – Treatment applications commenced
on 4 April 2001. Thirteen treatments consisting of four mancozeb formulations at
various rates of application were compared. All treatments included an equivalent
rate (5l/ha) of paraffinic oil. Disease pressure within the trial remained fairly low.
Low disease pressure is often associated with ‘plant crop’ bananas. The final
disease assessment was conducted in mid October (about 2 weeks prior to
harvest). The DSI showed there was no significant difference between treatments.
Assessment of the efficacy of oils for yellow sigatoka control
Five companies provided products for evaluation. These products included various
paraffinic oils, vegetable oil formulations, mixtures of vegetable oils and tea tree
oil and the adjuvant Nufilm®. These treatments were compared with the industry
standards BP Misting Oil® and Fuchs Spray Oil®. Rates of application of the BP
Misting Oil® were also compared making a total of 15 treatments. The standard
rate of Dithane® (2.2 kg/ha) was added to all treatments except tea tree oil. This
was done at the request of the supplier of the tea tree oil.
An assessment of youngest leaf spotted (YLS), total number of leaves and DSI
was made on 16 May following the 6th spray application. Disease pressure in the
guard row plants was moderate to severe. Results showed that the paraffinic oils
were significantly more effective than the vegetable oils and tea tree oil. The
industry standard BP Misting Oil® + Dithane® was also more effective than Nufilm®
+ Dithane®. The higher rates of application of BP Misting Oil® (8.0 and 10.0 l/ha)
gave more effective control of leaf spot than the standard rate of 5l/ha.
Glasshouse techniques for yellow sigatoka and rust investigations developed
The mass production of spores (conidia) of yellow sigatoka on artificial media
was successfully achieved in the laboratory. Symptoms of yellow sigatoka were
reproduced in the glasshouse under conditions of high light intensity. Initial attempts
to develop rust symptoms on inoculated plants were unsuccessful. Research
did not proceed any further due to the outbreak of black sigatoka in the Tully
valley in April 2001.
Rust fungicide field trials
At the commencement of 2001, contact was made with a number of growers and
a suitable trial site (rust had been a problem at this site for a number of seasons,
and the site was separate from the rest of the farm so avoiding spray drift) was
found at Paul McAvoy’s property at Garradunga just north of Innisfail.
Arrangements were made with the grower regarding access to the property and
compensation for the loss of fruit sprayed with un-registered chemicals. A broad
range of systemic (strobilurins and triazoles) and protectant fungicides were
obtained from the chemical companies. Research did not proceed any further
due to the outbreak of black sigatoka in the Tully valley in April 2001.
Early in 2002, growers were again contacted regarding establishing the rust
control trial. The trial did not proceed due to a lack of leaf rust in the region. This
was due to the prolonged dry weather and the intensive de-leafing program in the
region.
Project title: Development of bananas with resistance to Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. cubense (tropical race 4)
Project duration: 1 March 2001 -30 June 2005
Synopsis of project
The primary outcome from this program will be the effective management of the
devastating disease of bananas, fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum
f.sp. cubense (Foc) “tropical” race 4 through a program approach.
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Specific outcomes of this program will include the identification and commercial
adoption of a banana variety that is acceptable to domestic consumers and
profitable to produce in tropical areas of Australia infected with this strain of Foc.
Such varieties will be resistant, or at least tolerant, to this strain of the disease
whilst displaying acceptable agronomic requirements and marketability.
A condition of this program is that the conduct of the proposed R&D will not
increase the risk of Foc inoculum moving to the wider industry. That is, a further
outcome is the minimisation of risk associated with the research of Foc on a site
in the Darwin region.
Progress to date
A secure research facility with a capacity to test 20+ varieties of bananas has
been constructed and is operational with appropriate protocols in place. A 21
hectares site known as Coastal Plains Banana Quarantine Station (CPBQS)
has been fenced and a 2.7 hectares secure area known as Coastal Plains Banana
Quarantine Area (CPBQA) has been established within CPBQS.
Construction of the 2.7-meter high earth bund, 2-meter high security fence and
associated wash-down pads, internal earthworks and buildings was delayed about
6 months by prolonged wet weather and this has delayed the project overall. Site
works were completed on 6 June 2001 and the site was officially opened by the
NT Minister for Primary Industries on 9 June 2001.
Appropriate Quarantine Protocols have been developed and were implemented
on 22 August 2001. This is to test them for 2 months before inoculation takes
place.
All available test varieties have been established within CPBQA and are
approaching the size suitable for inoculation. Fourteen varieties have been
established and the remaining six are currently completing quarantine procedures
and will be established as soon as they become available.
The Management Committee has met regularly, has conducted site inspections
and has endorsed the facility suitability and the quarantine protocols.
Early identification of highly susceptible and possibly tolerant varieties in the
parent crop.
Six susceptible and highly susceptible types and six types, which, at this stage,
are resisting the disease under very high inoculum pressure, have been identified.
Criteria 1– Documentation of fusarium wilt rating and identification of susceptible
and potentially resistant varieties.
- Pisang Berangan is extremely susceptible and dies before reaching bunch
emergence stage in almost all cases. This confirms the Malaysian work.
This has been used to advantage as it was used as the sacrificial interplant
to build up inoculum in the site as well as a datum plant.
This variety began showing the first symptoms 6 weeks after being directly
inoculated in the field. A further 6 weeks later, some 547 of the 622 directly
inoculated plants were showing external symptoms of the disease and most
were severely affected.
- Cavendish [Williams 1017] and FHIA-17[944] are susceptible in the test site
with 20-25% of test plants at this stagehaving been rated as positive to Foc
tropical race 4 using the INIBAP guidelines and more plants developing
symptoms. It is to be reasonably expected that the remainder will develop
symptoms in time.
- Foc-susceptible malaccensis selections 845, 846, 848 are proving susceptible
in the test site with approximately 50% of test plants at this time being rated
as positive using the INIBAP guidelines. It can be reasonably expected that
the remainder will develop symptoms in time.
- Cavendish [GCTCV-119-ex Taiwan], FHIA -01[Goldfinger], FHIA-18, FHIA-25
and SH-3460.10 [High Noon] are not showing any symptoms at this stage
and could be considered potentially resistant at this stage.
In addition to the visual assessments being done on plants as per the INIBAP
guidelines, one sample has been taken from one plant assessed as positive to
Foc TR4 in each of the treatments where a susceptible plant has been identified.
This sample of pseudostem showing symptoms is being tested in the laboratory
for presence of Foc TR4. The laboratory procedures have not yet been completed
but preliminary results confirm the visual assessments as per the INIBAP
guidelines.
Criteria 2 – Strategy to protect IP and ensure the right to commercialize
development with each of the promising variety owners.
Strategy is to get written commercialization agreements with owners of non-
public varieties by direct negotiation.
Criteria 3 – Reports of Progress to HAL, Management Committee, National
Reference Group. The management committee meets at 6-9 week intervals or
as required and receives a full accounting of progress of the project at these
meetings.
Copies of this report are being sent to HAL, Management Committee and National
Reference Group. A separate report has been sent to QFVG.
Project title: Banana tissue culture for industry development
Summary
The Australian banana industry needs to address a range of issues in order to
maintain and expand its market share. They face a changing consumer focus,
more emphasis on environmental protection and sustainability issues as well as
increasing pressure from pests and diseases within Australia (e.g. subtropical
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and tropical Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) race 4, nematode, yellow
and black sigatoka, banana bunchy top virus) as well as from threats of exotic
pests and diseases. The Australian Banana Growers Council (ABGC), Banana
Industry Protection Board (BIPB, Queensland) and Banana Industry Committee
(BIC), New South Wales have identified national research and development
strategies to address these emerging problems. The strategies rely heavily on a
diverse range of banana varieties. Varieties sourced specifically for Australian
R&D need to enter Australia directly through our AQIS-registered tissue-culture
facility to safeguard against release of exotic pathogens. Industry requires
planting material to be pest- and disease-free and therefore able to be accessed
across the domestic quarantine zones and this can only be achieved using virus-
indexed tissue-cultured plants. Our laboratory is best able to deliver this outcome.
Current and future research into pest and disease, as well as industry development,
all rely on the use of banana germplasm (a diverse range of varieties)! The research
and support to be provided addresses the provision of banana material,
improvements in tissue culture and support of the Quality Banana Approved
Nursery (QBAN) Scheme to enable disease free plantlets to be distributed
anywhere in Australia. Maintenance of the large number of disease-free banana
varieties is managed by tissue culture storage. Plants stored in tissue culture
can be multiplied as needed in a short time frame and include varieties that are
not grown commercially and therefore not available elsewhere. In Australia, our
laboratory is the only laboratory that serves this vital function. There are over 20
current research projects (including black sigatoka exclusion strategies) utilizing
banana tissue culture plantlets from this banana germplasm collection. As well,
there is an increase in growers wanting to evaluate new varieties to explore their
potential in new markets.
Progress to date
This laboratory maintains an extensive collection of banana varieties used
specifically for industry development. The banana collection is maintained using
world’s best practice, at 16 oC to reduce subculture requirements. We currently
maintain approximately 400 accessions within our low temperature culture room.
To satisfy industry needs, we maintain these varieties “on call” ready to supply
plants in whatever quantity is required by researchers or growers. As part of this
project, we are looking at ways to improve efficiency of production and quality of
plants, with emphasis on germplasm storage and recalcitrant varieties. Since
the start of this project, we have been able to improve the condition and quality of
this material. We have developed improved methods of medium-term storage
conditions, including containment in plastic and increased light levels. We have
implemented improved procedures for routine initiation of cultures using dissected
meristems rather than shoot tips to eliminate detrimental bacterial contamination.
The result has been a significant improvement in the time of rotation of plants as
well as quality and multiplication! We are implementing new processes to improve
production of recalcitrant varieties. Reduction of apical dominance has been of
major importance to some varieties and requires damage to the apical dome
when plants stop multiplying.
• The field germplasm collection at Centre for Wet Tropics Agriculture has
been relocated on-station to rationalise and revitalise it. Approximately 200
varieties are maintained in this field collection. This year, 56 accessions
have been re-initiated into the tissue-culture collection using meristem culture.
These varieties will replace older, low-vigour accessions.
• Approximately 8000 plants were produced this year specifically to support

industry R&D. Plantlets were provided in 81 separate consignments produced
from 400 different accessions (20 consignments for ongoing research and
61 individual consignments for growers in NQ, SEQ, NSW, NT). Recipients
covered the production costs for these plants as part of the cost recovery
scheme.
• AQIS registration has been renewed to facilitate safe importation of varieties.

Importation of new varieties has been facilitated safely and efficiently. This
year, 20 new banana accessions have been introduced into Australia via this
laboratory. There are currently 37 accessions undergoing post entry evaluation
(some introduced last year). Plantlets from these accessions are multiplied
and maintained in tissue culture while original plants are grown in DPI
quarantine glasshouses at Eagle Farm and evaluated by DPI plant
pathologists and virologists before release. The post-entry evaluation process
takes between 8 to 12 months. This year, important varieties that have shown
resistance to Foc tropical race 4 from the Malaysian banana improvement
program have been released for specific research use. The plants have been
multiplied and supplied for assessment in the Foc tropical race 4 inoculated
field-trial site in the Northern Territory and will be planted in the field collection
block for agronomic evaluation.
• Plants for variety evaluation have been produced and are in nursery
establishment in North Queensland prior to field establishment. Grower
evaluation sites for niche varieties are due for planting in September 2002 in
North Queensland. Basic agronomic/yield/fruit quality information will be
collected. Once the varieties are bunching, a field walk will be organised for
growers to attend. In association with QHI Marketing Officer, we have been
working with a group of NQ growers doing market R&D for a range of niche
banana varieties with particular emphasis on Señorita.
• QBAN industry support provided. QBAN continues to expand as an important
sector of the Australian Banana industry. All of last year’s facilities renewed
membership. This year, we have 30% more fully accredited QBAN facilities
than last year. There are currently 24 QBAN facilities, 5 commercial
laboratories in Queensland, 4 commercial laboratories in NSW, 6 commercial
nurseries in Queensland and 3 nurseries in NSW. There is one DPI Research
tissue-culture laboratory and 5 DPI- and 1 University-registered research
facilities.
QBAN connections newsletter was written and distributed July 2002.
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Project title: Banana harvest forecasting project
Project duration: 3 January 2002 - 3 January 2003

Summary
The aim is to develop a system to allow the prediction of fruit production levels
throughout the year 3 months in advance and to provide industry with overall
general production figures 3 months in advance, and to set-up a system to aid
individual growers with the management of their bunch production data, which
can allow them to forecast banana harvest yield 3 months in advance.
The project aims to assist growers with the use of forecasting to improve farm
management and planning, and to provide stakeholders, as directed, with future
estimates of production in general.
The rate of filling of a banana finger is temperature dependent. The objective of
this one-year project is to examine the relationship between temperature and the
rate of filling of banana fruit with a view to using this to accurately predict harvest
volumes over a 3-month time frame.
The temperature can be used in different ways. The use of heat sums is a standard
way to forecast production volumes in other fruit production systems. We want
to monitor temperatures in five demarcated growing regions in north Queensland
and use this to produce heat sums for those regions and investigate suitability
for a forecasting system. Heat sums are a combination of the time for a particular
event to occur and the average temperature experienced during the period
monitored.
With bananas in particular, the rate of filling of the banana fruit is thought to be
linearly dependent on temperature over normal average field temperatures
(16-30 °C) and so, this will be investigated for possible use as a forecasting
method. Finally, plantation-specific systems used overseas will be investigated
for suitability in the Australian production situation. This is based on the seasonal
average interval between bell emergence and harvesting and is dependent on the
accumulation of good, accurate data from growers for accurate forecasting.
The aim is to set up a system that is simple and quick for growers to use. They
would input their bell injection and harvest data every 2 weeks and together with
temperature independently gathered, a forecast of number of bunches will be
calculated. The grower can also input his expected bunch/box ratio over the
3-month period and a forecast of the number of boxes will be given. The option to
add their figures to a general production figure may be possible.
Project title: PCR primer verification and analysis of the black
sigatoka outbreak in Tully
Project duration: 1 July 2002 - 31 December 2003
Summary
In April 2001, an outbreak of black sigatoka disease on banana occurred in the
Tully region. A DNA-based diagnostic test capable of distinguishing black and

yellow sigatoka fungi has been developed as part of a CRCTPP project. This test
has proved very useful but we now propose to:
(i) Study diversity within the pathogenic population in order to understand how
this outbreak may have arisen, whether from single or multiple incursions and if
there is any link with previous incursions. DNA is available from banana leaves
with suspected black sigatoka lesions. PCR primers will be developed which
give specific DNA products and comparisons will be made between these products
for different isolates collected during the outbreak. This will allow us to analyse
how the outbreak developed and thus form a better understanding of this disease
and implement plans for future eradications, if required.
(ii) Further develop the diagnostic test by ensuring that the primers detect all
major variants of the fungus, such as the suspected new species M. eumusae
that causes black Sigatoka-like symptoms.
Because of the proximity of Australia to the proposed centre of origin of the
various Mycosphaerella pathogens on banana, a larger screening of isolates of
Mycosphaerella.fijiensis and other Mycosphaerella spp. will be undertaken to
account for any variation. The primers used to detect black sigatoka will be
tested against all these samples to verify specificity for M.fijiensis and M.
eumusae.
This study will help ensure that the primers being used during the Tully black
sigatoka outbreak will detect possible future incursions of black sigatoka, which
may differ in sequence.
Progress to date
Milestone (2) due 30 January 2003
Description: Initial amplification and analysis of sequence of ITS region of
M. fijiensis of Australian isolates.
Criteria: Isolates of M. fijiensis collected, cloned and sequence data of the ITS
region of representative isolates.
Towards milestone 2
One researcher is focusing on assessing the diversity of the M. fijiensis isolates
implicated in the Tully incursion. He has examined the ITS sequence (a conserved
region) of isolates from the Tully incursion and compared this with isolates of M.
fijiensis previously collected in the Torres Straits and from earlier incursions from
Cape York and also with some samples of Mycosphaerella musicola (yellow
sigatoka agent) and some samplesisolates of other Mycosphaerella species.
We have requested DNA samples from the collection held by Dr Jean Carlier of
CIRAD in France for a range of M. fijiensis isolates, especially from the Pacific
Islands and PNG. Very preliminary data indicate that the Tully incursion has a
narrow genetic base, perhaps indicating that the outbreak arose from a single
source.
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Another researcher is focusing on further optimisation of diagnostic PCR primers
to differentiate black and yellow sigatoka. Recently, sequence data have become
available for M. eumusae, the causal agent of eumusae leaf streak disease,
which has similar characteristics to black sigatoka. To ensure that PCR diagnostic
can detect and distinguish this new variant, new primers are required for routine
screening. Fluorescent PCR is being considered as alternative detection platform
providing a faster and more sensitive assay.
Project title: Australian Bananas magazine – R&D section –
Technology transfer
Project duration: 1 November 2001 - 30 July 2003
Summary
Every year, research projects are undertaken for the banana industry by various
institutions and researchers throughout Australia. Dissemination of these results
is often in the form of a presentation and/or final report delivered by the researcher
at the end of the project. The published report is delivered to the relevant industry
bodies.
In addition, many past reports are relevant to immediate issues that are occurring
in the industry and it is often important to re-focus attention on past research and
apply the finding to current situations.
The Australian Banana Growers’ Council is seeking, through its magazine
Australian Bananas, to keep growers in all regions of Australia, informed of
research results, research that is relevant to current and emerging situations
and to deliver progress reports on continuing projects.
The Australian Banana Growers’ Council is also seeking information about the
industry of technology that has been taken up by other growers.
Output from the initiative would be a 25% representation of R&D projects and
information articles within the bi-annually published Australian Banana as
magazine, with a comprehensive listing of R&D projects annually and feature
articles of practical application of those initiatives. The July issue would be 48
pages (12 pages R&D) and the December issue 64 pages (16 pages R&D).
The expected outcome is that growers will be able to read the theory of particular
initiatives and read about growers that are applying either the technologies featured
in the magazine or other technologies that have been represented in the magazine
in the past. This would also provide growers with a contact person with whom to
talk over some of the issues. Surveys have suggested that growers obtain much
of their information from other growers. It is hoped that in this way new technologies
that are effective would be better taken up and applied.
Progress to date: 5 editions of Australian Banana magazine published
Project title: Benchmarking the Australian Banana Industry
Project duration: 1 November 2002 - 1 November 2003
Summary
This programme addresses the issue of improving the performance of banana
growing operations by providing growers with the necessary information to assess
quickly and easily their farm’s performance based on Key Performance Indicators
(KPIs). By monitoring these KPIs over a period of time and comparing them
against a farm’s past performance, against others in the same region, against
other regions and against their own targets, growers can obtain a picture of how
their operations are performing in relation to the wider industry. As the system is
able to return information quickly, growers can see almost immediately where
changes they have made have had an impact on their operation, whether in
relation to production or labour management.
The project delivers against R&D Priority “Information for Good Management “
1.1.2 (a priority 1 issue identified in the National R&D Plan Revisions 26/4/2001)
and is further enforced in the draft and R&D plan delivered in July 2002 under the
following headings:
6.1 “Increase the quality of industry intelligence available to growers at the
grassroots level to enable them to make more informed business
decisions utilising the national Benchmarking Project.”
11.4 “Take a leadership role in financing and directing of R&D expenditure.”
Benchmarking will be an invaluable tool providing insight in to where
R&D funding is most needed.
Both 6.1 and 11.4 were identified as “High Priorities” in the Draft National Strategic
and R&D Plans.
Progress to date
No Milestones have been completed as yet.
Data entry forms have been developed.
Project title: Identification in banana of defence genes and
analysis of their induction by beneficial
microorganisms, to confer resistance to soil-borne
pathogens.
Certain non-pathogenic strains of the fungus, Fusarium oxysporum, and certain
bacterial isolates (identified at UQ and QDPI) provide protection to banana plants
from infection by the fusarium wilt fungus (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense
[Foc]) and the burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis). The presence of such
beneficial microorganisms may be the underlying component in suppressive soils
where banana plants appear to be protected from these soil-borne pathogens.
This may also explain the problem of tissue-cultured banana plants being more
susceptible to fusarium wilt and to R. similis in the first year of planting cfr. non-
tissue cultured plants; tissue-cultured planting material may lack the beneficial
micro-organisms.
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We intend to investigate how this protection is conferred by determining if plant
defence genes are triggered by the presence of these non-pathogenic
microorganisms. Initially, plant defence genes will be isolated in banana. Plants
will be challenged with pathogenic microorganisms (Foc and R. similis) and with
beneficial microorganisms to determine if the latter is triggering a systemic defence
response and if so, whether it is sustainable.
By identifying the mechanisms by which these non-pathogenic microorganisms
confer resistance to Foc and burrowing nematode, we will be able to manipulate
these beneficial microorganisms to confer an effective sustainable control against
Foc and the burrowing nematode, whether applied in the field and/or to tissue
culture material.
In addition, a wild line of banana (Musa acuminata subspecies malaccensis) will
be investigated further to determine if a putative specific defence gene already
identified in these lines is associated with resistance to Foc. Identification of a
defence gene unique to the resistant malaccensis plants would have implications
for the production of resistant transgenic banana lines.
Progress to date
One scientist has been awarded a DPI/UQ scholarship to work on this project.
Putative defence genes have been identified and work is in progress to verify their
involvement in a plant defence response.
M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis lines are currently growing at the University’s
farm and crosses will be undertaken in the coming summer months.
Project title: Soil and root health for eco-banana production

Summary
This project aims to develop tools for banana growers to determine the health of
their soil, by providing practical and usable key soil indicators. The indicators
will be developed from a range of biological, physical and chemical soil
characteristics. These key soil indicators will be used to validate the improvement
in soil health by the use of pre-plant organic amendments and the use of interrow
crops. They will also be used to benchmark the current status of soil health on
banana farms and also to form a soil health scorecard for use by banana growers
that can be incorporated into a management system that allows for continuous
improvement in soil health.
A detailed survey will be used to develop the key soil health indicators. Only the
most practical and meaningful indicators will be used by banana growers, but
they will be correlated to measurements of soil processes such as the recycling
of nutrients and disease suppression. The survey to develop the key soil indicators
will be conducted on similar soil types from the main banana production areas.
In each production area, triplicate soil samples will be taken down the soil profile
to determine the effects farm management has on biological, physical and
chemical soil properties. The samples will be taken from a conventional banana
growing soil, a low-input or organic banana production system and an undisturbed
system, either rainforest or pasture. This will measure the effects of farm
management on soil properties and determine which soil characteristics are
most susceptible to change due to farm management. The soil characteristics,
which are most sensitive to change due to farmer’s management and the most
practical for the banana industry to use, will be adopted as key soil indicators
throughout the project.
The key soil indicators developed from the initial survey will be used to develop a
soil health scorecard for use by banana growers. The soil health scorecard will
be tested for practicality and reliability to indicate soil health by a second survey
over three years. The survey will take place yearly on banana farms on a range of
soil types and management practices. This will indicate the current soil health
status of banana soils and what soil characteristics need to be improved. It will
also allow banana growers to incorporate a soil health recording system into an
environmental management system to validate their method of farming to
environmental agencies and allow continuous improvement in soil health.
To help banana growers determine what is the best method to improve the health
of their soil, trials are planned to test pre-plant organic amendments and the use
of interrow crops. The pre-plant amendments applied to bananas are intended to
provide growers with workable solutions to improve the soil health indicators and
allow a more sustainable method of soil management. Pre-plant amendments
and the soil health indicators will be linked to the sustainability of banana
production by measuring plant growth and yields over a 3-year period. The
amendments will also be tested for their addition of nutrients and ability to
suppress soil-borne diseases. The use of pre-plant amendments builds on
information gathered from previous projects on the use of compost and mill ash
to develop disease-suppressive soils.
The use of crops in the interrow of bananas is intended to improve the plant, soil
and water relationships within the banana paddock and to reduce the movement
of sediment from the banana paddock. A number of shade tolerant species will
be tested for their ability to persist within the banana interrow, withstand traffic,
their resistance to soil-borne diseases and their agronomic suitability for a banana
production system. The effects of interrow species will also be tested for their
effects on the key soil health indicators to determine if this allows growers to
improve their soil health and the sustainability of banana growing. The use of
interrow crops builds on information gathered on the resistance of banana fallow
crops to soil-borne diseases.
The project to develop soil indicators to determine the health of banana-growing
soil has evolved due to the observations made of poor plant growth, restricted
root growth and plant toppling observed on banana farms when there is no plant
pathogen involved. Often the only apparent cause of poor plant growth is poor
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soil structure. The poor soil structure has been difficult to describe to banana
growers. The effect soil structural degradation has on banana growth has no
quantifiable or descriptive measures to indicate to banana growers how poor soil
health is impacting on plant growth. To increase the awareness of banana growers
of the effects of poor soil structure and soil degradation have on production and
sustainability of banana cultivation, pot trials have been included in the project.
The pot trials will also investigate the interaction of a pathogen, such as
nematodes and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc), on bananas in poorly
structured soil. This trial will demonstrate if soil conditions can increase the
susceptibility soil-borne disease has on banana growth.
The project aims to develop practical science for banana growers to develop
useful and practical indicators of soil health. To help with the adoption and uptake
of the use of soil indicators, an extension component of the project comprising a
biannual newsletter, annual farmer field schools and the development of a banana
root and soil health manual and testing kit will be developed. The soil health
manual and testing kit will complement one another and allow growers to use a
soil health scorecard to assess and validate their management practices in relation
to soil health. This information can then be incorporated into an environmental
management system for growers to continually improve the health of soils under
banana cultivation.
For banana growers to improve their knowledge of soil health practices, they
need indicators that can quantify and describe their current soil health status as
well as management options that growers can implement to improve soil health.
This project will improve the knowledge of soil health, allow growers to monitor
and validate soil health and give options to improve soil health management. As
a result of improved soil health from this project banana growers will be able to
reduce losses due to poor soil structure, validate their farming practices and
continuously improve soil health management to sustainably produce bananas
in Queensland.
Progress to date
The project has not officially started due to the delay in finalising approval from
HAL and agreement contracts. Some preliminary work has commenced and
protocols have been established for conducting trials in north and southeast
Queensland. A soil health kit has been delivered from the USA, which will form
the basis of the kit that will be made available to banana growers. The logistics of
how this will be used in the field are currently being determined.
Some pre-plant amendments have been collected, such as cattle paunch (abattoir
by-product), mill ash and sludge. A small pot trial has been conducted on the
use of paunch material supplied from the Innisfail meat works. The use of paunch
material was able to increase the leaf area of banana plants relative to untreated
soil. Paunch was not able to suppress nematodes in the soil in the 8-week pot
trial.
A preliminary pot trial investigating the impact of soil compaction on the growth
of banana plants with and without nematodes has been completed. Plants growing
in a soil with a high bulk density (compacted soil) had less chord roots than
plants growing in a soil with low soil bulk density. The amount of chord root was
significantly correlated with the growth of the plants. Plants with lesser chord
roots weighed less and were smaller than plants with a larger mass of chord
roots. The weight of root hairs was not related to the growth of the plants in this
trial. Plants growing in a soil with a high bulk density tended to have the corm
sitting on the soil surface rather than in the soil. Nematodes were also related to
reduced plant growth. More nematodes were found on smaller plants with smaller
root systems. The bulk density of the soil appeared to be the major factor limiting
plant growth, with nematodes being a secondary factor.
Seeds from 12 interrow pasture species have been collected and are currently
being tested for their ability to host burrowing nematodes at the Indooroopilly
Research Centre.
Selection of strains of beneficial microbes has been made to inoculate tissue
culture bananas to plant in the field. A commercial growth promoting rhizobacteria
that is currently available will be included in the trial.
Project title: Market-based analysis of constraints to banana industry
development in Indonesia and Australia
Project Duration: July 2000 - June 2002

Synopsis of project
This project will develop and use a participatory process to identify the major
constraints to the competitive performance of a horticultural industry in Indonesia
and Australia to:
- assist in industry development, and to
- more effectively direct R&D to priority areas with the greatest potential for
improving producer/smallholder profitability.
The project will test the usefulness of product market performance (how well the
product meets customer requirements for quality, volume and price) and supply
chain management (management of the product from planting to consumption)
both as drivers of industry development and to guide the contribution of R&D to
industry development.
Competitive pressures are rising throughout the food sector. To be successful in
this environment, producers and product handlers must actively collaborate to
manage the quality, quantity and price of their product to meet changing consumer
preferences. Industry profitability depends on efficiently managing factors such
as the costs of production, reduction of waste, introduction of new technologies,
and impacts of change in the socio-economic environment. These factors must
be managed, not just by producers but by all participants in the supply chain of
horticulture industries (from producers/smallholders to product handlers and
marketers) to provide the product that the market demands.
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Research and development agencies play a key role in horticulture industry
development. If R&D can impact on those aspects with most potential to increase
industry profitability, the maximum benefit to industry development and the greatest
return for the R&D investment dollar can result. Discussions with Asian colleagues
have indicated a similar need to target R&D efforts, with additional consideration
for ensuring flow of benefits to smallholders.
The project will document the system characteristics (from the market back to
production and R&D) of a selected horticultural industry (banana). The research
approach will utilise the systems assessment methods of La Gra (1990), and
the participatory approach advocated by Scoones and Thompson (1994), and
will draw on the proposed modules of the Business Development Planning
approach developed by Cull et al. (1998). Key participants in the supply chain
will generate the data and conduct the analysis of opportunities for improvement
in supply chains, working from existing procedures, expertise and experience in
the banana industry in Indonesia and Australia. Emphasis within the Indonesian
activities will be on the delivery of benefit to smallholders.
It is possible that large companies (e.g. Chiquita) have carried out these types of
studies; however the methods and results are generally commercial-in-confidence.
Involving these companies would require similar restrictions. International
experience indicates that government assistance is required to encourage and
facilitate chain development, and to ensure public availability of methodologies,
etc.
The banana industry status in Bangladesh 63
The banana industry status

in Bangladesh
Md Shahidul Islam* and Md Abdul Hoque
Bangladesh is an agricultural country, which lies between 20.34 and

26.38 0N latitude and 88.51 and 92.41 0E longitude. The country has a
total area of 147 570 square kilometers with a population of about 140
million. The land can be classified as 80% flood plain, 12% hilly areas
and 8% terrace soils. The pH of soil ranges between 4.5 and 8.5.
Bangladesh enjoys subtropical monsoon climate with temperatures
ranging from 4 0C in winter to 42 0C in summer and an average
temperature of 27 0C. July is the hottest and January is the coldest
month. Cold waves are frequent in winter. Low temperature for about
2 months causes injury to banana, particularly in the northern part
of the country. Annual rainfall varies from 1000 to 2500 millimeters.
Three quarters of the rainfall occurs in the hot and humid months of
May to September.
Area and production
Banana is the number one fruit in Bangladesh considering its year-
round availability, popularity and production. It accounts for 43% of
the total fruit production from 22% share in area. Total production of
banana is estimated to be 625,000 tonnes from 39,600 hectares. The
average yield of banana is 16 tonnes per hectare, which is lower,
compared to other banana-producing countries in the world. Area
and production of major fruit crops excluding palm are shown in
Table 1.
Uses
Banana is a rich source of calories. Dessert bananas are eaten as fresh
fruit while plantain is a good vegetable available throughout the year.
Ripe banana mixed with rice and milk is the traditional dish for
Bangladeshi. It is used in preparing cakes and other delicious foods.
Banana is often the first solid food fed to infants. Plantain has a great
demand in the urban areas during the lean period of vegetables from
May to October. It is used in fish curry and also mashed with spices.
Its green peel is also mashed and eaten. It has medicinal value too.
*Director General, BARI, Joydebpur, Gazipur, Bangladesh.

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Table 1. Area and production of major fruits in Bangladesh.
Crop Area (000 ha) Production (000 t)
Banana 39.6 625
Jackfruit 26.7 267
Mango 50.4 187
Pineapple 13.8 149
Watermelon 11.8 96
Guava 9.8 46
Papaya 5.6 41
Ber 4.2 15
Litchi 4.8 13
Citrus fruits 5.0 9
Other fruits 6.0 21
Total 177.7 1469
Consumption and trade

Almost all bananas produced in the country are consumed in the
domestic market. The export markets have their standards and to
achieve them, efforts have to be directed to producing good quality
fruits. A small quantity of banana is exported to the Middle East
countries. No statistical information is available on banana export.
Usually, banana passes two or three hands before it reaches the
consumer. Small farmers usually sell their produce to middlemen or
collectors in the village who then sell the bananas to wholesalers.
Retailers and hotels/restaurants will then obtain bananas from the
wholesalers. Finally, fruits are sold or served to consumers. Sometimes,
retailers obtain the bananas directly from the farmers and sell them at
the roadside fruit stalls or markets. As a result, farmers are deprived
of their actual price.
Country’s nutritional status
Malnutrition is widespread in the country. The average food intake is
deficient in calories, vitamins and minerals. Banana, the cheapest fruit
of Bangladesh can improve the situation.
Cultivars
Table banana. There are a number of cultivars of banana in Bangladesh.
Among them, Amritsagar, Sabri, Champa and Kabri are the
commercial cultivars. The other cultivars are BARI Kola 01,
Mehersagar, Dudsagar, Agniswar, Genasundari, Kanaibashi, Basrai,
Binisuta, etc. Horticulture Research Centre has 18 cultivars/landraces
of table banana in its collection. Besides, there are different types of
seeded cultivars growing in the homesteads, roadsides and forests all

over the country. These are tall plants, hardy and drought tolerant. It
takes long time to harvest. Most of those cultivars produce sweet fruits,
which are used as baby food, dessert and ingredient in baking cakes.
Its inflorescence is eaten as delicious vegetable.
Plantain. Nine distinct genotypes of plantain have been identified from
28 collections from different parts of the country. Field evaluation of
these selected genotypes was done along with FHIA-03. In this trial,
FHIA-03 has been found superior to all in terms of yield and disease
tolerance. The local genotypes were found susceptible to fusarium wilt.
Considering yield potential and disease tolerance, FHIA-03 was
released for cultivation as plantain.
The important banana cultivars grown in Bangladesh are described
below:
Amritsagar (AAA). Amritsagar is the best table banana in Bangladesh.
It fairly resembles the internationally reputed banana Gros Michel,
which once occupied 63% of the world market. Plants are medium-
sized, weak and cannot withstand strong wind. The ripe banana
develops a bright yellow colour. The pulp has a good taste. The average
bunch has 5-7 hands and 12-13 fingers in each hand.
Sabri (AAB, Syn: Malbhog, Anupam, Martaman). This is a favourite
table variety. The plant is tall and can be identified by the yellowish
green pseudostem with brownish blotches, reddish margins of the
petiole and leaf sheath. The average bunch weight is about 10 kg. A
bunch contains 85-120 fingers. Fruits are medium sized with a thin
peel, ivory-yellow in colour, firm in texture, sweet and tasty. It is highly
susceptible to fusarium wilt, which is a threat to its production and
cannot be cultivated more than two to three times in a ratooning
system. The other demerits are easy dropping of ripe fruits from the
hand and formation of hard lumps in the pulp. This variety is widely
grown in the north and western areas of Bangladesh.
Champa (AAB). It is one of the hardiest tall cultivars grown all over
the country. But its cultivation is widespread in Chittagong and
Chittagong Hill Districts. It can be grown under rainfed condition or
with scanty irrigation. The plant is resistant to fusarium wilt and fairly
resistant to bunchy top disease. Fruits are small in size with thin peel,
creamy pulp and sub-acid taste. Fruits turn golden-yellow when ripe
and have excellent keeping quality. The bunch contains 150-250 fingers
and its weight is about 16 kg.
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Mehersagar (AAA). The plant is medium-dwarf. Fruits are large,
greenish to dull yellow colour when ripe. The flesh is very soft and
sweet. The keeping quality of fruits is poor and the market price is
lower. The average bunch weight is about 15 kg. It is susceptible to
leaf spot diseases.
Kabri (AB). Kabri is known by different names such as Bangla, Shail,
Thutae, Manua, etc. The plant is hardy and can be grown without
much care. The fruits are very sweet, with a light yellow skin colour
and contain a few seeds in most cases.
BARI Kola-01 (AAA). Plants are semi-dwarf and produce bunches
23.7 kg in weight with 9-11 hands. Fruits are medium to large (150 g
each), bright yellow and sweet in taste.
Production constr
Production constraints
aints
Production practices
Banana production in Bangladesh can be categorized basically into
three systems: backyard, mixed and commercial smallholder
production. Backyard production of banana is common where the
growers produce banana primarily for home consumption. In this
system, crop management is very poor, but productivity and longevity
is high. Bananas are grown as perennials in homestead areas and
production is not seasonal. Practically no fertilizer or pesticides are
applied.
In a mixed-crop production system, banana plantations are inter-
cropped with potato, onion, mustard, radish, spinach, amaranth, bitter
gourd, cabbage, etc. to obtain additional income.
In some commercial smallholder plantations, banana is grown as a
monocrop. But most of the growers are not well aware of the modern
production practices.
Planting materials
Quality planting material is of prime importance for banana
production. But most growers are not aware of the sucker quality.
Suckers are mostly collected from old orchards without knowing their
disease status. Ultimately, the growers fail to produce a good crop.
Biotechnology division of BARI has developed the micropropagation
protocol of banana. The performance of tissue-cultured plants was
also demonstrated in some areas of the country. Tissue-cultured plants
showed better performance with respect to yield and quality of fruits.
Training programmes were organised for non-government organization

(NGO) personnel on the technique of micropropagation. Some NGOs
are producing banana plantlets on commercial basis.
Major pests and diseases
In Bangladesh, banana-scarring beetle is a serious problem, which
causes scars on the fruits by feeding on young flowers and fruits. The
fruits affected by this pest have poor market acceptability. In case of
severe incidence, yield is also reduced. A high incidence of scarring
beetle was observed in table banana varieties in ratoon crop. The
growers have been applying DDT and other systemic insecticides
directly on the bunch to protect fruits from beetle. Bagging by
polyethylene before opening of the first hand was proven successful
in controlling banana beetles. Mites and thrips cause considerable
damage to flowers and fruits but are not alarming with a few cases of
sporadic incidence. Banana aphid is widespread and causes damage
through transmission of Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV).
Fusarium wilt and sigatoka leaf spot are the serious diseases of banana
in Bangladesh. Table variety Sabri as well as plantain cultivars are
seriously damaged by fusarium wilt with a threat of extinction. The
use of disease-free planting materials and improved drainage system
can prevent infection. Most of the table and plantain cultivars are
susceptible to sigatoka. Tilt and Bavistin are found effective against the
disease. But farmers rarely spray their plants. Recently, Banana Streak
Virus (BSV) and Banana Bract Mosaic Virus (BBrMV) have been found
to be on increase in the country but no attention was paid to it yet.
Only BBTV is known to commercial growers and rouging is being
done by them. Tissue-cultured plants can play a vital role against this
serious disease.Nematodes are also a problem in banana, but no
research work was done in this area.
Environmental factors
Cyclones, drought, flood, cold temperature, etc. are commonly
experienced stresses in different banana-growing regions. The southern
part of Bangladesh is cyclone prone, causing occasional heavy
production loss. The eastern part is subject to monsoonal damage. In
winter, vegetative growth of banana is reduced and bunches are
underdeveloped because of low temperature lower than 20 0C for
about 2 months. The northern part also experiences drought for a
long period. Most of the low-lying areas are affected by flood almost
every year leading to production loss.
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Cur
Currrent banana R&D activities/prog
ogrrammes and institutions
activities/prog
involved
Research addressing the current problems
• Introduction and evaluation of improved varieties/landraces.
Eighteen accessions of banana were acquired in 2000 from INIBAP
Transit Centre (ITC) through INIBAP. Out of these, 15 accessions
were planted in the field for sigatoka diseaseand performance
evaluation under International Musa Testing programme (IMTP)
Phase III. Two more accessions will be received soon. It is expected
that from the collections, variety(ies) will be developed and released
for commercial cultivation in Bangladesh.
• Collection and maintenance of local germplasm. Twenty-eight
accessions were collected for characterization and conservation
in the field. The collection is being continued.
• Improvement of local germplasm for hilly region through clonal
selection.
• Soil nutrition management. Banana is a quick-growing plant. It
requires sufficient nutrients for its growth. In hilly areas and
homesteads, bananas are being grown without any fertilizer. Only
the commercial growers use fertilizers but not properly, although
there is a recommendation for it (Fertilizer Recommendation Guide,
1997). Most of the growers use high amount of phosphate and
urea but low potash. Effects of macronutrients on banana were
studied at some locations but not micronutrients. Thus,
micronutrient requirements for banana under Bangladeshi
condition is yet to be standardized based on research findings. At
present, deficiency of zinc and boron is exhibited in the field.
• Studies on water management. In hilly areas local cultivars are
grown under rainfed conditions while flood irrigation is practiced
in commercial plantations. Research has been initiated on efficacy
of drip irrigation system in banana.
• Postharvest handling. Bananas are transported to the nearby
markets usually by bicycles, tricycles, wheel barrow, boats and
shoulder carriers. Trucks are used for distant city markets. About
20-30% of the fruits are damaged due to heavy pressure on the
bunches and rough handling during loading and unloading.
Natural ripening of banana is done for home consumption only.
Heat treatment is the common method for ripening banana in
commercial scale. Heating is done either by a candle or burning
rice husk to banana covered with polyethylene film for 12 hours.

Some businessmen also use ethrel to hasten ripening. No processing
industry for banana is developed in the country. Research on
packaging and ripening of banana has been initiated to minimize
postharvest losses.
• Crop protection programme. A programme has been developed
for collection and identification of different types/races of
nematodes and Fusarium-causing diseases in banana.
Development activities
• To promote banana production and improve fruit quality, field days
and training programmes were organized for the banana growers,
NGOs and extension personnel.
• The bagging technology against beetle was disseminated through
mass media.
• A good number of tissue-cultured suckers of commercial cultivars
was distributed from GO and NGO laboratories.
• The advantage of using organic fertilizer on banana was
demonstrated in the farmers’ fields by a fertilizer company in
collaboration with BARI.
Institutions involved in banana research
Research on banana is conducted at the Horticultural Research Centre,
BARI under the NARS. Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) and
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University
(BSMRAU) are also engaged in research activities on banana.
Opportunities and thrusts
Opportunities
Banana is a popular fruit in the country. It is the only fruit which is
within the buying capacity of the poor people. Therefore, it is of prime
importance to increase production to meet the demand of the country.
The following are the opportunities to improve the present situation
of banana industry in Bangladesh:
• Utilization of hilly areas for banana cultivation;
• Intervention of modern varieties and technologies for both plain
and hilly areas;
• Use of improved cultural practices;
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• Reduction of postharvest losses
There is also possibility to export fresh banana and its products.
Thrusts
Research thrusts have been given on variety improvement, production
of disease-free planting materials, disease management and postharvest
management of banana. Emphasis has been given on field days,
demonstration and training programmes for quick dissemination of
the technologies. Prime importance has also been given to the
maintenance of disease-free mother plants of commercial cultivars and
released varieties for large-scale multiplication and distribution to the
growers.
Proposed ar
Proposed eas of colla
areas bor
collabor ation
bora
Collaboration for banana research is needed in the following fields:
• Variety improvement through germplasm exchange;
• Banana diseases (identification, yield loss assessment, indexing and
management);
• Banana sucker multiplication through tissue culture;
• Postharvest studies (handling and processing);
• Human resources development (training, visits, higher studies, etc.).
An overview of the production and banana research in Cambodia 71
An overview of the production and banana

research in Cambodia
Men Sarom*
Sarom*
Introduction
Introduction
Cambodia is a country in Southeast Asia in the southwestern corner
of Indochina. It occupies a compact territory covering 181 035 square
o
kilometers. The country is extended in latitude between 10-15 N and
o
in longitude between 102-108 E. To the north the country is bordered
by Thailand and Laos, to the east and south by Vietnam, and to the
west by Thailand and Gulf of Siam.
Cambodia has a tropical monsoonal climate with defined dry and wet
seasons. The dry season is from November to April, and the wet season
is from May to October. The annual rainfall ranges from 1250 to 4000
millimeters. It is low in the central plain and increasing towards the
Gulf of Siam. The mean temperature ranges from 21 to 35 OC, with the
highest temperature in April (30-35 0C) and the lowest in January
(21-25 0C). The central plain is the hottest spot in the country and it is
cooler in the east and southwest regions. Across the country,
photoperiod ranges from about 11 hours 14 minutes to 13 hours 01
minute with the shortest daylength occurring in late December and
the longest in June (List 1958).
Cambodia is a country of 12 million inhabitants with an annual
population growth rate of 2.4%. Cambodia is predominately a rural
economy with more than 84% of the active Cambodian population
rural or agrarian. Most are farmers. In 2000, agriculture contributes
approximately 34.1% to the gross domestic product (GDP) with a
further 25.5% coming from industry and 40.4% from services (MEF
2001). Agriculture contribution to the GDP has decreased from 44.7%
in 1994 to 34.1% in 2000, while industry increased from 15.0% in 1994
to 25.5% in 2000.
Within the agricultural sector, crops are the main contributors to the
GDP. Rice is the main crop followed by maize, beans, vegetables and
fruit crops. Within the last group, banana, or Chek in Khmer, plays a
very important role in the daily diet of the people.
*Director, CARDI, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

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Banana plays a very important role in the lives of many Cambodians.
Apart from the daily diet that it can provide, banana is a highly valued
fruit that is used very frequently in the religious ceremonies. It is a
healthy fruit crop and is used in preparing many dishes.
In Cambodia, the date when banana was first grown is not known.
Nevertheless, as the country is located within the region of the centre
of origin of banana, genetic diversity of the crop is very high. Many
landraces are found as well as many wild species. Unfortunately, no
study has been conducted and collection has not been carried out.
Banana is still grown in smallholdings with its number varying from a
single hill to few hundreds. The crop is normally planted close to the
house where care can be taken. Banana is grown in almost all types of
soils, but more productive crops are found in the regions close to the
rivers and in the central and northeast highland regions of the country
where red soil is prevalent. Due to the scale of its production, official
statistics on the area, volume and yield are not possible to collate.
Commercial cultivars
There are several major commercial cultivars planted in the country.
These are:
Chek Namva. This is the most popular cultivar in
the country. Its production exceeds all other types
of banana and there are a lot of recipes using this
variety. The male bud is used as vegetable, fresh or
cooked. Leaves are used for packing and wrapping.
Several subtypes of Chek Namva are found such as Pluk, Preng and
Phnom.
Chek Ambong. The production area covered by the
cultivar is largest in the country. It is obviously the
sweetest banana with mild aroma. It has the biggest
bunch, hands and fingers among others. There are
several subtypes of Chek Ambong like Kiev, Pluk, Voar, Toeu and Yuon.
Chek Pong Moan (chicken-egg banana). Chek Pong
Moan is the most delicious and is the most expensive
one in the country. Two subtypes of Chek Pong Moan
are listed; these are Krachak Andoek and Pluk.
Chek Nuon. This is similar to Chek Pong Moan but

not as delicious and larger in size. The skin is thin
and the stem is similar to that of Chek Pong Moan.
Chek Meas Sgnuon. This is similar to Chek Nuon but

has different taste. The fruits have sweet-sour taste.
Chek Teuk (water banana). By its name, this banana is more tolerant to
waterlogging, but its fruits have no commercial value. It is grown
mainly in the low-lying areas where water logging is a problem and
where no other types of banana can be grown.
Chek Snap Mouk (masked face banana). This banana can only be
found in some areas. The fruits are big and are eaten boiled when
they are ripe.
Chek Muoy Roy Snit (one hundred hands). This type of banana has no
commercial value but it can be a good genetic source for cultivar
improvement. Many hands rise from the stalk but fruits are not fully
developed.
Chek Chvea. It is a seeded banana. It is grown in farmers’ backyards
but normally far away from the house. It is believed that this banana
has the power to attract the spirit and so it is not advisable to grow it
next to the house.
Chek Tes (decorative type). This is a decorative banana and is grown
mainly for its nice flowers. The flower can be red or yellow.
Uses of banana
Banana is a very important crop for Cambodians. All parts of the crop
are used, but that depends on the type of banana grown. Table 1 presents
some of these uses.
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
There are many problems associated with banana plantation, but as
no research has been conducted in this area, the causes of those are
still unclear. The only problem that has been widely reported is fusarium
wilt.
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Table 1. Uses of the different parts of commercially-grown banana cultivars
in Cambodia.
Banana
Stem Leaves Male bud Fruits
cultivars
Chek Namva Can be used Used as Used as fresh Used both green
as food (fresh wrapping salad or cooked and ripe. When
and cooked) materials green, it is used for
and feed (for cooking. Ripe
pig and cattle) banana can be
eaten fresh, fried,
boiled or in many
different forms of
preparations.
Chek Ambong Occasionally Mainly used as
used as cooked dessert because of
recipe their sweetness
and mild aroma.
Eaten as fresh ripe
fruits only.
Chek Pong The most delicious
Moan banana. The fruits
are small, but have
very tasty flavour
and texture. Eaten
as fresh ripe fruits
only.
Chek Nuon Mainly used as
dessert because of
their sweetness.
Eaten as fresh ripe
fruits only.
Chek Meas Similar to Chek
Sgnuon Nuon, but the ripe
fruits are more
acidic. Eaten as
fresh ripe fruits
only.
Chek Tuk Occasionally Good Occasionally Have strong aroma,
used as feed wrapping used as cooked but very soft
material recipe consistency. Not
very popular.
Chek Snap Ripe banana is
Muok boiled
Chek Muoy There are many
Roy Snit small hands on a
long bunch. The
fruits are not eaten
and have no
economic value.
Chek Chvea Occasionally Good Occasionally Because the ripe
used as feed wrapping used as fruits can be full of
material cooked seeds, only young
recipe green fruits are
used. It is
fermented.
Chek Meas Used mainly for
decoration
The use of suckers as seed stock is the main practice in Cambodia. To a
lesser extent, for planting a new crop, the use of rhizome is also
practised. Normally, for the new plantation, suckers separated from
the main stem are planted in a prepared pit. Commonly, suckers with
three to four leaves are used. Cow manure and/or compost is mixed
with the soil for filling the pit. Distance between pits is 2.5 x 4 meters
or 3 x 4 meters. Two to three cycles of generation are kept before a new
crop is established. Due to this practice, the spread of diseases such as
fusarium wilt is difficult to control and/or eliminate and the yield
becomes poorer from one cycle to the next. It is also possible that some
pest populations can build up over the years.
• Water. Water is the major environmental constraint to the
production of banana. Rain in most cases provides the sole source
of water available to the crop. Rainfall is variable in its amount
and distribution, so much so, it can substantially affect the
productivity of the crop. Floods may occur with excessive rain,
and can cause massive decline in production, yield and quality.
• Wind. Damage to the stem and leaves caused by wind can also be
observed very frequently when there is a storm.
Others
• Research and development. Because of resources constraint, public
investment in agricultural research constitutes only a small portion
of the total government budget. Needed infrastructure is not present
and there is a big shortage of manpower in agricultural research.
Presently, the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute (CARDI) is the first and only agricultural research institute
in the country where a significant mass of researchers are employed.
Current banana R&D activities
At present, there are no R&D activities in any of the areas below:
• Germplasm collection/conservation
• Nutrition
• Irrigation
• Plant protection
• Production systems
• Postharvest
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As mentioned earlier, Cambodia is rich in genetic diversity of the Musa
species. The need for their collection and conservation therefore
requires special attention. The level of banana consumption in the
country is high, thus increasing the production level is regarded as a
major role in the policy guideline of the Royal Government of
Cambodia in alleviating poverty in the country. In this regard, varietal
improvement of banana and protection measures from major pests
and diseases are very urgent issues.
Areas for future collaboration
• Germplasm collection and conservation
• Germplasm improvement
• Research support on every area including nutrition and water,
plant protection, production systems, postharvest handling, etc.
• Human resource development program
References
List, R.J. 1958. Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. Smithsonian
Institution. Washington, DC, USA.
MEF. 2001. Report of the Ministry of Economics and Finance, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Production and banana R&D in China 77
Production and banana R&D in China
Xu Linbing*, Huang Bingzhi and Wei Y

Wei uer
Yuerong
uerong

Banana is one of the most important fruits in China. The total area
planted to banana is 259 000 hectares and among the fruits grown in
China, it ranks seventh in terms of area. In 2001, the volume of
production reached 5 393 000 tonnes and it ranked fourth next to
apple, citrus and pear. Based on the worldwide statistics from FAO
(2001), the production and planting area of China are fourth and fifth,
respectively. In the last 20 years, the production of banana in China
has been developed steadily, which contributed to China’s development.
Although some commercial plantations used to get yields as high as
60 000 kilograms per hectare in some years, the current average yield
is 20 822 kilograms per hectare. This is due to typhoon and chilling.
However, it is still the most productive fruit in China. The main
consumption market is in the northern part of China. In 2000, China
exported 50 248 tonnes, valued at US$33.05 million and at the same
time, imported 593 533 tonnes, which is about US$169.3 million.
The major cultivar types planted are Xiangjiao (AAA, Cavendish),
Fenjiao (ABB, Pisang Awak) and Dajiao (ABB, just like Bluggoe). Among
Xiangjiao cultivars, Brazil Xiangjiao (a variety introduced from Brazil,
like Valery) is the most popular. The others are Williams, Guangdong
No. 2 and local cultivar Gaojiao Dundilei, etc.
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
Yellow sigatoka (without black sigatoka) is the most common disease.
Expensive chemicals (such as Tilt, Indar) are used to control it. Banana
Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) occurred in older field-plantings, but
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) has become more serious than BBTV
in new plantations due to popular adoption of tissue-cultured plants.
The severe infection of Cavendish by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense
(Foc) race 4 is found in some areas of Zhongshan and Panyu City
with the tendency of fast spreading, and the control of it is still under
study. In the last 2-3 years, the harm of banana leaves by an insect leaf
*Vice Director, Pomology Research Institute, GAAS, Guangzhou, China.

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roller (Prodenia litura Fabr.) is very common. The pseudostem borer
(Odoiporus longicollis Olivier) also appears in old plantations. The
banana root knot nematodes [Meloidogyne javanica (Treub) Chitwood],
[M. arenaria (Neal) Chitwood], occurs in some sandy fields in Hainan
and Fujian province, as well as other nematodes such as Rotylenchulus
reniformis Linford & Oliveira.
The commodity consciousness of farmers is not strong, which leads to
bad fruit quality. But competing with imported banana, field
dehanding and hand pruning are becoming popular. Seven to eight
hands per bunch are recommended. Flower relicts are left and
considered to help the finger grow longer. However, this makes the
fruit more prone to postharvest diseases. Bunch protection is neglected
sometimes causing too much finger scars. Because of wide range of
plantation in China, no exact fruit age identification is recommended.
The grower harvests the bunch just by experience although the date
of flowering is marked.
Most planting areas are suitable for banana growth. The quality of
fruit is the best when harvested in December–May during the warmer
winter, and some planting areas have been damaged by typhoon in
summer and fall and sometimes by chilling in winter.
Cur
Currrent banana R&D activities
activities,, prog
ogrrammes and institutions
prog
involved
Germplasm
China is located in the north fringe of the world’s origin of banana
especially Cavendish. Fruit-tree Research Institute of Guangdong
Academy of Agricultural Sciences (GAAS) has carried out the collection
of banana germplasm since 1950. In 1989, the National Fruit Tree
Germplasm-Guangzhou Banana Field Gene Bank was set up, with
the help of government funds of which the number of accessions was
210. At present, 170 accessions are conserved in the field and
duplicated in vitro. The agronomic characters of most accessions have
been appraised and recorded. Some of them are classified by
isoperoxidase analyses. Recently, identification and classification of
35 banana varieties were studied based on AFLP analysis. The results
showed that the 35 Musa AAA group Cavendish varieties could be
divided into six subgroups, and three banana varieties (Jineiya,
Pingguo and Yangjiangai) from different countries are actually the
Production and banana R&D in China 79
same. The results based on the molecular level could provide theoretical
basis for the classification of Musa AAA group Cavendish. At the same
time, some rare and excellent germplasm has been applied and
popularized in banana production, such as Fenjiao, Longyajiao,
Gongjiao and so on.
Nutrition and water
Based on the study of nutritional requirement and the fertility
investigation of different soil types, the research group headed by Soil
Fertilizer Research Institute of GAAS, has worked out banana specific
fertilizer through adjusting the ratio of N:P:K, and sometimes adding
Mg, S, Ca and B element. It was proven that the banana specific
fertilizer had larger application areas and better effects than ordinary
compound fertilizer. Through treatment of balanced nutrition and good
irrigation, the yield of banana per plant and per hectare has been
improved remarkably; the maximum reaches to 95.5 kilograms and
75 tonnes, respectively. At present, water management is still a problem
in the banana production, because water distribution is seasonal,
summer and autumn are rainy seasons, but winter and spring are dry
seasons. Modern irrigation system is little use in the banana plantations.
Some farmers usually dig some deep wells and use pump for irrigation.
The study of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) on banana was
done by Green Giant Environmental Biotechnology Limited by Dr
Huang Jinxian. The results indicate that VAM plantlets grow faster,
flowering and harvest earlier and have bigger fingers than the control.
Table 1. The effect of VAM on banana plants.

Number of plants Bunch Finger
Number of Height Shooted
Treatment shooted weight length
plants (m) (%)
before May (kg) (cm)
VAM 291 2.25 245 84.2 29.5 27.3

Control 131 2.01 10 7.63 25.5 24.4
Production systems
The current production systems are mainly in smallholders; sale is
separated from cultivation which leads to high cost and poor quality.
Thus, intensive and industrial production systems must be established,
such as banana production cooperative group with a famous
trademark.
Postharvest
Recently, our technology and equipments of postharvest lagged behind
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banana production. The equipment for harvest and package handling
are rough, resulting to many scars and bruises on the fingers. Most of
bananas are below B class.
China became a member of WTO last year which provides many
opportunities. Because we have wide places and appropriate climate
for banana production, the redundant banana will have more markets
than before. At the same time, the competence from overseas brings
us big thrusts. The key is how to use biotechnology to breed new
cultivars resistant to the diseases, extend the new technology, and
improve the quality and efficiency of the production.
Proposed ar
areas bor
collabor ation
bora
Rapid propagation
Tissue culture plant (TCP) is the most popular planting material in
China. 80-90% of TCP are used for new plantations. Generally
speaking, less than 3% off-type plants can be found in the field. More
than 100 million TCP are planted every year. With the low price, it
can be exported to other countries.
Excellent germplasm exchange
Germplasm exchange can screen some excellent cultivars and help
produce some disease-resistant cultivars. Improve the banana industry
in China through INIBAP collaboration.
Harvest and postharvest management, technology and equipments
Marketing management
These are the shortcomings of banana industry in China.
Status of banana industry in India 81
Status of banana industry in India

M.M. Mustaf
Mustafffa* and S
S.. Sathiamoor
Sathiamoor thy
thiamoorthy
Introduction
Introduction
Banana and plantain is one of the popular fruits in the world in terms
of production and per capita consumption aside from being one of
the important fruits of commerce. Banana and plantain is the fourth
important global agricultural commodity after rice, wheat and maize
in terms of gross value of production. It is cultivated in over a hundred
countries throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
Banana in India
There has been a gradual increase in production of banana during the
last 30 years and in the last decade, a spectacular growth has been
witnessed due to the concerted efforts in banana research. The area
has doubled from 200 000 hectares in early 1970s to 490 000 hectares
in 2000 (Table 1). The banana production has made a giant leap by
five times from 3.0 million tonnes in 1970s to 16.8 million tonnes in
2000. Productivity has also increased from 11.5 tonnes per hectare to
34.3 tonnes per hectare (national average), while in some states it is
recorded as 60 tonnes per hectare. This significant increase in the
production and productivity of banana happened due to adoption of
improved cultivars, production technologies like optimum plant
density; nutrition and water management coupled with integrated
pest management strategies.
Table 1. Growth of banana industry in India.
Area % Production % Productivity
Year
(ha) Increase (t) Increase (t/ha)
1962 2.0 --- 2.6 --- 11.5
1977 2.4 48.0 5.9 153.4 15.54
1987 3.0 150.0 8.9 255.0 17.42
1993 4.3 215.0 11.9 457.0 27.57
1997 4.4 220.0 13.33 512.0 29.7
2000 4.9 245.0 16.81 696.0 34.3
Although banana prefers tropical climate, it is well adapted to humid

tropics, humid subtropics and semi arid subtropics and from the sea
level up to an elevation of 2000 meters above mean sea level. Major
*Principal Scientist, NRCB, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
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growing states are: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa
and West Bengal. Other states have limited area and production.
Among the states, highest productivity is recorded in Maharashtra
followed by Tamil Nadu (Table 2).
Table 2. Area, production and productivity of banana in India (2000).

States Area (ha) Production (t) Productivity (t/ha)
Tamil Nadu 92 158 4 856 416 52.70
Maharashtra 72 175 4 330 500 60.00
Karnataka 61 031 2 015 013 33.02
Andhra Pradesh 48 500 1 212 500 25.00
Assam 41 922 583 383 13.92
Gujarat 34 201 1 109 069 32.43
Bihar 29 196 583 920 20.00
Kerala 27 914 393 720 14.10
Madhya Pradesh 23 860 965 375 40.46
West Bengal 18 810 331 400 17.62
Orissa 16 350 193 540 11.84
Tripura 4 033 27 400 6.79
Others 20 278 209 922 10.35
Total 490 428 6 812 158 34.28
Source: National Horticulture Board, Yearbook – 2002.
Major commercial cultivars

India is home to a wide range of Musa cultivars with varying genomic
status and is endowed with diverse agro-climatic conditions, which
has encouraged the development and sustenance of a large number
of varieties catering to local needs. Though more than 20 varieties
have assumed the status of commercial cultivation, Cavendish groups
form the mainstay of Indian banana industry, owing to its high yield,
wider market acceptability, shorter crop duration and high economic
returns per unit area. Table 3 shows the important cultivars in India
with their areas of production. Poovan is another cultivar grown
commercially in different regions for its wider adaptability and
tolerance to drought and diseases. Rasthali is grown in some specific
regions due to its premium market price. Ney Poovan is also grown
commercially in many parts of the country. Virupakshi, Monthan,
Karpuravalli and Chakkia are also important in some states. Nendran
is especially grown in Kerala and Tamil Nadu due to the local
preference. The varietal situation prevailing in different states/regions
indicates the regional adaptation, sustainability and regional
preferences.
Table 3. Important banana cultivars and their areas of production.

Ploidy/genome Cultivars State
Diploid
AA Matti Tamil Nadu
AB Ney Poovan Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Maharashtra
Kunnan Tamil Nadu
Triploid
AAA Robusta Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Cavendish Gujarat, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Assam
Red banana Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
AAB Poovan Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar,
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal
Rasthali Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Assam
Virupakshi (Pome) Tamil Nadu
Pachanadan Tamil Nadu
(Pome)
Nendran Tamil Nadu, Kerala
ABB Karpuravalli Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal
Pey Kunnan Tamil Nadu
Monthan Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
Ney Vannan Tamil Nadu
Chakkia Tamil Nadu
Selection
Gandevi, a mutant of Giant Cavendish has exhibited its superiority
with an average yield of 45 kg bunch as compared to other Cavendish
selections namely, Shrimanti, Padarse, etc.
A promising selection was made from Karpuravalli at NRCB, which
is under multilocation trials. The selection is with 16 to 18 hands and
produces 35 to 45 kg bunch with uniform sized fingers having better
shelf life.
Promising hybrids
Promising
In India, earlier efforts have been made by Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University (TNAU), Coimbatore but were successful in a very limited
scale, in breeding AAB Prata dessert bananas (Pome type). Diploid
male parents breeding at TNAU as potential sources of resistance to
Mycosphaerella spp.; Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) and
nematodes has resulted in development of 25 useful lines. Later,
breeding work was also initiated at Banana Research Station, Kannara
and Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur.
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Co-1
It is a promising Pome hybrid resulting from 3-way sequential crosses.
It produces the typical acid/apple flavour of Virupakshi even in plains,
contrary to Virupakshi, which develops aroma only when grown at
higher altitudes.
H 1 (Agniswar x Pisang Lilin)
A shorter cropping cycle hybrid with resistance to leaf spot, fusarium
wilt and burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis). It is a medium to
tall plant, with a bunch weight of 14-16 kg. Elongated fruits turn
attractive golden yellow upon ripening. It has a slightly acidic fruit
and on full ripening, it develops high sugar content. H 1 has a
remarkable early ratooning ability, completing 4 crop cycles in 3 years.
This hybrid is immune to sigatoka leaf spot diseases.
H 2 (Vannan x Pisang Lilin)
A hybrid developed at Kerala Agricultural University (KAU), Kannara,
is a medium-stature plant of 7-8 ft in height. Crop cycle is short with
bunch coming to harvest in 11-12 months. Average weight of the bunch
is 15-20 kg with short, stout, dark green Poovan - like fruits, which
are arranged very compactly. Fruits are slightly acidic with pleasant
sweet sour aroma. It is highly tolerant to leaf-spot disease and
nematodes, hence, suitable for subsistence cultivation.
Uses
Bananas and plantains have high carbohydrate and low fat contents,
making them useful particularly in low-fat diets. They are also good
sources of many vitamins and minerals particularly vitamin A
(carotene), vitamin B (thiamin, niacin and riboflavin), B6 and vitamin
C (ascorbic acid). Banana is low in sodium, making it a salt-free food.
Due to the low lipid and higher energy value, bananas are
recommended for obese and geriatric patients. Banana fruits, being
rich in vitamin A, act as an aid to digestion. Boiled, mashed fruits are
good for relieving constipation. The juice from the male bud provides
remedy for stomach problems. Bananas are often used as the first solid
food fed to infants in many parts of the globe, as they are readily
acceptable and easily digestible.
Dried banana leaves are used as fuel in the rural areas of India. The
dried sheaths are tightly twisted and made into two feet long sticks.
In addition, dried banana leaves are used for thatching the roofs and
also as a fence, which prevents the sun radiation and reduces the
pollution, it is popular in banana growing villages. Recently, use of

dried banana leaves has been reported as a better substrate to grow
oyster mushrooms than paddy straw.
All parts of the plant are useful. Paper board, tissue paper, etc., can be
prepared out of banana pseudostem. Various products like banana
chips, banana fig, ready to serve drink, flour and powder, jam,
confections, dehydration of core slices, wine, pickles from male bud,
immature fruit and stem, etc., can be made. Half of the bananas of the
world are eaten as cooked vegetable.
Banana fibre extracted from pseudostem waste has great scope in the
preparation of products like marine cordages, high quality paper
cardboards, tea bags, string thread, high quality fabric material and
paper for currency notes. Banana fibre being a natural sorbent has
high potential in absorbing the spilled oils in the refineries.
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
• Availability of disease-free planting materials
In India, banana is mostly propagated by suckers and to a smaller
extent, by tissue culture. Due to the repeated replanting of the
suckers from the infected areas, the banana industry is under threat
due to low yield, increased cost of cultivation and low income due
to higher incidence of diseases. The recent identification of new virus
diseases due to the Banana Streak Virus (BSV) and Banana Bract
Mosaic Virus (BBrMV) in banana has threatened the banana
industry. This situation has forced the farmers to search for disease-
free planting materials, which is highly essential for successful
banana production.
• Clump spacing, management and root health
The adoption of annual planting in most parts of banana growing
states has lead to increased unit cost of banana production in contrast
to the perennial cultivation adopted in other parts of the globe. In
the annual planting system, clump management is vital to get
maximum production with minimum cost of cultivation.
Management of root health is most important for better absorption
of nutrients and water for better growth and yield in clump
management.
• Integrated nutrient and water management
Banana is a heavy feeder and requires heavy fertilization of nitrogen
and potassium. For cost minimization, optimum application of
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fertilizers plays an important role in the production of banana. In
addition, optimum application of water during the critical stages
of plant growth plays a vital role in maximizing the production. In
addition, to improve the soil health and sustainability, application
of bio-fertilizers and organic manures to reduce the soil and water
pollution has attracted attention.
• Better handling and storage of fruits
In India, an estimated loss of 25 to 30% accounting to Rs13 million
(US$272 393) recorded every year due to poor handling,
transportation and storage. Improved banana handling systems
for better postharvest quality of fruits is necessary.
There is a need to use biotechnological approaches to increase the
shelf-life of banana, as fruits are highly perishable in nature.
• Export of banana and plantains
Though India is the number one in banana production, the quantity
of export of banana is negligible and accounts not even 0.1% of
the world trade. Even though India is endowed with production
of different cultivars and available throughout the year, it could
not enter into the world trade due to the high cost of production
and high quality standards of banana fruits for export market.
This necessitates development of a technology exclusively for
export market with appropriate production, harvesting, packing
and storage.
Protection constraints
• Major pests
The major insect pests of banana in India are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Major insect pests of banana.
Pests Distribution Susceptible cultivars
Corm weevil Kerala, Maharashtra Nendran,
(Cosmopolites Bihar, Assam, Andhra Thellachakkarakeli,
sordidus) Pradesh, Arunachal Poovan and Malbhog
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
Pseudostem borer Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Nendran, Monthan, Dwarf
(Odoiporus Assam, Karnataka, Cavendish, Kunnan and
longicollis) Kerala, Arunachal Poovan
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
Scarring beetle Bihar, Assam West Chenichampa, Amritsagar
(Besilepta Bengal and Malbhog
subcostatum)
Aphids Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Hill bananas, Red
(Pentalonia Karnataka banana, Nendran and
nigronervosa) Poovan
Thrips All banana growing Cavendish, Plantain Silk
(Thrips florum) regions and Monthan
• Nematodes
Table 5 shows the common banana nematodes in India, their
distribution and susceptible cultivars.
Table 5. Common banana nematodes.

Nematodes Distribution Susceptible
cultivars
Root- knot nematode Tamil Nadu, Assam, Bihar, All cultivars
(Meloidogyne incognita) Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Burrowing nematode Kerala, Bihar, Maharashtra, Robusta, Nendran,
(Radopholus similis) Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Poovan, Rasthali,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Pachanadan and
Karpuravalli
Root lesion nematode Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Almost all the
(Pratylenchus coffeae) Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat commercial cultivars
except Nendran is
highly susceptible
Spiral nematode Kerala, Assam, Almost all commercial
(Helicotylenchus Maharashtra, Bihar, cultivars
multicinctus) Tamil Nadu
Cyst nematode Kerala, Karnataka, -
(Heterodera oryzicola) Tamil Nadu, Assam
• Major diseases
The major diseases of banana and susceptible cultivars are shown
in Table 6.
Table 6. Major diseases of banana.
Diseases Susceptible cultivars

Fungus
Yellow sigatoka Cavendish, Red banana, Rasthali, Nendran,
Pome types
Black sigatoka
Fusarium wilt Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Red banana, Pome
(races 1 and 2) types for race 1 and ABB cooking bananas
for race 2
Bacterial
Head rot Cavendish clones and Nendran (French
(Erwinia carotovora) plantains)
Virus
Bunchy top All the clones
Infectious chlorosis (CMV) Cavendish clones, Poovan (Mysore), Red
banana, Pome
Banana streak virus (BSV) Matti, Cavendish clones, Poovan, Virupakshi
Banana bract mosaic virus Cavendish clones, Pisang Awak, Nendran,
(BBrMV) Monthan, Pome types, Poovan, Red banana
and many ABB clones
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• Maladies of unknown etiology
Table 7. Maladies of unknown etiology on banana.

Malady Symptoms Susceptible cultivars
Neervazhai Immature unfilled fingers, Nendran (Plantain)
robust plant stature
Kottavazhai Fruits remain immature, dark Poovan (Mysore)
(seediness) green in colour and contain
conspicuous seed-like
enlarged ovules
• Problem soils
Salt accumulation in root zone causes saline and alkaline soils. The
higher accumulation of sodium in alkaline soil causes reduced
cation, especially potassium, uptake and also causes injury to roots
causing leaf injury, thereby decreasing yield.
• Wind
With high velocity, wind causes blow-downs in tropical banana
plantations. At a wind velocity of more than 20 meters/second,
between 50-100% of the plants can be blown down. Apart from
this, regular strong winds cause leaf tearing which reduces
productivity significantly. Winds between 2.5 to 5 meters/second
can reduce fruit quality by enhancing leaf and dust abrasion.
• High temperature
The important problems encountered due to hot weather are
summer leaf stress mixed-ripe fruits and ripe fruit breakdown.
• Drought
Periodical occurrence of drought leads to yield reduction, caused
by a physiological reduction of assimilation. Prolonged drought
produces small, stunted plants, reduced leaf emergence, choked
bunches and small bunches with shrivelled, blackened fingers.
Others
• Postharvest technology
Handling damages in banana could occur during harvesting,
handling, collection, transport, loading onto trucks, off-loading,
handling by the wholesalers, retailers and finally by consumers.
The physiological loss in weight, finger drop, impact damage due
to rough handling and spoilages are the main reasons for the losses
during postharvest handling of banana. About 8-9% losses are

recorded at farmers’ level, while 20-25% at wholesalers and 15% at
retailers level (Table 8).
Table 8. Losses during different stages of marketing and transportation of
banana.
Transported
Stage of marketing Mode of transport and losses
by
From field to the Farmer or Head loads (8-10%), bullock
village market or preharvest cart and handcart (60-62%),
primary wholesale contractor camel cart (2-3%), tractors (20-
market 25%), cycle trolleys (1-3%)
From village market or Commission Trucks (25%), lorries (30%),
primary wholesale agents railway wagons (30%), bullock
market to and handcart (15%)
secondary
wholesale market
Secondary wholesale Retailer or Head loads, bicycles, market
to consumer consumer hand carts, camel or bullock
carts
R&D activities and prog

ogrrammes on banana in India
prog
All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) which was started
in 1971 with four centers, has expanded to ten centers covering major
banana growing regions. By the year 2020, 25 million tonnes of banana
would be required to feed the increasing population and to meet the
export needs, which have to be produced from the limited land and
water resources. Thus, to meet the challenges, National Research
Centre on Banana (NRCB) was established and started functioning
from April 1994 with a mission to enhance the production and
productivity of banana.
National Research Centre for Banana, Tiruchirapalli, India

The major areas of research are: germplasm management,
improvement of banana, biotechnology, production technology,
postharvest technology, crop protection and physiology and
biochemistry.
List of on-going research programmes
• Crop improvement
1. Management of genetic resources of banana
2. Improvement through conventional breeding of banana
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• Crop production and postharvest technology
1. Standardization of agro-techniques for banana production and
productivity
2. Standardization of technology for organic banana production
3. Studies on ammendments and reclamation of saline sodic soil
for banana
4. Integrated nutrient management in banana
5. Micronutrients in banana
6. Studies on handling, storage and processing of banana
• Crop protection
1. Insect pest management in banana
2. Studies on banana nematodes and their management
3. Studies on fungal and bacterial diseases and their management
4. Biocontrol of fusarium wilt of banana
5. Studies on viral diseases of banana and their management
• Crop physiology and biochemistry
1. Studies on physiology aspects of flowering and fruit
development in banana
2. Biochemical and physiological studies on maladies of unknown
etiology
Opportunities and thrust
India has a vast network of banana research programmes. NRCB plays
an active role in banana research. In addition, various SAUs working
on banana research and various ICAR centres are also involved in
various aspects of banana research. NRCB is actively collaborating
with various national and international agencies in banana research
through which mutual benefit can be obtained.
Opportunities
There are several opportunities in banana germplasm and breeding.
India being one of the centers of biodiversity of banana is endowed
with more than eight wild species and 120 distinct clones. Being at
the center of origin for M. balbisiana, which is a source of resistance
for biotic and abiotic stresses, the coevolution of pathogen along with
the genomes could be identified in the center of origin. Thus, exploration
of this center of origin could help in identification of resistance sources
for important diseases of banana.
India is the only country where different varieties/cultivars are grown
in a large area, where there could be a possibility of useful mutations/
point mutations, which could be of importance for disease resistance,

quality, bunch characters, etc. Survey of these areas for selecting
superior clonal selection is essential to locate such variability existing
in nature.
Different system of cultivation is followed in India ranging from
household backyard gardening, small marginal holding to large
contract farming. The expertise could be useful for other countries
where similar type of cultivation is practised.
Nutritional requirement in relation to high density of planting is another
aspect of research that deserves attention. More efforts would be needed
for efficient water management and fertigation requirement for banana.
Research on hormone-impregnated foliar nutrient sprays deserves
attention as pre- and postharvest application. The physiology of sex
change in banana is yet to be understood clearly. The involvement of
hormones in this aspect would greatly benefit in improving the grade
of bunch and timing of fertilizer treatments.
Postharvest technology and processing helps the farmers to tide over
the glut situation and the technology could help in exporting bananas
to distant markets due to the availability of fruits during off-season.
Future thrusts
• Identification of areas of natural diversity and collection through
prospection and exotic introduction. Conservation and
characterization of Musa germplasm by in situ and ex situ strategies
has to be developed.
• Evaluation of germplasm for their useful characters and resistance
to biotic and abiotic stresses.
• Study on genomics and protenomics of Indian banana.
• Use of bio-technological tools for widening the genetic base of
banana.
• Identification of resistance sources for major biotic stresses.
• Development of production technology for export banana.
• Study on the clump management and root health.
• Study on organic banana production.
• Efficient management of nutrients and water.
• Molecular approaches for the management of major nematode
pathogens in banana.
• Characterization of fusarium wilt pathogen isolates of different
regions of India to identify the variability and preparation of VCG
maps of India.
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• Development of transgenic banana plants by introducing PR-
proteins genes against fusarium of banana.
• Molecular diagnostic tools for banana viruses.
• Pathogen derived resistance – a molecular approach for control of
viruses.
• Tools to develop transgenic banana resistant to BBMV and BBTV.
• Induced resistance through PGPR and other chemicals.
Proposed ar
areas bor
collabor ations
bora
• Breeding
- Molecular characterization of Musa germplasm and study of
genetic diversity using chloroplast markers
- Development of PCR based markers for A and B genomes
- Joint collaborative exploration programmes in other centers of
diversity in Southeast Asian region and documentation of Musa
diversity in Asia
• Production technology
- Nutrient management
- Fertigation
- Organic farming
- Export of banana
- Physiology of flowering
• Postharvest technology
- Controlled atmosphere storage of banana
- Development of new kinds of value-added products from
banana and its wastes
• Nematology
- Isolation of toxic principles in botanicals for the management
of banana nematodes
- Molecular approaches for the management of banana
nematodes
- Development of transgenic banana against major banana
nematodes
• Virology
- Developing transgenic plants resistance to virus diseases
- Detection and characterization of BSV integral in infected
germplasm
- Strain differentiation in BBrMV
- Strain differentiation in BBTV
Current status of banana R&D in Indonesia 93
Current status of banana R&D in Indonesia

I. Djatnik
Djatnika* and Agus Sutanto
tnika*
Introduction
Introduction
Banana contributed 51% of 6 661 761 tonnes of Indonesian fruit
production (Anonym. 2000). The area of productions are scattered
throughout the country with various agro-ecosystem and cultivation
system. The major production areas are West Java, East Java, Central
Java, South Sulawesi, West Sumatera, and others, which produce 40%,
19%, 13%, 4% and 24%, respectively (Anonym 2000). The largest area
of banana production is in Java (61%) and followed by Sumatera (16%),
Sulawesi (8%), Kalimantan (4%) and other islands (Anonym. 2000).
Major commercial dessert cultivars are Pisang Ambon Kuning, P.
Ambon Hijau, P. Barangan, P. Raja Serai, P. Emas and P. Berlin, and
cooking bananas/plantains are P. Kepok, P. Raja Bulu, P. Oli/Jantan,
P. Tanduk and P. Candi.
Commonly, bananas are grown by smallholders with minimum
cultivation and production inputs. In some areas, smallholders
cultivate banana with monoculture system and mix-cropping system.
Their productions are generally for local market, banana chips and
dry banana industry (P. Sale). A few commercial growers at Lampung
(Sumatera), Halmahera (Maluku) and Mojokerto (East Java) have
established large plantation mainly for export and industry of banana
flour and puree.
Although banana production has increased over the years, the
production area of banana has declined from 1997 to 1999 (Table 1),
particularly in the central area of banana production such as Sumatera,
Sulawesi, Central and East Java. The declining areas were caused by
the outbreak of several pests and diseases such as panama disease,
blood disease, moko disease, sigatoka, BBTV, CMV, borer and
nematodes. The major diseases in the central area of banana
production are panama disease (fusarium wilt), blood disease and
moko disease (bacterial wilt disease). Export of banana was significantly
increased from 1992 to 1993 and from 1995 to 1996 (Table 1), because
private sectors have involved on banana agribusiness. Banana export
decreased from 1996 until 1999 due to the outbreak of some banana
diseases on the commercial banana plantations, insufficient supply of
*Head, RIF, CRIH (AARD), Jakarta, Indonesia.

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export fruit quality and inadequate marketing infrastructures.
Table 1. Area, production and export of banana in Indonesia (1991-1999).
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Area (ha) 76 721 70 721 50 041 49 044 48 944 78 115 71 537 70 560
Production
2 650 814 2 643 812 3 086 557 3 805 431 3 023 431 3 057 081 3 176 749 3 376 661
(tonnes)
Export (tonnes) 11 24 917 33 092 55 318 101 495 71 028 76 982 76 726
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Directorate General Production of Horticulture and Various Plants.
Major banana diseases and pests in Indonesia

Fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt diseases of banana (BDB and Moko)
are the most important diseases in Indonesia. These diseases have
infected banana plantations in almost all central areas of banana
production in Indonesia. Most of commercial dessert varieties such as
Barangan, Ambon Hijau, Ambon Kuning, Raja Serai are susceptible
to fusarium wilt. There is a lack of information on the outbreak of the
diseases except for fusarium wilt. In north Sumatera, where the main
cultivar is P. Barangan, 22% was found in Simalungun, and 25% was
found in Deli Serdang (CRIH 1994). P. Ambon Kuning, P. Ambon Hijau,
P. Tanduk in Java, Bali and Nusatenggara, P. Raja Serai and P. Buai in
West Sumatera, Cavendish in Lampung and Riau are destroyed by
fusarium wilt.
Bacterial wilt diseases (BDB and moko disease) had been reported
becoming endemic in almost islands of Indonesia (Muharam and
Subiyanto 1991; Sahlan and Nurhadi 1994; Hermanto et al. 1998) and
had also caused some significant economic losses in the endemic area
and effects on the farmers’ social life. In South Sulawesi, 70-80% of
banana plantation was destroyed (Roesmiyanto and Hutagalung 1989)
and 27-36% in West Java (Muharam and Subijanto 1991). The province
of Lampung lost more than 20.000 tonnes of banana valued at
US$1 million (Nurhadi et al. 1994). Based on the laboratory testing,
there are no resistant varieties to BDB (Baharuddin 1994), but several
reports shown that BDB mainly affected some cooking bananas such
as P. Kepok, P. Kapas, P. Nangka, P. Raja and P. Dewaka (Edison et al.
1996; Setyobudi and Hermanto 1999).
Weevil borer is one of the important pests on banana and plantain in
some countries like Uganda and other African countries. In Indonesia,
banana weevil borer is found from lowland to highland. Under field
conditions in West Sumatera, AAB groups of Musa were susceptible
to banana weevil, while AA groups were relatively resistant with little
damage and limited penetration into the corm (Hasyim et al. 1997).
Cur
Currrent Banana Resear
Resear ches a
esearc att Solok Resear
Research Institute of F
esearc Frruits
(RIF)
Musa germplasm collection and conservation
Solok RIF has done banana-collecting missions since 1994, but some
of the collections were affected by fusarium wilt and recollected again.
Currently, there are 200 accessions which are maintained in the field,
screenhouse and in vitro laboratory. Under the collaboration with
INIBAP, Musa collecting missions were carried out in Maluku Islands
in 1996 and Papua (Irian Jaya) in 2002 and obtained 28 and 70
accessions, respectively. A unique
accession obtained from Seram Island
(Central Maluku) was P. Sepatu Amora.
This variety is similar to Kepok (ABB/
BBB), but no male bud flower. In
appropriate condition, P. Sepatu Amora
produces up to 18 hands per bunch.
Due to the absence of male bud flower,
Plate 1. Bunch of Pisang Sepatu Amora
this variety has potential to escape from
vector of BDB. In Papua, many of accessions were AA-types, similar
to those from Papua New Guinea. There are two accessions found in
Papua as well as in Maluku; P. Dawaka and P. Jarum. P. Dawaka is
similar to P. Kepok, but the size of the fruit is bigger and fruit shape is
similar to Bluggoe. P. Jarum, with the hairy pedicel, is the most popular
dessert banana in Maluku Island. Musa schizocarpa, M. lolodensis and
M. acuminata banksii were found during the exploration in Papua.
Banana-collecting missions were also done in Java and Sumatera
Islands. Some wild types of M. acuminata were found in Sumatera,
designed by BKT-11, BSK-30, SLK-29, and SPN-21. The first two
accessions (BKT-11 and BSK-30) are potential for male parent, because
those are resistant to fusarium wilt and bearing long size of bunch (18
to 20 hands). For banana improvement, these accessions are used as
pollen sources and crossed with commercial varieties (research on
going).
Preparation of IMTP-III project
Under the Letter of Agreement (LOA) with INIBAP 2001/22, CRIH
received in vitro planting materials (21 accessions) from INIBAP Transit
Centre. These accessions have been multiplied in the tissue culture
laboratory of Research Institute for Ornamental Plants and Solok RIF.
Three locations are chosen as the sites of experiments, where the
presence of the pathogen is sufficient: RIF (West Sumatera), Berastagi
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Research Station (North Sumatera), and Bogor University of
Agriculture, West Java (tentative) or Nusantara Tropical Fruit,
Lampung.
Some of the planting materials are being maintained in pots and ready
for planting by the middle of October 2002.
IPM on banana pests and diseases control
Integrated pest management (IPM) can be defined as the use of multiple
tactics in a compatible manner to maintain pest populations at levels
below those causing economic injury while providing protection
against hazards to humans, animals, plants and the environment
(Frison 1998). IPM is thus ecologically based pest management that
makes full use of natural and cultural processes and methods, including
host resistance and biological control. There are some tactics that can
be employed into IPM strategies, either alone or in combinations which
include regulatory control, cultural control, genetic manipulation of
the pest population, host plant resistance, biological control and
chemical control.
Most of banana pests and diseases such as weevil borer, fusarium wilt,
BDB, Moko disease, sigatoka leaf spot and BBTV are difficult to be
controlled by pesticides. IPM tactics that used by RIF for controlling
such pests and diseases, particularly weevil borer, fusarium wilt and
bacterial wilt, are regulatory control, cultural control, host plant
resistance and biological control. Regulatory control by quarantine is
applied in order to restrict the movement of pests into areas where
they do not occur. Quarantine usually goes hand in hand with
eradication. Cultural control is integral of farming practice. In banana,
a practical disease management technology was developed successfully
and adopted by farmers in the Philippines to manage ‘bugtok’, the
same disease that also has been ravaging Saba (similar to Kepok). This
technology was adopted to manage BDB in Sumatera (Setyobudi and
Hermanto 1999). Some researches have been carried out in order to
induce banana plant resistance to fusarium wilt and BDB through
conventional hybridization between commercial variety and wild
Musa, off-type induction using mutagen (EMS) and gamma radiation,
and in vitro screening and selection of plantlets on pathogenic toxin
medium (Karsinah et al. 1999; Djatnika et al. 2000). One promising
variety named P. Sepatu Amora is not resistant to BDB, but avoidance
variety due to the absence of male bud flower. This variety is now
being multiplied to produce a sufficient amount of planting materials
for further evaluation and dissemination. The use of natural pests to
reduce the impact of the pests is a concept of classical biological control.

The effectiveness of pathogen control can be increased by the
augmentation of antagonistic microbes population. Pseudomonas
fluorescens strain MR 96 and Gliocladium sp. are antagonistic microbes
of Fusarium oxysporum. In the laboratory test, those antagonistic
microbes suppressed F. oxysporum f.sp. cubense colonies. The infected
plant were significantly reduced when the suspension of Pseudomonas
fluorescens strain MR 96 were poured to soil surrounding banana
rhizosphere (Djatnika et al. 2001). Some natural enemies of banana
weevil borer have been known, but the most promising predator is
Plasius javanicus. Both the larvae and adults attack weevil larvae and
eggs. The adults prefer to eat eggs, but the larvae prefer to kill banana
weevil larvae.
Collaboration and thrust
In order to rehabilitate banana production in Indonesia, RIF will
continue to collaborate with INIBAP and other international and
regional institutions. Currently, CRIH collaborates with Australia
through an ACIAR project on banana postharvest handling and
marketing and the next phase on the subject of management of
fusarium wilt control. Dissemination of banana bacterial wilt and
fusarium wilt control to the decision maker and stakeholders will be
held on Padang, West Sumatera due to the collaboration of RIF,
Assessment Institute of Agricultural Technology (AIAT) and regional
government.
References
Anonym. 2000. Information of Horticulture and Various Crops.
Directorate General Production of Horticulture and Various
Plants. Jakarta, Indonesia.
Baharuddin. 1994. Pathological, biochemical and serological
characterization of the blood disease bacterium affecting
banana and plantain (Musa sp.) in Indonesia PhD Dissertation.
Cuvillier Verlag Gottingen. 129p.
CBS. 2000. Statistical Year Book of Indonesia. Central Bureau of
Statistics, Jakarta. Indonesia
CRIH. 1994. Annual report. Central Research Institute for Horticulture.
Jakarta, Indonesia. pp. 33-35. (Indonesian).
Djatnika I., C. Hermanto and Eliza. 2000. Biological control of Fusarium
wilt on Banana Plants [abstract in English]. Project Report of
Research Institute for Fruits. 8p.
Adv acif
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Djatnika I., I. Sukmayadi and Eliza. 2001. Early selection of banana
cv. Ambon Hijau resistant to Fusarium wilt using fusaric acid
toxin [abstract in English]. Project Report of Research Institute
for Fruits. 6p.
Edison H.S., A. Sutanto, C. Hermanto, T. Uji and N. Razak. 1996. The
exploration of Musaceae in Maluku island. Research Institute for
Fruits. 63p.
Frison E.A. 1998. Integrated pest management: an overview. Pp. in
Mobilizing IPM for Sustainable Banana Production in Africa
(E.A. Frison, C.S. Gold, E.B. Karamura and R.A. Sikora, eds.).
Proceedings of a workshop on banana IPM held in Nelspruit,
South Africa, 23-28 November 1998.
Hasyim A., Harlion, Desmawati and Jumjunidang. 1997. Intensitas
kerusakan dan populasi hama penggerek bonggol, C. sordidus
Germ. Pada beberapa kelompok pisang di Kabupaten Agam)
[abstract in English]. Prosiding III. Seminar Nasional Biologi XV.
Lampung. pp. 1223-1226.
Hermanto C., D. Setyowati, P.J. Santoso. 1998. Konfirmasi daerah
endemik baru penyakit layu bakteri peisang di Sumatera Barat
[in Indonesian]. Makalah disampaikan pada seminar sehari
Pengendalian Penyakit Tumbuhan untuk Mendukung Produksi
Tanaman. Padang, 4 Nopember 1998.
Karsinah Sunyoto, Jumjunidang and Nurhadi. 1999. Double layer
culture for in vitro selection of plantlet resistant to Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. cubense [abstract in English]. J. Hort. Vol. 9(2):93-
98.
Muharam and Subiyanto. 1991. Status of banana disease in Indonesia.
Pp. 44-49 in Banana Diseases in Asia and the Pacific, proceedings
of technical meeting on diseases affecting banana and plantain
in Asia and the Pacific, Brisbane, Australia. 15-18 April 1991.
(R.V. Valmayor, B.E. Umali and C.P. Bejosano, eds).
International Network for the Improvement of Banana and
Plantain, Los Banos, Philippines.
Nurhadi, M. Rais and Harlion. 1994. Serangan bakteri dan cendawan
pada tanaman pisang di Propinsi Dati I Lampung [in
Indonesian]. Info Hortikultura. 27: 39-41.
Roesmiyanto L.H. 1989. Blood disease (P. celebesis) on banana in
Jeneponto – Sulawesi Selatan [abstract in English]. Hortikultura.
27: 39-41.
Banana industry and R&D in Malaysia 99
Banana industry and R&D in Malaysia
Nik Mohd. Masdek Nik Hassan*

Banana is one of the most widely grown and important fruit crops for
Malaysia both for the domestic and export market. The importance
of banana is clearly indicated in the Third National Agricultural Policy
(1998–2010) where it is listed as one of the 15 fruit types prioritized
for commercial cultivation.
In the past 10 years (1992–2001), the acreage of banana has somewhat
stabilized at around 30 000 to 31 000 hectares (Table 1). This acreage
amounts to about 10-12% of the total acreage for fruits. Of the total
banana acreage, almost half is cultivated with Pisang Berangan and
the Cavendish cultivars for both local consumption and export. The
other half is planted with other local cultivars such as P. Mas, P. Rastali,
P. Nangka, P. Raja, P. Awak, P. Abu and P. Tandok, mainly for the
domestic market.
Table 1. Banana acreage, production, export volume and value of banana in
Malaysia (1992 - 2001).
Year Acreage Production Export Exports
(ha) (t) (t) (000$)
1992 28 700 510 000 18 695 3 519
1993 31 046 540 000 31 814 7 572
1994 30 405 530 000 81 900 10 601
1995 30 405 530 000 35 675 8 633
1996 30 000 530 000 30 960 5 277
1997 30 000 530 000 28 000 4 500
1998 30 000 535 000 29 860 5 370
1999 31 000 545 000 39 289 8 388
2000 31 000 550 000 31 700 7 400
2001 31 000 560 000 n.a. n.a.
Source: FAO
Total production over the past 10 years ranges between 510 000 to
560 00 metric tonnes per year. Thus, Malaysia is a very small producer
compared to the neighbouring countries such as Thailand (2 million
tonnes), Philippines (4 million tonnes) and India (8 million tonnes).
Malaysia exported a 10-year average of about 37 000 metric tonnes
per year or 7% of its total production with an average value of US$7
*Research Officer, Horticulture Research Centre, MARDI, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
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million. The traditional markets for Malaysian bananas are Singapore,
Hong Kong, Brunei and the Middle East.
The annual per capita consumption of banana is 5.5 kg for Malaysia
and is very much lower than some European countries at more than
10 kg. The popular varieties for dessert are P. Mas (2.7 kg per annual
capita consumption) followed by P. Rastali (0.70 kg) and P. Berangan
(0.48 kg). For the cooking variety, P. Nangka is the most consumed
followed by P. Abu and P. Raja perhaps due to ease of availability.
Major cultivars of banana in Malaysia
Malaysia is considered as one of the center of diversity of banana as
evidenced by the diploids AA (eg. Pisang Mas, P. Jari Buaya. P. Lilin,
etc.) and the natural hybrids of AAB (P. Nangka, P. Raja, P. Rastali,
etc.) and ABB ( P. Awak, P. Abu, P. Nipah, etc.). Thus, there exists a
variety of choice for the farmers and growers (Table 2).
Table 2. Agronomic characters of some common banana cultivars.
Cultivar Yield Plant height Time to

(kg/bunch) (m) shooting (mos)
Cavendish (Montel) 20 – 30 1.8 – 2.0 7–9
Pisang Mas 8 – 14 2.0 – 2.5 6–8
Pisang Berangan 12 – 20 2.0 – 3.0 7–9
Pisang Rastali 12 – 16 1.5 – 2.0 7–9
Pisang Tandok 10 – 15 3.0 – 3.8 8 – 10
Pisang Nangka 14 – 20 2.0 – 2.5 7–9
Pisang Raja 14 – 20 2.5 – 3.0 8 – 10
Pisang Awak 14 – 20 2.5 – 3.0 8–9
Pisang Kapas 15 – 25 1.5 – 2.0 7–9
Pisang Abu Nipah 15 – 25 2.8 – 3.5 9 – 11
The major or potential commercial cultivars in Malaysia are as follows:

Cavendish banana. This has been the cultivar known worldwide for
international trade. Largescale commercial growers and other big
operators have opted for the Cavendish banana to cater for the export
market. Furthermore, this cultivar shows good plant vigour and higher
yield compared to the local cultivars. This cultivar was also selected
based on their resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc)
race 1 and 2. However, with the appearance of race 4, this cultivar is
facing new challenges from fusarium wilt disease.
Pisang Berangan. Presently, this is the most popular dessert banana
grown in Malaysia due to consumer preference. It is also popular with
the growers due to comparatively good yield and availability of
planting materials, and it is well accepted in traditional export markets.

The cultivation of this cultivar is under tremendous pressure lately
due to its susceptibility to fusarium wilt disease. Good management
and production practices must be adopted to ensure a successful and
profitable crop.
Pisang Mas. This diploid AA has a sweet and superior taste and exhibits
a somewhat golden yellow colour of the skin and flesh. This variety is
popular among the locals. However, the plant in moderately vigorous
and yield is low. It comes to flowering early, and it is a smaller plant
compared to the other cultivars; therefore a higher planting density
can be adopted to counter low yield.
Pisang Rastali. This popular variety has a unique sweet-sour taste with
very fine, smooth, milky white flesh. Unfortunately, this cultivar is
also highly susceptible to fusarium wilt resulting in its limited
availability in the market and the difficulty of getting sufficient planting
materials.
The popular cooking/processing banana cultivars are as follows:
Pisang Tandok. This belongs to the plaintain group with large fingers,
it is a tall plant, has longer time to shooting, yield is low to average (10-
15 kg) and a preferred host to the banana weevil. This is also the most
sought after cultivar for making banana chips.
Pisang Nangka. A very common cooking cultivar, hardy and easy to
grow, comes to flowering early and gives good yield. It shows moderate
tolerance to fusarium wilt.
Pisang Raja. This popular variety is superior in taste among the
cooking/processed bananas and is also taken as dessert. It has a very
sweet taste, with smooth texture. It also produces a moderate yield
although time to flowering is slightly longer.
Pisang Awak. Popular in certain parts of the country, this has a fairly
good yield and is moderately tolerant to fusarium wilt.
Pisang Kapas. This is the popular variety for processing into banana
figs or smoked banana. It is quite a vigorous and early flowering.
Pisang Abu Nipah. This is the most hardy variety, it is a tall plant and
takes the longest time to flower. The yield is moderate.
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Utilisation of banana
Bananas are energy-rich in the form of starch and sugar and a rich
source of vitamin A, C, B1, B2 and minerals. Most farmers grow the
local clones both for dessert (usually fine-textured, sweet or sweet-sour
taste) and cooking/processing (more starchy) purposes. Banana
processing and product development is only a small cottage industry
utilising simple machinery and packaging facilities. Various food, non-
food products and other uses are listed below (Table 3).
Table 3. Product utilisation of banana.

Plant parts Products/Use Recommended clones
Peel Pectin Most clones
Fruit -ripe Puree P. Mas, Cavendish
Jam P. Mas, P. Berangan
Crisps P. Berangan, P. Mas
Drinks P. Mas
Vinegar P. Mas
Fig P.Kapas, P. Mas, P.Berangan
Candy/Confectionary P. Mas, P. Berangan
Fruit -mature Chips P. Tandok, P. Gading, P. Nangka
Powder P. Raja, P. Mas, P. Berangan
Leaves Wrapper (local delicacies) Wild banana
Mulching All types
Male bud Vegetable P. Berangan, Others
Pseudostems Mulching All types
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
The destruction due to pests and diseases, the production system, high
cost of production and transportation, low yield, competition from
neighbouring countries and from other fruit types within the country
are constraints and weaknesses in the production of banana.
Pests and diseases
The major pests are banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus), leaf roller
(Erionata thrax) and nematodes. Thrips, aphids, spider mites and scab
moth are minor pests, which do not cause serious damage. The banana
weevil is frequently associated with P. Tandok and other cultivars
damaging the corms and pseudostems. This results in stunted growth,
weak plant base, yellowing of leaves and rotting of the corms.
Leaf rollers cause seasonal damage and are normally controlled by
natural predators. Nematodes played an important roles in reducing
banana production. There are 14 nematode species associated with
banana but 8 species in 4 genera are considered as potentially of
economic importance based on plant growth, damage on corms and

roots of banana in the field. The nematode species are as follows:
Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus coffeae, P. brachyurus, Meloidogyne
incognita, M. javanica, Helicotylenchus dihystera, H. multitinctus and H.
pasohi.
Diseases are the major constraints to banana production. Topping the
list is panama disease or fusarium wilt caused by the soil-borne
pathogen Foc. Foc race 1, 2 and the aggressive and destructive race 4
are present. P. Berangan, P. Rastali and the Cavendish group are very
susceptible. Other dessert varieties are moderately susceptible. The
cooking varieties are more tolerant.
The second most damaging diseases are yellow sigatoka and black leaf
streak disease/black sigatoka caused by Mycosphaerella musicola and
M. fijiensis, respectively. Another leaf disease, which has been recorded
and reported to have symptoms indistinguishable from the two
previous leaf spots, is M. eumusae (Anamorph: Septoria eumusae). These
diseases infect young leaves which become necrotic, with reduced
photosynthetic leaf area, thus, reduces yield.
Cladosporium leaf speckle is another foliar disease especially serious
on certain accessions of P. Berangan. Although other cultivars such as
P. Mas, P. Lemak Manis and P. Abu can be infected, it is only of minor
importance.
Leaf freckle caused by Guignardia musae (Phyllostictina musarum) is
very serious especially on P. Berangan and to a certain extent on P.
Rastali.
The cultivation of banana is basically a smallholder enterprise with
small farm size, unorganized and adoption of inferior technology. Very
often, yield is low with inferior quality. There are only a few large-
scale banana plantations utilising modern technology with good
management practices. Normally, these farms are export-oriented.
Another form of production system is mixed farming with plantation
crop. Banana has been identified as a short-term cash crop that can be
integrated with newly planted rubber trees, oil palm and other forest
species. This practice is commonly adopted by largescale operators as
well as smallholder to optimize labour usage and land utilization.
However, prime land under fruit was lost to infrastructural
development and development of new township. Relocation to
marginal lands has resulted in higher input and lower return. In
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addition, labour is getting scarce and becoming more expensive.
Current R&D activities
Research activities on banana are currently being conducted by research
institutions (such as MARDI, MINT), universities (such as UPM, UM,
USM, UKM) and private companies (United Plantations). The various
aspects of research activities being undertaken are the following:
i) Biotechnological methods for classification/genetic relationship of
Malaysian banana varieties.
ii) Improvement of agronomic traits for commercial varieties. The
main objective is to develop cultivars resistant or tolerant to fusarium
wilt and improvement of yield. Various approaches will be adopted
as follows: transformation method, somaclonal variation, use of
biocontrol agent, use of rhizobacteria as biofertilizers and
bioenhancers, and mutation induction.
iii) Foliar diseases.
iv) Processing of bananas.
v) Collection and conservation of cooking bananas.
Proposed ar
areas bor
collabor ation
bora
As the Southeast Asian region is the center of diversity, there exists a
pool of genetic resources that can be utilized to improve the commercial
varieties especially in relation to yield improvement and resistance to
various pests and diseases. However, shortcomings due to constraints
of financial resources, knowledge and expertise in specific areas have
delayed the expected progress. Thus, there is a need to have a
collaborative research among member countries. Advancement in the
area of biotechnology needs to be transferred through training courses
or attachments to specific laboratories to enable local scientists to
improve on their local commercial cultivars.
Collaboration is sought in the following areas:
1) Product development and downstream activities (food products,
non-food products, health food.
2) Biotechnological research (development of protocols and
identification/development of genes for resistance.
3) Postharvest physiology (controlled ripening, extension of shelf-life
and carotenoid development.
4) Specialized working groups (fusarium, sigatoka, viruses, pests,

etc.).
5) Capacity building (training/attachments, scientific visits and
workshops on biotechnology/application).
The Philippine banana industry: Status and prospects 107
The Philippine banana industry:

Status and prospects
Jocelyn E. Euse bio*, Joselito A. P
Eusebio*, ayot
Pa
and Ang elito T
Angelito T.. Carpio
Carpio
Importance
Banana is considered one of the prime fruit commodities grown in the

Philippines in terms of hectarage and commercial value. A widely
cultivated fruit crop, banana contributes significantly to the country’s
employment generation and export receipts. At the farm level, about
5.9 million Filipinos depend on banana growing as an important source
of cash income. Both the cooking and dessert varieties are important
and nutritious supplement to Filipino diet. An estimated 73% of local
fruit consumer prefers banana.
Banana is used in several ways. Fruits are processed into banana cue,
puree, jam, jelly, chips, catsup, figs, spreads and preserve. Banana
chips, also known as banana crackers or dried bananas is the top dollar
earner among processed fruit products.
Industrial products can also be prepared from banana such as ethyl
alcohol, flour, dye, floor wax, paste and corkboard. The pseudostem
is a good source of fiber and handicraft materials. In commercial
plantations, rejects or excess bananas are utilized as swine and cattle
feed.
Production and consumption tr
Production ends
trends
Banana is grown throughout the archipelago wherein large farms are
located mostly in the island of Mindanao. The area planted to banana
during the 1991-2001 period increased by 22% from 317 108 hectare
in 1991 to 386 503 hectare in 2001 (Table 1). On the other hand, Banana
production grew by 38% for the same period reaching a maximum
volume of 5.06 million tonnes. Production is mainly concentrated in
Mindanao where the biggest banana producing provinces of Davao
del Norte, Davao del Sur and Davao City of southern Mindanao region,
Lanao del Norte of central Mindanao and Misamis Oriental of northern
Mindanao are located. Southern Mindanao tops banana production
with volume ranging from 1.26-2.24 million tonnes over a period of
10 years (Table 2).
*Director, Crops Research Division, PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
T able 1. Area planted to banana by region from 1991-2001.
Area planted (‘000 ha) A
Region
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
CAR 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3
108 Ad
Ilocos Region 9.1 8.9 9.2 9.0 8.9 8.2 7.8 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.5
Adv
Cagayan Valley 24.9 25.4 26.0 26.0 27.6 29.7 29.4 28.4 26.4 26.3 26.3
Central Luzon 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.4 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.3
Southern Tagalog 47.7 48.7 49.0 49.3 50.6 51.7 53.4 57.0 61.1 60.8 60.9
Bicol Region 18.0 19.0 19.4 19.3 17.1 13.6 16.0 17.6 19.1 19.4 19.3
W estern Visayas 33.7 34.0 34.5 33.7 33.4 33.4 33.5 33.7 34.3 34.3 34.6
Central Visayas 18.4 17.8 17.9 18.1 18.3 18.5 19.1 18.6 19.3 19.8 19.8
Eastern Visayas 26.7 26.9 27.4 28.2 25.4 25.5 25.7 24.8 25.4 27.2 27.8
W estern Mindanao 21.9 22.2 22.6 22.8 23.3 23.8 24.0 24.2 24.3 23.9 24.6
Northern Mindanao 14.3 15.0 15.0 15.9 17.0 18.2 18.0 19.2 23.4 26.1 26.0
Southern Mindanao 38.0 39.7 42.9 48.7 53.1 55.5 55.6 55.6 59.1 62.6 64.3
Central Mindanao 17.8 17.6 16.2 15.5 14.9 15.1 15.7 16.6 18.0 19.2 19.7
CARAG A 26.1 24.4 24.9 25.7 26.2 27.1 25.4 24.8 27.0 27.0 27.2
ARMM 13.8 14.6 14.8 15.6 16.2 16.6 17.0 17.7 19.3 20.4 20.5
Philippines 317.1 321.2 326.7 335.1 339.4 344.5 348.6 353.7 372.1 382.5 386.5
Source: BAS 2001.
T able 2. Volum e of production of banana in tonnes by region from 1991-2001.

Volum e of production (‘000 t)
Region
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
CAR 25.3 24.8 23.9 24.0 24.8 23.2 26.9 25.9 24.8 24.7 22.5
Ilocos Region 33.0 31.9 32.3 32.8 30.9 29.6 29.5 26.5 31.3 32.5 33.2
Cagayan Valley 254.6 257.5 249.5. 258.8 271.3 281.5 291.6 260.5 246.7 271.4 264.9
Central Luzon 33.7 35.3 37.9 37.6 37.7 36.5 36.6 36.1 37.9 39.8 40.4
Southern Tagalog 228.7 240.0 242.5 234.9 241.7 216.4 255.2 274.4 300.9 314.8 304.5
Bicol Region 96.1 104.0 104.5 87.1 69.9 38.3 72.8 71.7 62.1 67.0 62.3
vancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the P
W estern Visayas 244.3 242.2 239.6 239.7 240.6 236.6 243.6 201.0 243.5 254.5 256.1
Central Visayas 157.3 158.6 156.9 162.4 166.0 170.7 179.1 166.5 175.4 182.3 168.5
acif
Pacif
Eastern Visayas 205.3 213.2 214.1 228.7 217.3 206.2 216.3 201.5 207.2 224.2 227.0
acific
W estern Mindanao 201.4 203.5 202.1 209.1 206.5 183.5 200.5 163.8 173.7 181.8 184.5
Northern Mindanao 147.5 153.0 158.2 162.2 165.9 170.1 171.2 130.1 178.2 184.2 205.1
ic - V
Southern Mindanao 1 264.8 1 265.1 1 366.5 1 477.1 1 809.5 1 875.5 1 883.5 1 753.5 1 972.7 2 142.2 2 245.1
Vol
Central Mindanao 342.2 356.0 331.0 317.9 302.1 318.0 374.6 382.0 433.3 483.9 514.1
ol 11
CARAG A 261.7 259.1 262.0 248.5 247.5 244.1 207.5 188.1 192.1 197.3 197.8
ARMM 166.2 179.4 188.1 195.7 204.4 198.7 218.5 224.9 290.8 328.7 334.5
Philippines 3 662.3 3 723.9 3 809.4 3 916.4 4 236.2 4 229.1 4 407.7 4 106.7 4 570.6 4 929.6 5 060.8
Source: BAS 2001.
The Philippines has identified 80 distinct banana cultivars. The most

commonly grown varieties are Cavendish Saba, Lakatan, Latundan
and Bungulan. Cavendish is the most popularly grown cultivar by
most corporate farms in Mindanao and is highly accepted in the global
market. Saba, on the other hand, is the primary cultivar used for
making chips/crackers and flour/powder. Basically, chips are the main
ingredients for breakfast cereals; trail mixes (used for flavoring) and
confections. Latundan and Lakatan are very famous in the local
markets, which are always present in Filipinos’ daily meals as dessert.
Figure 1 shows that among the major cultivars planted in 2000, Saba
(44%) accounts for the highest share in terms of area covered, followed
by Latundan (20%), Lakatan (12%) Cavendish (10%) and Bungulan
(6%). Figure 2 presents the distribution of major cultivars in terms of
volume of production.
Others
Bungulan
8%
6%
Latundan Saba
20% 44%
Lakatan
Cavendish
12%
10%
Figure 1. Profile of major banana cultivars in terms of

% share in area covered, CY 2000 (BAS 2001).
Bungulan Others
Latundan 3%
4%
10%
Saba
Lakatan 38%
13%
Cavendish
32%
Total Volume: 4 929.57 tonnes

Figure 2. Profile of major banana cultivars in terms of
% volume in area covered, CY 2000
(BAS 2001).
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From the country’s total banana production (1991 to 2001), 50% are
consumed as fresh, 35% are processed for food and 15% for waste.
On a per capita basis, consumption is on a downtrend, from 33 kg in
1980 to 23 kg in 1998 (DA-AMAS). This is because the prices of the
locally sold banana have skyrocketed, over the years. Table bananas
sold in the supermarkets are mostly Cavendish (rejects of exporting
private companies) and Lakatan (Gorres, personal communication).
Export trend
Among the ten Philippine agricultural exports, banana consistently
ranks second to coconut products in terms of dollar earnings
(Table 3).
Table 3. Agricultural foreign trade statistics - value of principal agricultural exports,
million (FOB US$).
Item Year
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Coconut oil 673.43 705.66 342.28 463.94 417.55
Banana 216.56 217.04 240.70 291.63 297.33
Pineapple and 149.55 140.35 137.32 155.95 161.67
products
Shrimps and 126.42 129.34 127.61 144.65 123.55
prawns
Tuna 164.61 183.25 129.65 118.26 112.80
Seaweeds and 94.72 64.71 85.59 84.87 71.17
carageenan
Dessicated 88.29 72.76 89.18 73.25 63.31
coconut
Sugar 82.71 80.00 62.62 51.71 22.76
Fertilizer, 98.95 91.59 44.10 43.63 34.96
manufactured
Mango, fresh 40.48 41.74 32.34 34.33 27.98
The Philippines is the only Southeast Asian country that made it to the
top five major suppliers of banana in the world in 2000. The country
ranked 5th among the world’s banana producers with 3.56 million
tonnes or 6.1% of the world production (FAO 2000). India had the
biggest share (18.9%) followed by Brazil (9.3%), China (8.9%) and
Ecuador (8.6%). Indonesia occupied the 6th rank while Thailand ranked
9th(Table 4).
The major products being exported are fresh banana, chips/crackers
and catsup. In 2000, the fresh bananas constitute the main bulk of the
country’s export, or almost 98% of the total volume exported (1.62
million metric tons) valued at US$312M (Table 5).
Table 4. Top ten banana-producing countries in the world, in terms of volume of

production, 2000.
Production
Country Rank % Share
(000 t)
India 1 11 000 18.86
Brazil 2 5 449 9.34
China 3 5 216 8.94
Ecuador 4 5 000 8.57
Philippines 5 3 561 6.10
Indonesia 6 3 166 5.43
Costa Rica 7 2 101 3.60
Mexico 8 1 720 2.95
Thailand 9 1 720 2.95
Columbia 10 1 570 2.69
Table 5. Volume and value of banana export in 1999-2000.

2000 1999
Volume Value Volume Value
Kind
(000 t) (million US$) (000 t) (million
US$)
Fresh 1 599.35 291.65 1 319.63 240.70
Chips/crackers 20.32 19.88 17.72 19.57
Catsup 1.44 1.28 1.39 1.20
TOTAL 1 621.11 312.81 1 338.74 261.47
Source: FAO 2000.
Figure 3 shows the major importing countries of fresh bananas. Japan

is the biggest importer (61%), followed by China (16%), Korea (8%),
Taiwan (6%) and UAE (6%). On the other hand, the exported chips/
crackers reached 20 320 metric tons only and catsup, only 1440 tonnes.
Of the total volume of chips exported from 1999-2000, 38% went to
Hongkong, 25% to Japan, 17% to Singapore, and 11% to Netherlands
(Figure 4).
Korea Others
8% 3%
China
16%
UAE Japan
6% 61%
Taiwan
6%
Figure 3. Top importing countries of Philippine fresh

banana 1999-2000 (BAS 2001).
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Korea
Netherlands 9%
11% Hongkong
38%
Singapore
17%
Japan
25%
Figure 4. Top importing countries of Philippine

banana chips/crackers, 1999-2000 (BAS 2002).
The Philippines enjoys export advantage over its ASEAN neighbours

in terms of production and marketing because of its proximity to the
major importing countries and technological advances in the
production and handling systems. This is primarily because the
infrastructure for export has long been established in Mindanao since
the late 1960s.
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
Despite the bright opportunities presented, the banana industry is also
beset with problems, foremost of which are the following:
a. Incidence of major insect pests and diseases
One of the industry constraints consistently identified is the
occurrence of destructive and debilitating insect pests and diseases,
which significantly reduce the yield and quality of produce.
According to the latest surveys conducted, smallholder farmers
are now abandoning banana growing particularly Lakatan and
Latundan cultivars, because of major diseases such as banana
bunchy-top (BBTV), bugtok and fusarium wilt. The most serious
leaf disease, black sigatoka, is reduces yield by as much as 80% in
small farmers fields. Bugtok disease seriously affects Saba
production in Visayas and Mindanao. The impact is most severe
for smallholder farmers who do not have the capabilities and
resources to manage these diseases.
Recent import risk analysis (IRA) report made by Australia also
revealed that occurrence of insect pests and diseases such as moko/
bugtok, black sigatoka, freckles and mealybugs are major
hindrances to banana importation because their entry,
establishment and spread allegedly cause serious impact on
domestic trade and industry. Though IRA report have some
uncertainties, it is difficult to argue due to lack of reliable information
(O.S. Opina in S&T Anchor Program for Banana).
Bacterial wilt or moko and bugtok are caused by one and the same
bacterium, Ralstonia solanacearum (EF Smith). Bugtok occurs
commonly in cooking bananas like Saba and Cardaba, while moko
occurs in dessert bananas like Giant Cavendish and Lakatan. Rice
hull-burning is one of the practices employed by commercial
plantations to control moko. Early detection and prompt
eradication of the infected mats have contributed to the decreasing
trend in moko incidence in commercial plantations but there are
still reports of sporadic cases of disease recurrence.
Sigatoka leaf spot diseases of banana are caused by Mycosphaerella
fijiensis Morlet (black sigatoka) and M. musicola Leach and Mulder
(yellow sigatoka). The leaf spot diseases destroy banana leaves
leading to decrease in yield and premature ripening of fruits. The
disease is a major limiting factor in the production of export-quality
banana in commercial plantations and smallholder banana farms.
Sigatoka is primarily controlled by regular aerial spray of fungicides
causing enormous expense to Cavendish corporate farms.
Smallholder farmers who do not have the capability and resources
are under the mercy of sigatoka recurring losses as much as 80%.
Viral diseases such as bunchy top and mosaic are widely spread
among local cultivars such as cooking bananas, Saba, Cardaba
and Morado. There is a growing concern on the behavior of mosaic
under Philippine conditions considering the favorable climate, the
cultivation of susceptible banana varieties, the presence of abaca
(Musa textilis Nee) plantations, and other factors (Valmayor 1990).
Banana bunchy top (BBTV) is considered as the most serious disease
present in practically all commercial plantations in the Philippines.
San Juan (1989) stated that the disease had reached epidemic
proportion since it was widespread in both the small and large
farms attacking different cultivars planted by the farmers such as
Lakatan, Latundan, Bungulan, Saba, Cardaba, Giant Cavendish,
Umalag, Señorita and others. Control measures of this disease
consist of: a) early disease recognition and prompt eradication of
infected plants; b) control of its insect vector, Pentalonia nigronervosa
coq.; c) use of virus-free planting materials; and d) quarantine for
areas that are free from the said disease.
In 1994, rehabilitation of BBT-affected areas was initiated in
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southern Mindanao, southern Luzon and northern Luzon areas.
There were some problems encountered by the project, i.e. farmers’
attitude, insufficient source of clean planting materials and lack of
continuous support from the local government units (LGUs).
Based on the accomplishments of the project on rehabilitation of
BBTV-affected areas, success can be attained in small farms
provided the following conditions can be met: a) education of the
farmers and agricultural technicians in the disease symptomatology,
insect vector and control measures;
b) cooperation of the whole community in the prompt eradication
of infected plants; c) availability of virus-free planting materials;
d) availability of technologies to improve production; and e)
continuous support of concerned local government units.
For insect pests, the most destructive is the corm weevil or corm
borer (Cosmopolites sordidus Germar) whose larvae feed on the corm
by making tunnels in it. Control measures consist of trapping and
making the area around the mat/hill always clean. For heavy
infestation, the use of insecticides such as pirimphos-ethyl and
chloripyritos are recommended at manufacturer’s recommended
dosage. Thrips (Thrips florum Schmutz) and Chaetanaphotrips
signipennis Begnall) feed on the fruit peel resulting to corky scab or
reddish brown discoloration. Severely damaged fruits may split
open. Control measures consist of bud injection of insecticide
solution 3-5 days after shooting and by bagging the inflorescence
with chlorypyrifos-impregnated polyethylene bag. The insecticides
used for bud injection are chloropyrifos, methyl parathion
(encapsulated), methamidophus and phoshamidon.
b. Production systems/practices
Four (4) distinct production systems evolved after long years of
cultivating banana in the Philippines (Valmayor 1990). These are:
1. Backyard production system. This is characterized by the diversity
of cultivars in the different regions. Cultivars planted by farmer
is dictated by family needs (i.e. dessert or cooking), quality
preferences of the household members, prevalence of insect pests
and diseases, climatic conditions and ease of production. Very
minimal input goes into this system of production. Only compost
and animal manure are used as fertilizers. Labor is supplied
entirely by family members. Common problem arises in this
system as most of bananas planted receive minimal inputs and
attention; hence, prevalence of pests and their spread is hardly
minimized. Some farmers visit the field only when it is time to

harvest the fruits.
2. Systematic mixed crop production. In this system, banana can be
a primary crop or a secondary crop, a permanent or temporary
crop. As primary crop in the mixed cropping system, it is usually
interplanted with annual crops (taro, ginger, sweet potato, corn
and many other vegetable crops).
In southern Philippines, banana is raised as a temporary crop
to the young rubber and durian trees to serve as an early source
of cash income while the permanent crops are still growing.
Once the permanent crops are established or when banana
starts to interfere with the growth of the primary crop, the
banana stands are cut and/or taken out of the area.
3. Commercial smallholder plantation. This production system
promotes banana as a monocrop in areas ranging from 2 to 20
hectares. Common varieties are Lakatan, Latundan, Saba, and
Señorita, which are intended for the domestic market. The
choice of varieties is limited by consumers’ preference and
suitability to the prevailing agroclimatic conditions of the
location. Management practices employed include fertilizer
application, weeding, replanting and pest control. However,
these are done less extensively as in agribusiness plantations.
4. Corporate farms. This production system caters to the strict
requirements of the export market. A single cultivar is usually
grown in large tract of land. The cultivars are: Giant Cavendish,
Grande Naine, Umalag and Señorita.
The enterprise is capital-intensive with heavy investment in
plantation infrastructures. Production practices are applied at
optimum levels and quality and yields are high.
In the Philippines, these plantations are found in Mindanao,
which is noted for its favorable agroclimatic conditions and
outside the ‘typhoon belt’ area.
According to Recel (1996), big plantations rely heavily on the
use of chemicals to effectively control diseases. However, such
tremendous increase in pesticide use has consequential
deleterious effects on human health and environment.
Small farmers who cannot afford the high cost of chemical
control for insect pests and diseases are left to sell lesser volume
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of poor quality fruits because most of these diseases affect both
the yield and quality of the fruit.
c. Environmental problems
The increased rate and frequency of applications of synthetic
pesticides and chemical fertilizers by large corporate plantations
resulted to the gradual degradation of the soil resources and
triggered the emergence of new generations of insect pests and
diseases. The new generation require more toxic pesticide
compounds being applied, not only more frequently but also more
concentrated for effective control. Hence, the gradual build-up of
toxic residues found their way to the water table, to the rivers that
drain to bigger bodies of water, to the atmosphere that is taken up
by the plants and animals and finally get into the food chain.
The major operational activities in commercial banana production
for export such as plant nutrition, plant, and fruit care are heavily
dependent on the use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides.
On banana crop protection alone, roughly about 20 to 23 liters of
liquid synthetic fertilizers per hectare per year and about 400 to
950 kilograms of pesticides in solid forms are commonly applied
with amounts depending on the severity of insect pest infection
and disease infestation and the financial capability of the company
or producers.
In plant nutrition and soil amelioration, about 6 to 15 tonnes of
chemical fertilizers and inorganic ameliorants per hectare per year
are usually applied with amounts depending on the native fertility
of the soil, the nutrient requirement of the plant, plant population
density and others.
However, with the global trend towards the increasing demand
for organically produced food products, abusive use of synthetic
pesticides and chemical fertilizers are gradually being replaced with
organic fertilizers and pesticides.
d. Other constraints of the banana industry
• Lack of storage facilities in ports where voluminous quantities
of banana are assembled before they are transported to market
centers. Ports do not have available facilities to provide shade,
if not the ideal holding condition
• Lack of awareness on appropriate handling practices by traders
especially in traditional banana varieties
• Lack of available tissue-cultured planting materials especially

for traditional farmer varieties
• Inadequateproduction/post-productionpractices,
predominance of subsistent backyard plantings, poor
marketing systems and lack of quality standard for fresh and
processed products for Saba, Lakatan, Latundan and other
farmer varieties
Cur
Currrent banana R&D activities
activities,, pr og
ogrr ams and institutions
prog
involved
Institutions involved in banana R&D and their areas of specialization
Both the private and public sectors are active in banana R&D, with
the private sector, like the corporate farms, playing a major role by
maintaining their respective research departments to increase
production efficiencies. R&D in the Philippine public sector is carried
out by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), the
Department of Agriculture (DA), and the State Colleges and
Universities (SCUs).
The DOST’s Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural
Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) is mandated to
provide central leadership direction and coordination of R&D efforts
in agriculture, natural resources and environment. To implement this
mandate, PCARRD organized the National Agriculture and Resources
Research and Development Network (NARRDN) and the National
Commodity R&D Teams and Experts Pool. The NARRDN is composed
of national and regional research centers and cooperating stations with
functions of conducting and verifying research on specific commodities
and disciplines. Banana R&D activities are carried out through this
network.
Recent developments in the industry shows that gaps/problems still
exist. These problems are translated into R&D Priority Areas with
institutions working on banana and plantain from both the government
and private sector. The different R&D institutes/centers and their areas
of involvement/activities are as follows:
a. Propagation and evaluation of tissue culture-derived planting
materials
• Department of Agriculture (DA)
- Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI)
- Davao National Crop R&D Center (DNCRDC)
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- Baguio National Crop R&D Center (BNCRDC)
- La Granja National Crop R&D Center (LGCRDC)
- Regional Offices/Integrated Agricultural Research Centers
• DA-CARAGA Region
• DA-CeMIARC
• DA-EVIARC
• State colleges and universities (SCUs)
- University of the Philippines at Los Baños (UPLB)
• Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB)
• Department of Horticulture
- Quirino State College (QSC)
- Isabela State University (ISU)
- Nueva Vizcaya State Institue of Technology (NVSIT)
- Ramon Magsaysay Technological Unirversity (RMTU)
- Northern Mindanao State Institute of Science and Technology
(NORMISIST)
- University of Southern Mindanao (USM)
- Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU)
- Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University (DMMMSU)
• Private sector
- Twin Rivers Research Center
- DOLE
- STANFILCO
- LAPANDAY
- Member-agencies of the Philippine Association for Plant Tissue
Culture
b. Genebanking, collection, characterization, maintenance of
germplasm and banana-based orchards (DA and SCUs)
• DA - BPI-DNCRDC
• UPLB-Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB)
• Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU)
• Quirino State College (QSC)
c. Breeding and variety trials (DA and SCUs)
• UPLB-IPB
• DA-BPI-DNCRDC
• QSC
• MMSU
d. Development of varieties resistant to BBTV
• UPLB-IPB
e. Crop production and farming systems (DA-SCUs)
• UPLB-Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute (FSSRI)

• UPLB-Department of Horticulture
• University of Southern Mindanao (USM)
• QSC
• BPI-DNCRDC
• DA-Agusan del Sur
• DA-Bohol Experiment Station
• DA-CAR
f. Crop protection (DA and SCUs)
- Disease resistance trial
• DA-Apayao
• BPI-DNCRDC
• UPLB-Dept. of Plant Pathology
- Bugtok Studies
• BPI-DNCRDC
• NORMISIST
- Quarantine
• DA-BPI Manila
- Serological techniques
• UPLB-BIOTECH
• UPLB-NCPC
g. Postharvest handling
- Maturity/ripening indices
• BPI-DNCRDC
• UPLB-Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research
Center (PHTRC)
- Postharvest, handling, physiology and physico-chemical studies
• UPLB-PHTRC
- Grading and standard
• Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)
h. Food processing and utilization
• DOST-Industrial Technology Development Institute (ITDI)
• DOST-Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI)
• UPLB-Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST)
• BPI-Manila
i. Fiber extraction/fibreboard and corrugating medium
• DA-Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA)
• DOST- Forest Products Research and Development Institute
(FPRDI)
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The strength of the Philippine banana industry lies on the big hectarage,
which is little, more than half (53.8%) of the total land area planted to
fruits. The country is also blessed with favorable climate well-suited
for growing bananas all-year round and there are cultivars accepted
in domestic and export markets. The competitiveness of Philippine
bananas in the global market is well established especially with fresh
banana. This inspires the stakeholders to support the industry through
the years, which generated remarkable dollar earnings for the country.
Over the years, several technologies have been developed addressing
the major concerns of the industry, namely: production of quality fruits,
availability of disease-free planting materials, control of insect pest
and diseases, reduction of postharvest losses, and new improved
processed products. However, more activities have to be done to further
enhance the productivity of banana growers.
Considering the research breakthroughs on banana derived from
previous programs, current research thrusts are focuses on S&T
interventions that will help the banana industry maintain its niche in
the export and domestic markets. The major concerns will be on low-
cost production, productivity enhancement and quality improvement
of Saba, Lakatan and Latundan for fresh local market as they compete
with other fruits.
For the next five years, activities will be carried out on the following
priority research areas/thrusts:
A. Pre-production
1. Variety
• Development of long-term germplasm conservation (e.g.
tissue culture, cryopreservation)
• Development of resistant cultivars to major pests with
improved horticultural characteristics through genetic
engineering
2. Propagation
• Further improvement of an efficient micropropagation
technique
• Identification of strategic locations of tissue-culture
laboratories and technology transfer activities
B. Production
1. Planting density
• Establishment of appropriate planting density for major
cultivars
2. Nutrition
• Establishment of critical nutrient levels for major cultivars
• Nutrient requirements of major cultivars during fruit growth
and development
3. Water relations
• Determination of water requirements based on crop
phenology
• Influence of water on fruit growth and development
4. Cultural management/cropping systems
• Environment-specific management options for major
cultivars
o Characterization of root/shoot growth and function of
major cultivars
• Establishment of sustainable banana-based cropping system
• Establishment of cropping system for typhoon-prone areas
5. Crop protection
• Determination of pest biology, behavior and ecology
• Determination of disease epidemiology
• Control strategies for moko, bugtok, and sigatoka
• Improved IPM programs for major cultivars against BBTV,
sigatoka and fusarium wilt
6. Postharvest system
• Determination of maturity indices, storage requirement,
ripening regulation and physiological disorders
• Improvement of packaging, grading and transport
• Development of postharvest treatment to reduce loss due
to insect pests and diseases
7. Processing, utilization and promotion
• Establishment of processing facilities in production sites
• Development of new high value and novel processed
products and utilization of by-products
• Development of standards for consistent quality of
processed products
• Development of innovative and appropriate packaging for
banana products
• Banana processor-assisted process standardization,
marketing and promotion to create new markets for banana
products
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8. Socio-economics and marketing
• Ex-ante socio-economics evaluation of R&D project on
banana
• Analysis and advocacy of policy options to enhance the
development of small-hold banana sub-industry
• Assessment of factor conditions that affect the growth and
competitiveness of the banana industry
• Analysis and development of entrepreneurial skills among
the small-hold farmers in the country
• Analysis of marketing efficiency and development of
innovative marketing strategies for small-hold banana
growers
The Department of Agriculture program focuses on improved product
development, postharvest handling and enhancement of productivity
of banana farms through control and management of virus and other
diseases, validation of nutrient values and nutritional requirements of
banana plant, cultivar development for disease resistance, population
density studies and biotechnology (BBTV gene constructs).
Proposed ar
areas bor
collabor ation
bora
Regional cooperation is of utmost importance particularly among
countries of the Asia-Pacific Region where there is a common ecological
conditions, problems and thrusts. Their R&D activities are relevant to
each of their neighbors. Such conditions call for a unified effort among
the member countries to hasten development of the banana industry
in the region:
This meeting is very important for all the participating countries to
identify areas for collaborative R&D to further strengthen our efforts
in the development of the banana industry. As such, the following are
proposed areas of collaboration in banana and plantain research and
development for the region:
a. Research
1. Improved propagation techniques for efficient plantlet
production
2. Strain diversity of major viruses (BBTV, CMV, BBrMV and BSV)
and cross protection studies
3. Development of disease-resistant varieties
4. Vulnerability of disease-free planting materials in the field
5. Documentation of loss assessment in the field due to major

insect pests and diseases and improper postharvest handing
and practices.
b. Development
1. Establishment and maintenance of the following centers/
programmes and facilities back up with strong policy
recommendations and support:
• Virus indexing centers, seedling certification program and
accreditation of tissue culture laboratories
• National rehabilitation/eradication program from major
virus diseases
• Strict quarantine regulation and enforcement
2. Regular training of researchers regarding on advance
technologies in banana production and post-production.
3. Mutual exchange of elite germplasm materials
4. Packaging, collection and distribution of relevant information
on banana for distribution to scientists, growers and policy
makers
References
Angeles, D.A. and L.O. Namuco. 1999. Go Global, Grow Royal Fruits
of the Tropics, SEAMEO SEARCA, Los Baños, Laguna.
Molina, A.B., V.N. Roa, J. Bay-Petersen, A.T. Carpio and J.A. Joven
(eds.). 1999. Managing banana and citrus diseases: proceedings
of a regional workshop on disease management of banana and
citrus through the use of disease-free planting materials held
in Davao City, Philippines, 14-16 October 1998, 164p.
CRD-PCARRD. 2002. Fruits R&D Status and Directions (Mango and
Banana). Crops Research Division, PCARRD.
CRD-PCARRD. 2002. S&T Anchor Program on Banana: concept
proposal. Crops Research Division, PCARRD.
Dar, W.D. 1998. The Philippine Banana Industry: Its Competitiveness
with Other Countries. Paper presented during the INIBAP
meeting held on 12-13 January 1998, Montpellier, France.
Recel, M.R. 1998. Opportunities, Constraints and Recommendations
for the Development of the Banana Industry. Paper presented
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during the Fruit Cluster Meeting at PCARRD, Los Baños,
Laguna, July 1998.
Valmayor, R.V. (ed) 1990. Banana and Plantain R&D in Asia and the
Pacific: proceedings of a regional consultation on banana and
plantain R&D networking, Manila and Davao, 20-24 November
1980. Montpelier, France: International Network for the
Improvement of Banana and Plantain, 1990. 189p.
Status of banana R&D
Status R&D,, production and consumption in PNG
production 125
Status of banana R&D, production

and consumption in Papua New Guinea
Rosa Naipo Kambuou*
Introduction
Introduction
Banana is a major food crop in Papua New Guinea (PNG). It is the

dominant staple crop in most farming systems in the lowland areas of
the country and ranks second in importance after sweet potato in
terms of production and consumption. PNG is an important centre of
genetic diversity of wild and cultivated bananas, with the greatest
number of Musa species. The great diversity in the cultivated diploids
(AA) has made PNG the only country in the world where diploid
bananas are of significance in agricultural food production (Stover
and Simmonds 1987).
Cooking bananas are often distinguished from sweet or dessert
bananas, although this is somewhat an artificial distinction. In PNG,
more cooking bananas are produced and consumed than dessert types.
The diploid cultivars are mostly cultivated in wet lowland areas of the
country, including the islands. The triploids, ABB groups, are harder
and are grown mostly in dry lowland areas, along the Papuan coast
and the Markham/Ramu valleys. The other triploid group, the AAB,
are grown mostly in the highland areas of the country. All bananas
produced are consumed in the country. The subsistence production is
mostly for household consumption and the surplus is sold in urban
markets for cash. There are few semi-commercial growers, who grow
dessert varieties for the fresh fruit market.
Even though banana is the second most important food crop of the
country, it has received little R&D attention. While the international
banana emphasis is on commercial dessert bananas, most production
in PNG is based on starchy cooking types grown under subsistence
production systems. Very little research on cooking bananas has been
conducted in PNG (King 1986).
The National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) is currently
looking at banana as a component in the farming systems research
and not as a separate entity. The Institute is currently maintaining the
national field genebank collection at Laloki and working collections
at Bubia, Keravat and Aiyura.
*Principal Scientist (Plant Genetic Resources), NARI, Laloki, Port Moresby, Papua
New Guinea.
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This paper will discuss the current status of banana R&D activities
undertaken in the country and highlight the constraints that the
banana production is facing. Some thoughts on possible areas of
collaboration and opportunities and thrusts to further strengthen the
network arrangements will also be discussed.
Banana production in the country is still in the hands of the subsistence
farmers and the 85% of the people who live in rural areas. Well over
80% of the bananas produced are cooking types, grown mainly for
household consumption and surplus is sold in urban fresh food markets
for cash income. Less than 20% of the bananas produced in the country
are dessert types grown mostly by semi-commercial set-ups run by
institutions or private growers for the urban fresh fruit market.
Banana production and yield
There are no recent national level data on banana production for PNG.
However, the nationwide household consumption survey that was
carried out in 1996 as part of the World Bank Poverty Assessment
Project, gives some estimates of household production and
consumption. Gibson (2001) reported an estimate of 413 000 tonnes
of bananas produced in 1996 and each person was producing around
85 kg of bananas. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
estimates for banana production for PNG in 1996 was 665 000 tonnes
(Waterhouse et al 1999). These figures are only estimates and may not
reflect the true situation in the country. It is very difficult to accurately
assess the area under production and the quantity produced and
consumed under subsistence situation.
The bunch yield/hectare depends very much on the varieties, the
growing conditions and the cultural practices. A survey on the banana
production, marketing and consumption carried out in 1986 to 1988
revealed the mean bunch yield of 6.0 t/ha/household was obtained
from a single harvest of diploid bananas (Kambuou 2001). The mean
bunch weight of diploid bananas was 5.4 kg. The triploids have heavier
bunches and would give a higher mean weight of bunch per hectare
per household.
The acreage under dessert bananas is small. The subsistence farmers
grow their dessert bananas amongst the cooking bananas and other
food crops in a mixed cropping manner. There are few semi-commercial
establishments in PNG that grow dessert bananas. The Pacific
Adventist University (PAU) outside Port Moresby is currently growing
Status R&D,, production and consumptionin PNG
production 127
six hectares of varieties Williams and Cavendish for the Port Moresby
fresh fruit market and the students’ mess. They are producing around
27-30 tonnes of banana per hectare. The students are consuming 10%
of what is produced and 90% is sold to the fresh fruit markets in Port
Moresby.
Gibson (2001) reported that each person in PNG was consuming
around 83 kg of bananas in 1996 with the rural areas consuming the
highest quantity of 90 kg per head. The FAO estimates imply an average
banana consumption in PNG of 84 kg per head in 1998 (Waterhouse
et al 1999). The FAO estimates closely related to the findings of the
PNG household survey conducted in 1996.
The importance of banana as a food crop is again apparent in
providing 6.9% of the national calories and 7.4% of the rural household
calories (Gibson 2001) (Table 1).
Table 1. Share of total calories (%) provided by bananas and other staple food
crops of PNG.
Food Crops PNG Rural Urban
Sweet potato 26.7 30.1 4.7

Banana (cooking & dessert) 6.9 7.4 3.9
Cassava 2.8 3.1 1.0
Taro & Xanthrosoma 6.6 7.3 2.2
Sago 6.5 6.3 7.6
Yam 2.4 2.6 0.7
Irish potato 0.2 0.2 0.4
Other food crops & imported food 47.9 43.0 79.5
stuff & drinks
Source: Gibson 2000. The economic and nutritional importance of household food production
in PNG.
The average prices of cooking and eating bananas sold in urban markets
throughout the major centres of PNG during January to December
2001 are given in Table 2. It is evident that bananas sold in Mt Hagen
and Port Moresby markets are more expensive than other centres.
This is also true for other food crops.
The data indicate a large spread of prices between markets such as
Popondetta where banana production is low due to few farmers
growing the crop, compared to Rabaul where every household is at
least growing banana. The price for a bunch (five hands) of diploid
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Table 2. Average price for bananas sold in seven major centres in PNG during
Jan - Dec 2001 (in PNG Kina*/kg).
Type of Port
Lae Madang Goroka Rabaul Popondetta Mt Hagen
banana Moresby
Dessert/
3.12 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.63 1.91 3.99
sweet
Cooking 1.45 3.57 3.65 1.24 0.50 3.86 2.96
Source: PNG Fresh Produce Development Company, Fresh Produce News, January-December 2001.
*PNG Kina 3.85 = US$ 1.
(AA) banana at Popondetta would cost around K 12.74 (US$ 3.31),

while in Rabaul, the same bunch would cost only K 1.65, (US$ 0.43).
If the farmers in Popondetta once every month, which is possible for
the diploid banana that grows all the year round, they can easily make
K 152.88/year (US$ 40/year) from selling just diploids. In real situation,
a farmer would sell more than three to four bunches of diploid bananas
at any time. The situation would be different for other centres and
with selling of triploids (ABB) bananas. A good hand of triploid banana
in the Port Moresby market would sell for K5.00 (US$ 1.30), when the
market supply is low. The price for the dessert bananas in Port Moresby
and Mt Hagen markets are high due to high transportation cost and
low supply. A good hand of Cavendish would sell for K3.00 (US$ 0.78).
It appears that there is a high demand for the domestic market for
both the cooking and the dessert bananas. There is potential for PNG
to look at developing a viable banana industry to supply the urban
markets in the country.
Common banana varieties grown by farmers
The main dessert varieties grown on semi-commercial scale are the
Dwarf, Medium and Tall Cavendish and Gros Michel. Subsistence
farmers grow more than 30 dessert landraces, depending on localities.
The common types grown throughout the country are: Yawa (Pisang
Awak - ABB), Mossmun (Pisang Mas - Sucrier AA) and Sogeri Biku
(landrace - AA) in the lowlands and Suga (landrace - AAA) in the
highland areas. It would be difficult to estimate the production of
dessert bananas by subsistence farmers. The list of the common dessert
varieties and landraces of bananas grown in PNG is given in
Table 3.
There are well over 200 landraces of cooking bananas. Different varieties
and landraces are grown by farmers depending on consumers’
preference and the locations. The common bananas grown in the dry
lowlands areas are the Kalapua types from the ABB group. Farmers
production 129
Table 3. List of common dessert bananas grown in PNG.
Variety Local/Vernacular name Genotype
(1) Dwarf Cavendish AAA

(2) Medium Cavendish AAA
(3) Tall Cavendish AAA
(4) Yawa Yawa (Pisang Awak) ABB
(5) Gros Michel AAA
PNG Number (Landrace)
(6) PNG 052 Yenai (Pisang Mas) AA
(7) PNG 131 Daru ABB
(8) PNG 175 Mossmun (Pisang Mas) AA
(9) PNG 294 Sar Fe’i
(10) PNG209 Suga banana AAA
(11) Sogeri biku (Similar to Pisang Berlin) AA
Note : There are over 30 dessert cultivars/landraces of banana grown by subsistence farmers in
PNG.
in these areas grow more than 20 different Kalapua landraces. The

diploid landraces from the AA group are mostly grown in the wet
lowland areas of the country and the AAB types are grown in the
highland areas. The list of the commonly grown cooking bananas is
given in Table 4.
Uses of bananas
Banana fruits are consumed mainly as staple food, prepared in different
ways. The dessert types are left to ripen before they are eaten or sold.
Some cooking landraces can be eaten ripe as well. For example, the
popular Daru cultivar is a triploid ABB, a cooking type, but can also
be eaten as dessert banana. A good portion of banana fruits is fed to
pigs.
In addition to food, banana plants are used for other household
purposes as well. The leaves are used extensively for weaving baskets
and mats, as wrapping for food for the market and cooking, as
coverings over food from flies, as tablecloths and as plates for eating
as well as cup for drinking soup. The old leaves are used in wrapping
up banana bunches (bunch covers) for protection against bats and
birds. The rural people use the large leaves of triploid bananas as
umbrella during rainy season.
The dried midrib of leaves and the dried pseudostem make good rope
for tying purposes.
130 Ad
Advvancing banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the P acif
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Table 4. List of cooking bananas commonly grown in Papua New Guinea.
PNG Number Local/Vernacular Name Genotype
1. PNG 002 Gulum AA
2. PNG 004 Vudu Papua or Babi AA
3. PNG 013 Kasaka AA
4. PNG 014 Navaradam AA
5. PNG 020 Aivip AA
6. PNG 021 Lalalalur AA
7. PNG 027 Taputuput AA
8. PNG 034 Auko AB
9. PNG 038 Mpiajhap AA
10. PNG 043 Waimara AA
11. PNG 044 Hung tu AA
12. PNG 101 Kekiau AA
13. PNG 107 Mamakila AA
14. PNG 110 Apindikay AA
15. PNG 111 Avalira AA
16. PNG 118 Tukuru ABB
17. PNG 119 Katual Vunalir AA
18. PNG 120 Lagur Vunalir AA
19. PNG 131 Daru ABB
20. PNG 141 Tukuru No.2 ABB
21. PNG 142 Tagomor AA
22. PNG 145 Kalapua No.2 (large Kalapua) ABB
23. PNG 146 Luba AAB
24. PNG 153 Bud AA
25. PNG 154 Kahur AA
26. PNG 159 Maleb AA
27. PNG 160 Gonub AA
28. PNG 161 Manameg (red) AA
29. PNG 163 Manameg (green) AA
30. PNG 165 Bago AA
31. PNG 171 Dwarf Kalapua ABB
32. PNG 184 Enar AA
33. PNG 203 Kerua AAB
34. PNG 206 Rukumamb Tambey AAB
35. PNG 207 Rukumamb AAB
36. PNG 227 Tango AA
37. PNG 231 Sena AA
38. PNG 241 Bengani (Hoodomadare) ABB
39. PNG 242 Jaruda AA
40. PNG 262 Kwince AAB
41. PNG 272 Sraeke (one hand) AAB
42. PNG 288 Tainga AA
43. PNG 301 Papat Wung AA
44. PNG 307 Kupulik (two hands) AAB
45. PNG 333 Loibwa AA
46. PNG 338 Gilasalasa AA
47. PNG 191 Bene AAB
Note: There are over 200 landraces of cooking bananas grown by subsistence farmers in
PNG. The 47 identified in the above Appendix are preferred by consumers.
production 131
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
The decline in banana production in PNG is due to a number of factors.
The main factors are pests and diseases, climatic factors, poor farmer
management practices, declining soil fertility, lack of market
infrastructure, inadequate R&D technologies appropriate for adoption
by farmers, limited credit facilities for farmers, poor storage facilities
for fresh fruits, lack of know-how on downstream processing and poor
marketing strategy.
Climatic factors
The climatic pattern has changed so much in the last 5-15 years that it
has severely affected the subsistence way of farming. Rainfall patterns
have changed throughout the country. The dry areas are now
experiencing longer dry seasons and the wetter areas are experiencing
a lot of rain, causing severe landslides and floods. This has forced
farmers to grow landraces that are able to grow under adverse climatic
conditions, thus losing diversity on farm. Climate change has also
created a conducive environment for pest and disease build up and
outbreaks of pests such as locusts and armyworm.
Pests and diseases of bananas
The major insect pests of bananas that are of some concern to the
farmers are banana skippers (Erionota thrax), the fruit flies (Bactrocera
musae) and banana scab moth (Nacoleia octasema). The economic yield
reduction caused by these pests is not fully researched in PNG.
However, Waterhouse (1999) reported that banana skipper could cause
bunch weight loss up to 28% with 50% leaf defoliation.
The most noticeable diseases of bananas in PNG are the leaf spot
complex. These include black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis),
cordana (Cordana musae), black cross (Phyllachora musicola) and freckle
(Ramichloridium musae). Sharrock and Jones (1989) reported no firm
evidence that yellow sigatoka, the disease that black sigatoka is known
to have replaced in other countries (Myscosphaerella musicola), ever
existed in PNG. The leaf spot complex mostly affects the diploid AA
and the AAA groups. The triploid ABB groups are resistant, particularly
to black sigatoka. Leaf spot diseases are not a threat to subsistence
banana production because of the resistance and tolerant materials
and the diversity in banana genomes present in PNG.
The two lethal diseases of bananas, the blood disease or bacterial wilt
and the fusarium wilt or panama disease have been reported to spread
to the Irian Jaya Province of Indonesia (Davis et al 2001). Blood disease
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is not yet present in PNG, while the fusarium wilt is currently present
in three locations in PNG, along the Irian Jaya-PNG border. These
diseases would be a serious threat to the subsistence banana production
if and when they arrive and establish in PNG.
Inadequate practical research targeted at subsistence production and
limited understanding of the traditional farming systems
The current research agenda has not given much weight to banana
research, except for germplasm collections and maintenance. More
emphasis should be given to banana farming systems R&D. The new
technologies that are developed should take into account farmers’
knowledge, practices and attitudes and be appropriate for small
farmers’ use. Banana is a cultural crop in PNG, where tradition plays
a major role in determining the growing of certain types or landraces
for special events. Researchers need to be aware of farmers’ practices,
the kind of landraces they grow and how they relate these landraces
to the social events that are taking place.
Poor farmer management practices
In most areas of PNG, subsistence farmers are still practising ‘shifting
cultivation. Farmers are growing bananas with other food crops in a
mixed cropping manner, often at very high densities. Management
input is very low, in terms of labour for weeding, propping, removing
dried leaves and earthing soil around banana bases. No mulch is used
in the gardens, all weeds are gathered at the side and burnt. Farmers
do not desucker their bananas. Suckers are left to grow and produce
bunches or are removed as planting materials for new gardens.
Subsistence farmers aim mainly at producing bananas for the household
consumption and therefore are not too concerned about yield of
banana. The traditional technique of covering banana bunches only
applies to certain areas and for specific landraces that are selected for
customary purposes. Most areas in PNG do not cover banana bunches
and therefore are heavily subjected to damage by bats, birds or insects.
Declining soil fertility
It is evident in some parts of the country like the Gazelle Peninsula
and some areas of the Simbu Province in the highlands of PNG, that
farmers are experiencing shortage of arable land for farming. This is
due mainly to population pressures and the expansion of good arable
land under cash crops such as cocoa, coffee and oil palm. Farmers are
not able to shift their gardens to new sites and therefore are forced
into shortening the fallow period, which used to be 10-15 years, now
production 133
to 3-5 years. Portion of land allocated to a family by the clan is also

getting small as family size increases over the years. Rural families are
experiencing difficulties to produce good crops due to overuse of their
piece of land. Declining soil fertility is a problem throughout the
country and may be very serious in certain areas where population
pressure is high.
Lack of market infrastructure and limited credit facilities
During the recent Provincial Consultation survey carried out by NARI
towards the development of the National Research Priority Setting, it
was identified that lack of market infrastructure has discouraged
farmers to expand on their food crop production. The road networks
from the rural areas to the urban centres are inaccessible or are not in
place compounded by lack of reliable transport system from the place
of production to the market. In areas where it is accessible, the transport
cost is often very high for farmers to afford.
The fresh produce markets in the urban centres are all open markets,
where farmers sell their produce and at the end of the day if they do
not sell their produce, they take them back to the villages. A lot of
wastage occurs as a result, which can discourage farmers to produce
for the market.
To commercialise banana production, farmers need assistance from
the government to help them set up their businesses. There are credit
schemes or facilities available in PNG, but their conditions are not
favourable for subsistence farmers who do not have assets apart from
their own traditional land. The farmers need capital to purchase farm
equipment and implement as well the necessary infrastructure to grow
bananas. It is very difficult for a subsistence banana grower to get
help from the credit facilities currently available.
Lack of postharvest facilities and know-how on
downstream processing
Postharvest R&D in PNG is lacking. Proper packaging and storage
facilities are not developed or available in the country. The semi-
commercial dessert banana growers have their own small coldroom
facilities and do their own packaging and transporting to the fresh
fruit market. Establishment of appropriate postharvest facilities by the
government would encourage the farmers to expand their production.
Banana is bulky and highly perishable as fresh produce and therefore
needs to be made into other food products that have longer shelf life
and can be easily transported. The knowledge and technologies on
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processing fresh food crops into other products are available elsewhere
and should be investigated for bananas.
Inadequate delivery of support services (extension) and limited technical
manpower
The delivery mechanism through government service providers is very
ineffective and needs to be properly developed and staff to better assist
the farmers in the rural areas of the country. Information and
technology providers should use other service providers like the Non-
Government Organisations (NGO) agencies. More technical and skilled
workers are required on banana research.
Lack of appropriate machinery for production
Lack of appropriate machinery for farming is a big problem throughout
the country. Subsistence farmers are unable to purchase basic farm
machinery and implements because of high prices and service back-
ups are either poor or very expensive.
Investigation into development and bulk production of appropriate
farm machinery, implements and tools would help farmers to boost
their banana production.
Current banana research and development activities and
institutes involved
R&D work on bananas in PNG is minimal at this stage. Banana has
been considered with other food crops in the farming systems research
agenda, but not as an entity on its own. Research on nutrition and
water, postharvest and integrated pest management on banana has
not been looked at in PNG. Production of banana in the country is
mainly focusing on cooking types as food crops and by subsistence
farmers.
NARI is perhaps the only institution in the country that is doing some
work on bananas. The Institute is currently maintaining the national
banana germplasm collection and the working collections at various
research locations throughout the country where suitable farmer
cultivars or landraces are selected, multiplied and distributed to
farmers for production. There are no service providers that are
specifically involved in banana work. The farmers themselves
effectively distribute planting materials of bananas and other crops.
PNG banana species
Simmonds (1956) and Argent (1976) pointed out that PNG is an
production 135
important centre of wild banana distribution although Malaysia is

the recognised origin of bananas. Cultivated bananas belong to the
Eumusa section of the family Musaceae. They are natural hybrid
polyploids, comprising of diploids, triploids and tetraploids. The other
edible bananas are the Fe’i types belonging to the Australimusa section.
This group of banana have originated from PNG, but are not as
important as the edible Eumusa types (Bourke 1976). Apart from the
cultivated edible varieties, there are many wild bananas in PNG that
produce nonedible fruits with massive seeds. These wild species
include: M. maclayi, M. balbisiana, M. acuminata (with subspecies
banksii), M. schizocarpa, M. peekelii (with subspecies angustigemma), M.
boman, M. lolodensis and M. ingens (Sharrock 1989).
Banana collecting expeditions to PNG
In 1970, collecting trips were made to many parts of the country and
some 800 accessions of bananas were assembled at the University of
Technology (Unitech) in Lae (King and Bull 1984). The collection
included farmer landraces as well as six wild types. In 1986-1987, a
Japanese mission made two collecting trips around the country and
collected 52 accessions. Between 1988 and 1989, four collecting
expeditions were undertaken by the International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the Queensland Department of
Primary Industries (QDPI) with assistance from the International
Network for the Improvement of Bananas and Plantains (INIBAP) in
collaboration with PNG Department of Agriculture and Livestock. A
total of 264 accessions were collected during these trips. The latest
collecting trip was taken in 1999 by the NARI staff under the World
Bank Drought and Frost project to collect any bananas that were
surviving throughout the El Niño drought. A total of 26 accessions
were collected from the highlands region and the Central Province.
Banana germplasm collections
The PNG national banana germplasm collection is located at NARI
Dry Lowlands Programme (DLP) site, Laloki. This is a field collection
and currently holds 297 accessions of both the cultivated and wild
bananas. The composition of the national collection is presented in
Table 5.
The conserved materials are being characterised morphologically and
undergoing preliminary assessment for fruit yield, eating quality and
resistance/tolerance to pests, diseases and dry conditions. Selections
for dry condition tolerance and good eating qualities are multiplied
on-station and distributed to small farmers on request. Many
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Table 3. Composition of PNG national banana germplasm collection as of
October 2002.
Genomes Number
Diploid (AA) 116
Triploid (AAA, ABB, AAB) 147
Tetraploid (AAAA, AABB, AAAB) 6
Wild spp. 6
Others (AS, AAT, BB, AB) 8
Breeding Line FHIA types 14
Total 297
subsistence farmers along river basins outside Port Moresby are growing
diploid cultivars that originated from Morobe, Madang and other
provinces because of their good eating qualities.
NARI also maintains small working collections at the NARI Wet-
lowlands Island site, Keravat (<70 accessions), Wet-lowlands Mainland
site, Bubia (>20 accessions) and Highlands site, Aiyura (26 accessions).
Improved banana breeding lines
NARI, Laloki collaborated with QDPI Mareeba in a Banana Sigatoka
Resistant Variety study conducted in 1999. The 14 FHIA hybrids and
some common cultivars known to be resistant to sigatoka disease were
tested at Laloki during the 1999-2000 growing season. The study
showed that nine breeding lines/cultivars out of 14 were highly
resistant to sigatoka disease. The highly resistant hybrids that yielded
over 20 kg/bunch were FHIA-25, FHIA-03 and FHIA-17. The lines/
cultivars that produced around 16-19 kg/bunch and are also highly
resistant to sigatoka disease were FHIA-18, FHIA-02, FHIA-23, Pisang
Ceylan and SH-3436. Taste panel was carried out on all the lines/
cultivars as dessert bananas. Cultivars SH-3436 and Pisang Ceylan
were recorded as highly liked by the tasters. The lines that were
susceptible to sigatoka disease were SH-3640, Musa acuminata banksii
and Pisang Berlin. Materials for SH-3436 and Pisang Ceylan are being
multiplied for distribution to farmers.
There is potential for PNG to develop its banana industry, especially
the cooking bananas for its domestic market. Prices for bananas in the
urban markets throughout the country are very high because of limited
production. General observation showed that the current subsistence
production does not meet the market demands in urban areas. Once
the industry is established, this would encourage more farmers to grow
production 137
and sell the crop thus reducing the price of bananas sold in the urban
markets.
The potential for dessert bananas for the domestic market is also high.
The quantity produced at the moment is minimal because of uncertain
markets and lack of information on the demand by urban consumers.
Lack of market infrastructure throughout the country has hindered
the supply of bananas from rural areas to the urban markets.
Opportunities exist for the government to develop feeder roads and
improve the existing road network throughout the country, to alleviate
the problem of accessibility. Proper cold storage depots for fresh produce
need to be established in main centres in the country to assist the
farmers with their produce.
Proposed ar
areas bor
collabor ations
bora
There may be many areas for collaboration under the Network. The
two areas where PNG as a subsistence producer of bananas would
like to see established is the postharvest and downstream processing
and the plant protection area.
Banana skipper, banana leaf scab and fruit fly may not pose serious
threat to banana production at the moment, but if production increases
through monocropping, economic yield losses will certainly be
experienced.
Banana diseases may not cause economic yield reduction at the
moment, but once the production acreage increases, diseases such as
the leaf spot complex would become a serious problem. Some concerns
have been raised by the Research and Quarantine authorities in PNG,
regarding the spread of the fusarium wilt from the border area of
Sandaun Province to the rest of the country and the introduction and
spread of banana bacterial wilt. Collaboration in research in the area
of banana diseases would be of great benefit to PNG.
The appropriate technology and skills in postharvest handling and
downstream processing of bananas into other food products may have
been researched but not developed in PNG. Collaborative research in
these areas would be of great benefit to the country.
References
Argent, G.C.G. 1976. The wild and cultivated bananas of Papua New
Guinea. Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh, 35(1): 77-114.
Bourke, R.M. 1976. Know your bananas. Harvest 3(2): 48-54.
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Davis, R.I., N.Y. Moore and M. Fegan. 2001. Blood Disease and Panama
Disease: Two Newly Introduced and Grave Threats to Banana
Production on the Island of New Guinea. Food Security for
Papua New Guinea, ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. pp. 816-820.
Gibson J. 2001. The Economic and Nutritional Importance of Household
Food Production in PNG. Food Security for Papua New Guinea,
ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. pp 37-44.
Kambuou R.N. 2001. Review of Germplasm Collections and Agronomic
Research on Bananas in PNG. Food Security for Papua New
Guinea, ACIAR Proceedings No. 99, pp. 809-815.
King G.A. 1986. Review of research on bananas, cassava and yams in
Papua New Guinea. Technical Report 86/6. DPI, Port Moresby.
King, G.A. and P.B. Bull. 1984. The PNG Biological Foundation Banana
Collection. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.
South East Asian Newsletter 8(2): 3-4.
Sharrock, S. 1989. Collecting Missions in PNG. Musa Conservation
and Documentations. Workshop Proceedings, Leuven, Belgium.
pp 57-58.
Sharrock S. 2000. Diversity in the genus Musa: Focus on Australimusa
in Networking Banana and Plantain. INIBAP Annual Rep.
2000. pp. 14-16.
Sharrock S.I & D.R. Jones. 1989. Report on Third IBPGR/QDPI Banana
Germplasm Collecting Mission to Papua New Guinea. 15 Feb.-
12 Mar. Section 1 - Summary.
Simmonds N.W. 1956. A banana collecting expedition to Southeast
Asia and the Pacific. Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad, 33(44): 251-
271.
Stover R.H. & N.W. Simmonds. 1987. Bananas. London. Longman.
468p.
Waterhouse D., B. Dillion & D. Vincent. 1999. Biological Control of
the Banana Skipper in Papua New Guinea. Cost-benefit analysis
of an ACIAR project. Report, CIE, Canberra & Sydney. pp. 14-
16.
Present status of banana cultivation in Sri Lanka 139
Present status of banana cultivation

in Sri Lanka
Chandrasiri K
Chandrasiri uda
Kuda
udaggamage*
amag
Introduction
Introduction
The total extent of land under fruit cultivation in Sri Lanka is about
90 000 ha and about 50 different fruit crops are found. Banana is the
main fruit crop grown year-round throughout the country. The total
fruit production of the country in 1999 was about 640 000 tonnes, in
which banana constituted 46%. Annual per capita fruit consumption
in Sri Lanka ranges between 21.8 kg to 28 kg and banana is the major
fruit crop consumed.
Extent of production and pr

production oductivity
productivity
There is gradual increase in the area cultivated with banana during

the last 10 years. However, the production has declined slightly. The
productivity remained more or less static around 8 tonnes per hectare
(Table 1).
Table 1. Area, production and mean yield of banana.
Area Production Mean yield

Year
(t) (t) (t/ha)
1990 36 699 385 944 10.516
1991 38 222 371 664 9.724
1992 37 869 377 280 9.963
1993 51 277 420 048 8.192
1994 51 900 509 436 9.816
1995 50 488 463 632 9.183
1996 46 665 412 764 8.845
1997 47 406 404 820 8.539
1998 47 119 384 864 8.168
1999 48 075 397 272 8.264
2000 48 686 403 404 8.286
Banana is grown all over the island except in higher elevation.

Kurunegala is the major producing district, which attributes to 20%
*Director, HORDI, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

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to national production. The other important districts in terms of their
production are Rathnapura, Kegalle, Monaragala and Gampaha
(Table 2).
Table 2. Area and production of banana in different districts in 1999.
Area Production
District (ha) (000 bunches)
Colombo 971 767
Gampaha 3 836 3 086
Kalutara 1 534 1 466
Kandy 2 564 1 143
Matale 2 091 1 274
Nuwar-Eliya 1 006 679
Galle 1 301 732
Matara 1 479 1 412
Hambantota 2 602 2 015
Jaffna 528 557
Kilinochchi 182 135
Mannar 93 57
Vavuniya 58 50
Mullativu 196 146
Batticaloa 473 246
Ampara 1 450 1 233
Trincomalee 290 135
Kurunegala 9 531 6 614
Puttalam 1 654 558
Anuradhapura 938 544
Polonnaruwa 953 511
Badulla 1 622 992
Moneragala 3 736 2 492
Ratnapura 4 707 3 573
Kegalle 3 868 2 541
Mahaweli’H’ 412 148
Sri Lanka 48 075 33 106
Source: Census & Statistics
Banana is available throughout the year. However, highest supply is

observed during June and the lowest in December. Hence, prices are
low in June and high in January and February (Figure 1). Prices are
also high in April due to high demand during the festival season.
The consumption of banana is higher than the other fruits. The

proportion of consumption of banana to total expenditure on food
was 0.16% per household per month. The consumption of banana
has not changed significantly over the years. It was 0.13 g/day in
1973, 0.15 g/day in 1986 and 0.12 g/day in 1990/91. The highest
8
Ambul Kolikuttu Seeni Anamalu Ambun
7
6
5
Price (Rs)
4
3
2
1
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Figure 1. Within year price fluctuation of banana varieties.
(mean for the last 5 years)
consumption was observed in urban sectors with an average of 7.6 g/

day and the rural sector consumption was 3.90 g/day. The
consumption among the income group above Rs 3001 (US$30) is higher
than average consumption rate (Table 3 and 4).
Table 3. Annual per capita consumption of banana/annum by sector (unit: no.).
Sector Urban Rural Estate All sectors
1978/79 71.50 37.40 35.70 45.10
1981/82 70.80 42.00 40.80 48.00
1986/87 91.20 46.80 32.40 54.00
The private sector plays a dominant role in banana marketing. The

role of government in banana marketing is negligible. Generally,
collectors go to the producing areas once a week using their own or
hired vehicles with one or two labourers to collect the produce. The
collectors sell the banana to wholesalers. The wholesalers get 10%
commission on the sales. The wholesalers sell them to retailers who in
turn sell them to consumers.
There is a huge demand for banana in the international market. Sri
Lanka exports banana mainly to Korea, Maldives, Middle East,
Switzerland, United Kingdom and Germany. The export growth does
not seem to be stable and small in quantity and value (Table 5).
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Table 4. Annual per capita consumption of banana by income group and
sector (1986/87).
Income group
Urban Rural Estate All sectors
(Rs)
0 – 100 114.00 22.8 - 43.20
101 – 102 170.40 51.60 - 92.40
201 – 200 84.00 16.80 21.60 24.00
401 – 6 90.00 16.80 4.80 20.40
601 – 800 84.00 16.80 9.60 21.60
801 – 1000 28.80 25.20 33.60 26.40
1001 – 1500 51.60 24.00 30.00 27.60
1501 – 2000 45.60 33.60 34.80 36.00
2001 – 3000 58.80 52.80 30.00 52.80
3001 – 5000 109.20 80.40 52.80 85.20
5001 – 10 000 133.20 106.80 129.60 118.80
Over 10 000 180.00 109.20 34.80 147.60
Overall Ave. 91.20 46.80 32.40 54.00
Table 5. Quantity and value of banana exports in different years.

Quantity Value
Year
(kgs) (Rs)*
1991 53 836 1 670 657
1992 2 741 158 935
1993 4 335 952 943
1994 4 049 823 004
1995 24 378 4 399 711
1996 21 794 3 290 171
1997 2 787 354 776
1998 2 482 120 239
1999 1 250 232 000
2000 2 756 677 365
2001 35 933 2 169 000
Source: Sri Lanka Custom.
*(US$1=Rs96)
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
There are several factors contributing to the low productivity of banana
in Sri Lanka. Lack of high-yielding varieties, prevalence of pest and
diseases, rainfed cultivation, adoption of low plant density and high
postharvest losses are some of the production constraints of banana
cultivation.
Pest and diseases

There are many fungal and viral diseases affecting banana. Among
the diseases, virus diseases of banana cause considerable damage to
the fruit quality and banana yield. The important virus diseases are
Banana Bract Mosaic Virus (BBrMV), Banana Streak Virus (BSV),
Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) and Banana Mosaic Virus (BMV).
Results of a survey (Ariyaratne and Liyanage 2002) showed that 82%
of Embul banana is infected with BBTV and 59% with BSV. The
incidence of BSV is low. The incidence of BBTV is low in areas of high
elevations. The disease incidence is high in areas with high temperature
and sunny conditions.
During the later part of 1998 and first quarter of 1999, severe infestation
of fruit flies in ripe banana was observed in some parts of the country.
The most predominant fruit fly species were Bactocera kandiensis and
B. dorsalis. Fruits more than 90 days old showed significantly higher
infestation than green banana (less than 75 days old) (Ekanayake et
al. 2002).
An internal discoloration in fruits of banana is recorded from many
parts of the country. The discoloration seems to be initiated at the nipple
end of the fruit and develop towards the stalk end through vascular
bundle. The browning discoloration extends up to outer most tissues
of the fruits but not to the peel. A pathogen is not associated with this
disorder but is suspected to be induced by nutritional/physiological
factors (Weerasinghe et al. 2001).
Improved crop management technologies
Non-adoption of improved crop management technologies such as
high plant density, irrigation and proper fertilizer management have
resulted to poor yield of banana.
The usual plant density used by the farmers is around 1000 plants per
hectare, giving a yield of 10-15 tonnes per hectare. Banana farmers do
not follow proper nutrient management. Banana has high demand of
potassium and farmers use more nitrogen when the crop is fertilized,
resulting in nutrient imbalance (Weerasinghe and Premalal 2002).
Postharvest losses
Banana industry in Sri Lanka is predominantly small farmer based,
catering mainly to domestic market. The postharvest losses of banana
account for about 20%. This is mainly due to the delicate nature of the
fruit when it ripens and lack of suitable infrastructures for transport
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from production points to consumers. Very few processed products
are marketed in Sri Lanka, primarily due to the difficulty in retaining
the characteristic colour, flavour and the tenure during processing.
Research and development
R&D programme is focused on increasing productivity and solving
the field problems.
Varietal Improvement
Varieties obtained from International Musa Testing Programme (IMTP)
of INIBAP were evaluated for their yield and other agronomic
characters. Two varieties were identified as superior and recommended
for cultivation (DOA 2001). Yield data of these varieties and a local
selection is given in Table 6.
Kandula This Cavendish type banana variety can be used both
as a dessert type and cooking purpose. It is an early-
bearing variety with high yield.
Pulathesi A high-yielding Cavendish variety suitable as a cooking
(FHIA-03) banana. It has a robust and semi-dwarf pseudostem
and hence can resist wind damage. It showed resist-
ance to black sigatoka.
Prasad It is a cooking type of banana with high yield and
adaptability to both dry and wet zones.
Table 6. Yield performance of three consecutive crops of

the three candidate varieties.
Mother crop 1st ratoon 2nd ratoon
Bunch Yield Bunch Yield Bunch Yield
wt (kg). (t/ha) wt (kg) (t/ha) wt (kg) (t/ha)
Angunakolapelessa
Nadee 13.3 14.6 15.2 16.7 15 16.5
Kandula 25.5 28.0 21.5 23.7 25.8 28.4
Pulathesi 26.3 28.9 27.1 29.8 24.3 26.7
Prasad 13.5 14.9 14.2 15.6 15.0 16.5
Mahaiiluppallama
Prasad 13.2 14.5 14.5 15.9 15.3 16.8
* Each figure is mean of nine bunches
Development of virus-free banana foundation stocks

There are four main virus diseases of banana in Sri Lanka. Primary
source of viruses is the vegetative planting material obtained from
infected plants. At present, sucker production of banana is mainly
done through conventional methods using vegetatively produced
suckers. Hence, a programme was initiated to produce virus-free
foundation stock of banana. The programme constitutes the following
steps as described by Dassanyake and Rathnabarathi 2002.
1. Apparently virus-free high-yielding plants are collected from
home gardens. Additionally, planting materials are also collected
from researchers and importers of planting material.
2. Collected plants are maintained in an aphid-proof planthouse.
3. One month after establishment, indexing is carried out for the
four viruses using Enzyme Linked Immuno Solvent Assay (ELISA)
techniques. ELISA negative samples for the four viruses were once
again indexed by ELISA. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) tests
were then carried out for the final ELISA negative samples.
4. Multiplication of healthy banana through conventional method
under aphid-proof greenhouse conditions.
5. Issue of healthy planting material for rapid multiplication to tissue
culture laboratories.
6. Random indexing of the tissue culture propagation.
High density planting

The productivity of banana is high at high plant densities (Table 7).
The fruit and bunch characters are not affected by high plant density.
In addition, high plant density results in early harvesting. The cost of
production of per kg of banana is low under this system.
Table 7. Performance of dessert variety under two population densities.
High density Standard density
Parameter
(3333 plants/ha) (1111 plants/ha)
Days to flowering 249.0 296.0
Bunch weight (kg) 14.4 14.4
Number of hands 9.0 9.0
Fruit weight (kg) 98.2 99.0
Yield (t/ha) 39.4 16.4
Adopted from S Weerasinghe 2000
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Postharvest loss rreduction
ostharv eduction and value addition
value
The product quality of banana can be enhanced by bunch covering.
Bunch weight could be increased by 18-23% while promoting the
appearance of fruit when bunches are covered with suitable material.
Woven polysac bags were identified as the most economical type of
bagging material (Weerasinghe and Ruvanpathirana 2002).
Production of banana fruit leather is a means of utilizing small and
blemished fruits that are unmarketable. Variety Anamalu showed the
best performance for banana fruit leather production in terms of overall
acceptance as well as other sensory properties (Ekanayake and
Bandara 2002).
Research thrusts and collaboration
R&D activities are planned to increase the productivity.

1. Development of high-yielding, high quality varieties through
varietal introduction and evaluation of local germplasm
2. Development of healthy planting material through virus indexing
and tissue culture.
3. Development of environmentally friendly techniques for
management of diseases such as sigatoka, fusarium wilt and viral
diseases. Emphasis will be placed on development of biocontrol
methods for fusarium wilt.
4. Development of improved crop management techniques such as
high plant density and micro-irrigation techniques.
5. Reduction of postharvest losses and development of value-added
products to reduce the loss during the glut.
There had been a lot of collaborative activities with INIBAP in the
past which will be strengthened in the future. Emphasis will be placed
on the following areas for future collaboration:
1. Training
• Training young scientists on micro-propagation and other
molecular techniques used in crop improvement
• Training on detection of viruses through serological and
molecular techniques
• Training in biocontrol methods used for disease management
2. Exchange of germplasm
• High quality, high-yielding varieties will be exchanged with
the objective of increasing quality and yield of local varieties
3. Exchange of information
• Information on new technological innovations will be
exchanged using print and electronic media
References
Anonymous 2001. Report of the Varietal Release Committee Meeting
of the Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka.
Ariyarathne I. and T. Liyanage. 2002. Survey on incidences and
severity of virus diseases of banana in Sri Lanka. Pp. 245-254
in Annals of the Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture, Vol. 4.
Dassanayake E.M. and B.M. Rathnabarathi. 2002. Development of
virus free banana foundation stock. Pp. 255-265 in Annals of
the Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture, Vol. 4.
Ekanayake H.M.R.K. , W.W.M.S.N. Wekadapola and K.A.N.P.
Bandara. 2002. Studies on fruit fly infestation in banana
cultivars in Sri Lanka. Pp. 269-274 in Annals of the Sri Lanka.
Department of Agriculture, Vol. 4.
Ekanayake S. and I. Bandara. 2002. Development of banana fruit
leather. in Annals of the Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture,
Vol. 4. pp. 353-358.
Weerasinghe S.S. and K.H. Ruwanpathirana. 2002. Influence of
bagging material on bunch development of banana (Musa spp.)
under high density planting system. Pp. 47-53 in Annals of the
Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture, Vol. 4.
Weerasinghe S.S., P. Weerasinghe, K.H. Ruwanpathirana and H.R.
Premalal. 2001. Internal browning syndrome of banana fruits.
P. 401 in Annals of the Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture,
Vol. 3.
Weerasinghe S.S. 2000. Influence of high density planting on the
productivity of banana (Musa spp.) under irrigated conditions.
Pp. 319-324 in Proceedings of the Annual Symposium of the
Department of Agriculture.
Banana in Thailand 149
Banana in Thailand
Prasert Anupunt*
Introduction
Introduction
As it originated in Southeast Asia, bananas are capable of growing in
a wide range of environmental conditions favourable for the humid
and hot climates. As a non-seasonal crop, year round production is
possible if cultural management is appropriate. Hence, crop
productivity can be controlled to serve the market all throughout the
year.
Banana plays a major role in food security and income generation for
millions of the region’s rural poor. It is an important source of energy
and in addition, it is high in a number of important vitamins and
minerals, providing a nutritious staple food.Apart from fresh
consumption and various processing product uses, the other parts of
banana, including pseudostem and leaf, are also utilized in many Thai
cultural and traditional activities. Mostly, the fruit produce is served
for domestic consumption. A number of fresh fruits and processed
products are also exported to various countries with the value of
approximately 100 million Thai baht (US$2.3 million) each year.
Meanwhile, the crop has developed into a major Thai industry.
Industry status
Planting area and production volume
Bananas are cultivated widely by smallholders in many parts of
Thailand ranging from a small number of plants to orchards of ten
hectares.
Table 1. Area and production volume of banana in Thailand in 2000.

Area (000 ha)
Yield Yield/area
Variety Non-
Bearing Total (t) (t/ha)
bearing
Kluai Hom 10 040 3 763 13 803 174 378 17.4
Kluai Khai 14 575 3 103 17 672 245 943 16.9
Kluai Namwa 110 919 20 734 131 653 1 609 376 14.5
Source: Department of Agriculture Extension, 2000.
*Director, HRI, Department of Agriculture, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900 Thailand.

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Major cultivars
There are a number of banana varieties grown throughout the country.
Due to consumer preference, adaptability, yield and tolerance to pests,
three varieties, viz. Kluai Hom, K. Khai (Pisang Mas) and K. Namwa
(Pisang Awak), are cultivated commercially, the potential production
areas of which are different.
Kluai Hom (AAA group). K. Hom, in particular K. Hom Thong (Gros
Michel), became a popular clone in both export and domestic markets
for fresh consumption. Ripe fruits are sweet and have unique flavour
and the fruit size is rather big and long, compared to K. Namwa and
K. Khai. The plant is about 2.5 meters in height and the duration from
planting to harvesting is about 10-11 months. Aside from K. Hom
Thong, the other clones, which are commercially important, include
K. Hom Khieo (Lacatan) and K. Hom Khom (Dwarf Cavendish),
among others. The production zones of K. Hom are located in some
provinces at the southern part and the central lowland regions, i.e.
Chumporn, Songkhla, Ranong, Petchburi, Nakornpathom,
Nonthaburi and Pathum Thani.
Kluai Khai (AA group). It has delicious, good taste and flavour and
the fruits are famed for fresh consumption. The plants, however, are
quite susceptible to yellow sigatoka. The plant and the bunch are rather
small and short in size compared to other bananas. The crop-growing
areas are restricted in the lower northern and the upper-southern
regions, i.e. Kamphaengpet, Nakornsawan, Tak, Sukhothai, Petchburi
and Prachuabkhirikhan.
Kluai Namwa (ABB group). It is the most popular banana in Thailand.
This banana is easily grown and widely adapted to several areas in
the country. In addition, all parts of the plant can be utilised. The
fruits are consumed fresh as desserts or cooked. Pseudostems are used
in social and religious functions and for feeding pigs in the rural areas.
Leaves are also utilized as wrapping material and in art works. The
duration from planting to harvesting lasts about 14 months. The plant
height ranges from two to five meters. There are many clones, namely:
K. Namwa, K. Namwa Daeng, K. Namwa Luang, K. Namwa Khao,
K. Namwa Khom and K. Namwa Ngeon. The production provinces
of K. Namwa are spread from the upper southern region, the central
plain and the lower-northern region, i.e. Chumporn namely, Petchburi,
Rachburi, Nakornpathom, Prathumthani, Phitsanulok and Sukhothai.
Consumption, utilisation and trade

Banana is mainly used as food, either fresh, cooked or processed. About
20% of total production is processed. The common products derived
from banana are chips, figs, dehydrated and dried, paste, jam, flour,
candy and canned.
The fruits are mostly produced for domestic consumption. Only a small
volume is exported. There are several ways of product distribution
from orchards to consumers such as local markets, wholesale markets
and supermarkets.
Exporters and middlemen recently pay a great attention to banana
from Thailand as they deal with the growers and signed contract in
advance for the products. Such event expresses a positive sign on an
increase in export volume. Nevertheless, the export quantities of both
fresh fruits and processing products are still variable due to marketing
situation and the fluctuation of yield.
Table 2. Volume and value of fresh banana fruits exported from Thailand in 2001.
Volume Value
Variety
(t) THB (million) US$ 000
Kluai Hom 1 520 41.5 972.8
Kluai Khai 3 533 48.4 1 134.5
Others 470 5.9 138.3
Source: Department of Customs
Table 3. Volume and value of banana products exported from Thailand in 2001.
Volume Value
Product
(t) THB (million) US$ 000
1. Product in gas filled 198 6.7 157.1
package
2. Dehydrated banana 136 8.7 203.9
3. Banana product with sugar 237 32.4 759.5
Source: Department of Customs.
For fresh banana, a large number of K. Khai are exported to Canada,

China and Hong Kong while K. Hom goes to Japan, Hong Kong,
Canada and Sweden. The processed products are mostly exported to
the USA, Malaysia, Italy and Japan.
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Production constr
Production aints
constraints
Production practice
In Thailand, banana is mainly grown under rainfed condition and
poor cultural practice management. In addition, most growers are
smallholder producers with limited knowledge on production
technology. Hence, the major problems affecting banana production
are:
- low yield;
- inconsistent quality either in fruit shape, size or characteristics;
- lack of high yielding varieties;
- narrow fruit bearing season leading to oversupply and low prices;
- unsuitable handling, packaging and transportation.
As mentioned earlier, most orchards are established under rainfed
cultivation system. As such, plants have to be grown at the same period
resulting to overflowing of products into the market at nearly the same
time causing an oversupply. In contrast, in some periods there are no
products available. This circumstance causes disadvantage on export
promotion.
Cur
Currr ent banana R&D activities
activities,, pr og
ogrr ammes
prog
and institutions involved
Banana research is mostly undertaken by government agencies. There
are many institutes involved such as Department of Agriculture,
Department of Agriculture Extension, Kasetsart University,
Chulalongkorn University, Maejo University.
As banana is not the main export crop of the country, there are no
immense R&D plans. Moreover, the financial support on research,
production improvement and marketing system are very limited.
Nevertheless, over the past few years, banana R&D in Thailand are
still undertaken on some areas as follows:
Germplasm collection and conservation
About 175 accessions have been collected and conserved under care
of Department of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture Extension
and Kasetsart University. Most of these have been characterised on
morphology and taxonomy. Some have been used for breeding
programmes.
Production system
R&D on production systems are aimed to improve yield and qualities.
Investigation so far, has been carried out on variety improvement and
cultural practices such as:
- Development of production technology for improving growth,
yield and qualities of Grande Naine;
- Effect of sucker size on growth of Grande Naine;
- Sucker-dividing effect on growth of K. Hom, K. Khai and K.
Namwa;
- Effect of media on Grande Naine seedling growth;
- Effect of some foliar fertilizers on growth of Grande Naine
seedling;
- Study on the growth of inflorescence and fruit of K. Hom Khom
- Selection of saline-tolerant varieties through tissue culture
techniques;
- Effect of number of genomes on propagation via tissue culture
methods;
- Increasing number of chromosomes of K. Leb Mu Nang using
colchicine under aseptic condition;
- Banana improvement through tissue culture and gamma
radiation;
- Conservation of abaca (Musa textilis Nee.) under aseptic
condition;
- Study on the possibility of conservation of banana germplasm
with liquid N.
Postharvest
As oversupply of production is a serious problem for growers every
year, most research on postharvest has been emphasized on processing
and utilising banana in various forms. The following are some areas
of research over the past few years:
- Study on appropriate technology for producing banana wine
and liqueur;
- The use of banana and its by-product in cosmetic industry
- Extraction of tannin from banana rind;
- Development of drying banana by using solar energy in
combination with electrical energy;
- Producing banana flour from fruit and other parts;
- Production and utilisation of banana puree;
- Comparison of drying methods for dried banana production;
- Study on banana catsup production and preservation;
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- Investigation on the methods for delayed ripening of K. Namwa
- Shipment trial for sea transportation of K. Khai to Denmark
Integrated pest management (IPM)
There is no immense research on IPM of banana. Nevertheless, there
is a corporation between Japan and Thai cooperatives in producing
either organic or chemical residue-free banana. Meanwhile, the market
of this particular productivity is restricted to Japan and some European
markets.
Opportunities and thrust
Thailand is fortunate for not having serious natural disaster and disease
problems. Due to the localisation and climate, bananas can be grown
throughout the country. In addition, some Thai bananas, such as K.
Hom Thong and K. Khai have a unique flavor.
Proposed areas of collaboration
Although Thailand has no serious problems of viral, bacterial and
fungal infection, other fields of work and problem related to improve
banana production are still awaited for development and solution.
Following are the areas where research collaboration and training are
needed:
- Breeding and crop improvement via conventional, tissue-
culture and genetic-engineering techniques;
- Production technology;
- Germplasm conservation both in vivo and in vitro;
- Exchange of germplasm;
- Tissue-culture and disease-free planting-material propagation;
and
- Postharvest technology.
Update on banana R&D in Vietnam 155
Update on banana R&D in Vietnam

Ho Huu Nhi*
General pr
General oduction sta
production tus
status
Ranging between 80 and 23023’N Vietnam has diverse geographical
features. In the south, it is tropical with two distinct seasons (wet and
dry) while in the north there is a subtropical climate with four seasons:
spring, summer, autumn and winter. As banana can widely adapt to
different climatic conditions, they have long been grown in all the eight
agro-ecological regions in the country. In 1998, Mekong River Delta
ranks first in terms of total banana growing area and fruit production,
followed by Red River Delta (Table 1).
Table 1. Banana production in different regions of Vietnam (1998).
Total growing Average yield Total production
Region
area (ha) (t/ha) (t)
Red River Delta 14 505 18.27 264 964
North East 9 292 15.59 144 891
North West 2 540 12.26 31 142
North Central Coast 13 567 4.63 62 844
South Central Coast 9 052 13.08 118 371
Central Highlands 2 592 8.24 21 360
South East 9 700 27.77 269 364
Mekong River Delta 34 884 11.53 402 253
Total 96 132 1 315 189
The results in Table 1 show that the total banana growing area in
Vietnam was 96 132 ha in 1998 giving total production of 1 315 189
tonnes. At present, farmers are using local varieties with different
genotypes (Table 2).
Table 2. Set of popular banana varieties in Vietnam.
Bunch Growth
Fruit quality,
Cultivars Genotype Location weight duration
utilities
(kg) (months)
Chuoi Ngu AA Red River 8-10 12 Sweet, aromatic,
Delta desert
Chuoi AA Red River 6-8 12 Worship, donation
Tien Delta
Chuoi AAA All regions 20-25 14-16 Dessert, local and
Tieu export
Chuoi AAB Central 8-10 9-10 Dessert, dried
Bom highlands
Chuoi Tay ABB All regions 18-20 12-14 Dessert, collapsed
*Head, Agro-biotechnology Department, VASI, Hanoi, Vietnam.

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In each ecological region, there are main varieties cultivated for
different purposes and utilities. Other cultivars such as Chuoi Mat, C.
Mit, C. La and C. Man are scattered all over the country, and are used
for various purposes: feeding (stem), cake wrapping (leave) and
medicine (fruit).
Banana research
Research institutes system
There is no specialized banana research institute in Vietnam. Moreover,
banana has not enjoyed much attention in comparison to other fruits
such as mango, litchi and pineapple, and hence researches on banana
have been coordinated under a national network. This network
comprises many institutions concerned and is under the coordination
of Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI). Its goal is to help
scientists concerned in banana research activities and to use most
effectively the available inputs. The number of members in the network
has changed annually. The following is the list of institutions
participating in the network (Table 3).
Table 3. List of the institutions participating in banana researches.
Institution Activities
Vietnam Agricultural Science In vitro conservation, selection, propagation;
Institute (VASI) material exchange; information dissemination
and disease study
Fruit and Vegetable Research Selection, cultivation technique
Institute
Phu ho Fruit Research Center Characterization, field conservation
Plant Protection Institute Pest and disease study
Institute of Ecology and Nematode and weevil borer study
Biological Resources
Long dinh Fruit Research Center Field conservation, selection; cultivation
technology; pest and disease study
Beside the abovementioned institutions, the national companies of

fruits and vegetables of Vietnam, agricultural extension organizations
and various farmers also take part in banana research activities.
Genetic resource
Vietnam is one of the countries, which have a large diversity of ba-
nana germplasm. Since 1997, under the framework of the project
“Collection, Characterization and Conservation of Indigenous Banana
Germplasm in Vietnam” 72 accessions were collected. These are now
conserved in VASI, including 63 cultivated and 9 wild accessions
(Table 4). All the accessions were evaluated, and their name and syn-
onyms in Southeast Asia defined.
Table 4. Vietnamese banana collection conserved in VASI.

G roup Accession nam e
AA Chuoi Trung, C. Tieu, C. Tay But, C. Cau T rang, C. Ngu,
C. Ngu Tien, C. Cau m an, C. T ieu
AA A C. Tieu Lun, C. Tieu Nho, C. Tieu Xanh, C. Tieu Cao, C. Tieu
V ua, C. Com Lua, C. Bom , C. La Rung, C. Cau Rung, C. Cau
Tay, C. Va Huong
AAB C. G oong, C. Com Chua, C. Tram Nai, C. Cha, C. Sung Bo,
C. Voi, C. Xiem M at
AB C. Dong, C. La Ta, C. Nanh Heo, C. Com Lao, C. La M ang
Tieu, C. M it, C. Thom
AB B C. Tay, C. M at Bo Ket, C. Ngop Lun, C. Cau, C. Ngop Cao,
C. M o G iang, C. Tay Tia, C. M an, C. La
ABBB Chuoi G ao
BB B C. M at, C. Ngu, C. Chua, C. Sap, C. Ngop Dui Duc
BB C. Hot Q ua Lep, C. Hot
In intensive collaboration with Dr Ramon Valmayor, the former
regional coordinator of the INIBAP Asia and the Pacific Network, two
wild banana species, Musa exotica and Musella splendida were
identified. Under the framework of the joint project for establishment
of national repository, multiplication/dissemination centers, 35 banana
accessions were directly introduced from ITC to VASI in the form of in
vitro plantlets. These are now being maintained and provide material
for IMTP experiments (Table 5).
Table 5. List of banana accessions introduced from ITC to Vietnam.
No. ITC code Accession

name
1 0312 Pisang Jari 18 1332 FHIA-21
Buaya 19 1344 CRBP 39
2 0504 FHIA-01 20 1418 FHIA-25
3 0505 FHIA-02 21 1441 Pisang Ceylan
4 0506 FHIA-03 22 0320 Paka
5 0570 William 23 0247 Hondura
6 0643 Cachaco 24 0249 Calcutta
7 0712 AAcv Rose 25 0649 Foconah
8 1122 Gros Michel 26 0653 Pisang Mas
27 1034 Kunnan
9 1123 Yangambi Km5
28 1060 Selangor
10 1264 FHIA-17
29 1120 Tani
11 1265 FHIA-23 30 1138 Saba
12 1282 GCTCV 119 31 1183 Pisang Lemak
13 1283 SH-3436-9 Manis
14 1296 TMBx 1378 32 1417 TMBx 15108-6
15 1297 TMBx 5295-1 33 1437 TMBx 9128-3
16 1307 SH-3640 34 1442 GCTCV 106
17 1319 FHIA-18 35 1443 GCTCV 247
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Varietal improvement and propagation

In the past years, during evaluation of banana germplasm, Phuho
Fruit Plants Research Center has selected two promising varieties,
belonging to Cavendish group, VN-064 and VN-065. These varieties
have high yield, about 18-20% higher than that of the control. Their
fruits are big and bright yellow in color. With their pulp sweet and
aromatic, fruits have a high export value. At present, the Center is
conducting different experiments to establish a performance model
for demonstrating to farmers. Among three accessions, FHIA-01, FHIA-
02 and FHIA-03, the accession FHIA-02 gave the highest yield, good
growth, but soft and sour fruits which have not met demands for
good quality banana.
In vitro mutation was carried out using radioactive rays and chemicals,
and achieved visible success. Treatment with Co60 rays on C. Tay (ABB)
with 20-30 Gy dose in vitro induced new variations. Colchicine was
applied on diploid (AA and AB) in vitro and also gave good results. At
the concentration of 0.5-0.7%, colchicine produced tetraploid clones
at a rate of 9-13%. Some changes can be recognized in these variations
such as stem diameter, leaf size and number of stomata. These variants
have been used in testing and selecting program for tolerance to
Fusarium.
IMTP III
For obtaining the objectives of the IMTP, identification of new varieties

with high yield and good adaptation to local climatic conditions, many
Vietnamese banana and 35 ITC varieties have been used in evaluation
experiments for disease resistance and agronomic characteristics. The
objectives of these experiments include:
- screening varieties for resistance to Fusarium
- screening varieties for resistance to leaf spot
- screening varieties for resistance to nematodes
Propagation
In the recent years, with valuable supports from the Ministry of Science
and Technology, different provincial departments of Science and
Technology have established in vitro laboratories for cell and tissue
culture with the purpose of recovery and multiplication of fruit tree
varieties of high economical values. Therefore application of cell and
tissue culture techniques for rapid propagation of banana has achieved
significant progress.
Protocol on banana tissue culture propagation was established. It

involves the following steps: meristem culture, in vitro propagation,
rooting, hardening of plantlets and re-establishment in nursery.
Cultivation and plant management techniques have been developed
for in vitro culture derived plantlets, and have been introduced to
farmers. In many areas, farmers get used to using in vitro plantlets for
production. In 2002, the Ministry of Science and Technology of Vietnam
approved a banana multiplication project in order to provide planting
materials for Nghe An area where banana starch producing factory is
located. As the plan, an amount of 50 000 – 60 000 banana plantlets
will be distributed to farmers annually. However, banana
multiplication using in vitro techniques faces various difficulties,
including lack of necessary equipment resulting in low capacity and
high production price of plantlets. Farmers therefore use in vitro
propagated plantlets only when subsidies from the project are
provided.
Pest and disease study
During the period of 1996-1999, the result of investigation revealed
that 17 different pathogens are causing damages on banana in
Vietnam, including nine fungi species, three viruses, two bacteria and
three nematode species (Table 6).
Table 6. The most common banana pests and diseases found in Vietnam.
Occurrence
Scientific name Infection site Note
frequency
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. whole plant +++ ABB
cubense
Mycosphaerella musicola leaf +++ AAA
(yellow sigatoka)
Mycosphaerella fijiensis (black leaf ++ AA
sigatoka)
Cordana musae leaf +++ ABB
Cladosporium musae leaf ++ both
Periconiella musae leaf + both
Capnodium spp leaf, fruit +++ both
Erwinia spp corm + AAA
Pseudomonas musae leaf ++ both
Macrophoma musae leaf ++ both
Leptophaerella musarium leaf +++ both, north
Banana Bunchy Top Virus whole plant ++ AA
(BBTV)
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) leaf + both
Banana Streak Virus (BSV) leaf + both
Banana scab moth (Basilepta) skin young fruit ++ AA
Banana weevil borer corm, ++ AAA, ABB,
pseudostem highland
Nematode root, corm + both, highland
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The most important diseases found were:
Fusarium wilt: This disease occurs in all the ecological regions in the
whole country. However, it is more often observed in the south than
in the north, and mostly on C.Tay (Pisang Awak, ABB group). It attacks
banana plants at 4-6 month of age and at the flowering stage. Fusarium
wilt in Vietnam is caused by Foc that belongs to race 1.
Sigatoka: This disease spreads at a large scale in the Mekong River
Delta in the south. Yellow sigatoka (Mycosphaerella musicola) damages
banana at a higher rate than black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis)
and is found mainly on Cavendish group (AAA).
Among viruses found on banana in Vietnam, BBTV is the most
important one, discovered in all ecological regions and causing heavy
damage on Cavendish group.
A joint project entitled “Identification of nematodes resistance and
tolerance in Vietnamese Musa germplasm for improvement of banana
production” between INIBAP and VASI was carried out under the
assistance of VVOB and ACIAR. The following activities have been
done during the process of the project:
1. Assessment of the occurrence and distribution of nematodes on
wild and cultivated bananas in north and central Vietnam
Surveys have been carried out in some northern provinces and in the
central part of Vietnam as well as in 3 natural habitats in north
Vietnam. Some wild banana species [C. Rung (VN1-026), C. Rung
Hoa Do (VN1-049) and C. Tay Rung (VN1- 051)] and some common
cultivars [C. Tieu (AAA), C. Tay (ABB) and C. Hot (BB)] were sampled.
With the exception of Radopholus similis, the most important Musa
nematodes, i.e. Pratylenchus coffeae, Meloidogyne spp. and
Helicotylenchus multicinctus, were found on both wild and cultivated
bananas. This means that the natural soils of Vietnam are infested
with these nematodes and we therefore infer that these species are
indigenous to Southeast Asia. Meloidogyne spp. seemed to have a
negative influence on the growth of banana plants while the effect of
P. coffeae on Musa plant growth was not very clear.
2. Establishment and maintenance of in vitro nematode cultures
Eleven P. coffeae populations collected from different areas in Vietnam
are being maintained in vitro on carrot discs to provide for
morphological and biological studies. A population of Meloidogyne spp.
collected from Habac province is being propagated in the roots of
tomato in the greenhouse of VASI.

3. Assessment of damage and yield loss potential of P. coffeae and
Meloidogyne spp. on banana in the field
Infection of Musa plants with P. coffeae did not reduce the plant height
and the girth of the pseudostem. The number of standing leaves of the
plants infected with P. coffeae was lower than that of the control plants
for only one of the tested genotypes (Ben Tre (AAA)). Infection of
Musa plants with Meloidogyne spp. on the other hand reduced the
plant height, the girth of the pseudostem and the number of standing
leaves of the plants. These results indicate that the effect of Meloidogyne
spp. on Musa spp. may often be underrated.
4. Population dynamics of P. coffeae under greenhouse and field
conditions
The reproductive fitness of the population was strongly dependent on
temperature and moisture. Cool temperatures during the winter
months and flooding due to abundant rainfall during the rainy season
slowed the reproduction of the nematodes and could even reduce the
nematode population.
5. Screening of Vietnamese Musa germplasm for resistance and/or
to P. coffeae and Meloidogyne spp.
Twenty-six Vietnamese banana accessions and some references were
evaluated for resistance and/or tolerance to P. coffeae and Meloidogyne
spp. under greenhouse conditions. Possible sources of resistance/
tolerance to P. coffeae were found: the genotypes Yangambi Km 5
(AAA), Tieu Xanh (AAA), Tieu Mien Nam (AA), Gros Michel (AAA),
Com Chua (AAB), Com Lua (AA), Man (AAB), Ngu Thoc (AA) and
Grande Naine (AAA). No source of resistance to Meloidogyne spp. was
found. All the tested genotypes were found to be at least as susceptible
to Meloidogyne spp. as the susceptible reference genotype Grande Naine
and the final nematode population in the roots was always much
higher than the initial inoculum. The intensity of root galling was less
on the genotypes Man, Tay (ABB), Ngu Thoc and Yangambi Km 5.
The host-plant reaction to Meloidogyne spp. of eight Vietnamese Musa
genotypes, as well as the genotypes FHIA-01 (AAAB), FHIA-02
(AAAA) and Yangambi Km 5, was evaluated under field conditions.
The genotypes FHIA-01, Ngu Thoc, Tay and Com Lua were found
less susceptible to Meloidogyne spp. The genotypes FHIA-01, Ben Tre
(AAA) and Bom (AAA) were less sensitive to root galling.
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6. Assessment of the occurrence of Radopholus similis on banana and
other crops in Vietnam
Three surveys were carried out in Western Highland region
(Taynguyen, Gialai and Kontum provinces. Roots of coffee, black
pepper, durian, banana, … were collected. One R. similis population
is now being maintained on carrot discs for morphological and
biological studies.
Biotechnology
In recent years, tissue culture techniques have been developed and
applied to banana production effectively in the following aspects:
1. Recovery and production of disease-free planting materials
2. A protocol for in vitro banana production is completed and used
over 32 tissue culture laboratories throughout the country. In vitro
selection is considered a good way for quick evaluation of the
resistance to Fusarium of C. Tay.
3. Molecular marker
4. The recently developed molecular technique was applied for
effective selection and production of banana varieties
5. Extraction and purification of DNA
6. Analysis and identification of enzyme link markers (for AAA
banana group)
7. Use of RADP in identifying genetic diversity of banana germplasm.
Through the genomic analysis of 4 genotypes: AA, AAB, AB and
BB, 2 different molecular markers have been detected.
8. Establishment of a method for evaluation and diagnosis of BBTV
by PCR technique.
The results showed that using different primers (P2-M17, P2-M16 and
P2-M21) polymorphism in the length of DNA molecular was identified.
This phenomenon revealed that there is existence of virus on banana
plant. The Cavendish group AAA was tested and a visible result was
observed.
Dif
Diffficulties
During past years, banana production has not been developed due to
an extensive cultivation of (?) banana production, use of undeveloped
techniques and low quality of plant material together with infection

by pathogens. A poorly developed commercial system leads to it that
banana is only locally consumed. Moreover banana fruits are used
fresh 100% in banana season so post harvest and processing industry
is poorly developed. Investment into research on banana is not
considered as a particular program, therefore results of research have
not impacted really on mass production.
Research plans and cooperation in the future

Plans for the future
- Strengthen research activities, apply achievement of molecular
technique and genetic transformation to create and select new
varieties with good quality and high resistance capacity to biotic
characters.
- Provide for different agro-ecological regions with improved suitable
and valuable varieties and organize to test them through the
Vietnamese banana network.
- Construct intensive farming model of banana production with
suitable cultivation technique and proper management
Cooperation
Strengthen cooperation on different aspects:
- Nematology studies (identification, classification and evaluation
in the greenhouse and in the field)
- Molecular technique and genetic transformation
- Post harvest and processing technology: ripening, conserving
- Looking for establishment of market consumption
References
Molina A.B., V.N. Roa and M.A.G. Maghuyop (eds.). 2000. Advancing
banana and plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific, Vol. 10.
158p.
Nhi H.H., A.B. Molina, I. Van den Bergh and P.T. Sen. 2000. Highlights
of Musa research and development in Vietnam. Proceedings of
a meeting held in Hanoi, Vietnam, 7/8 June 2000. 195p.
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Valmayor R.V., S.H. Jamaluddin, B. Silayoi, L.D. Danh, O.C. Pascua
and R.R.C. Espino. Banana cultivar names and synonyms in
Southeast East Asia. 24p.
Van den Bergh I. 2002. Host-plant response of Vietnamese bananas
(Musa spp.) to plant-parasitic nematodes. Dissertationes de
Agricultura no. 547, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.
161p.
Banana R&D in the Pacific 165
Banana R&D in the Pacific
Tom Osborn*

Bananas rank as one of the most widely grown and consumed crops
in the Pacific. They are produced in all of the ecologies of the Pacific
Island countries, from the large volcanic islands to the small coral atoll
countries. Bananas are significant for the nutrition of Pacific Islanders
as green cooking bananas, semi-ripe cooking bananas, ripe cooking
bananas, dessert bananas and mixed with other foods. Bananas are
grown for household consumption and on small commercial farms
for the local markets. There is also deep cultural significance associated
with bananas for traditional rituals in many countries. Bananas are
used for medicine, fiber, leaves for cooking and livestock feed.
There is a wide diversity of banana lines in the Pacific. Papua New
Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu have the greatest diversity. The
regional diversity includes AA diploids, the very popular AAA
Cavendish types and the AAB cooking plantains. The Fe’i group of
bananas - in the Australimusa section rather than the Eumusa section
of the genus - is unique to the Pacific. The Fe’i bananas have erect
bunches and purple sap. For example the Karat variety of Fe’i bananas
of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia has short plump fruits
with orange flesh that require cooking. They are very high in vitamin
A and have been used as a weaning food. Unfortunately, the Fe’i
bananas are rapidly disappearing in the Pacific.
FAO production data indicated production of 53 402 tonnes in 2001
on 9155 hectares, suggesting an average production of 5 tonnes per
hectare for the Pacific excluding Papua New Guinea (Annex 1).
Additional information from the agriculture census of Samoa, and
reports from other countries, suggests that the FAO figures under-
estimate banana production in the Pacific.
• Estimates from New Caledonia indicate yields of 20-40 tonnes per
hectare for dessert bananas and 9-12 tonnes/hectare for cooking
bananas.
• Agriculture census data from Samoa indicate 10 000 equivalent
*Agriculture Adviser, SPC, Suva, Fiji.

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acres of banana production and consumption of 3 bunches per
family per week (mostly as cooked green bananas).
Despite their nutritional importance, bananas are not a priority crop

for national agricultural research and extension programmes in most
Pacific Island countries because it is currently not an important cash
crop. As a result, funding for banana research and development is
limited.
Production constr
Production aints
constraints
There are a variety of constraints to banana production in the Pacific
Island countries. Normally, banana is a part of the traditional
multicropping system of the Pacific Islands that can include some or
all of the following crops: coconuts, taro, sweet potatoes, kava, yams,
cassava, cacao, breadfruit and many other crops. There are also small
monocrop plantations of bananas in some countries.
Pests and diseases
• Mycosphaerella fijiensis, black leaf streak (BLS), is probably the most
destructive pathogen of bananas in the Pacific. Farmers seldom
spray for this disease and therefore, there is a substantial reduction
in yield.
• Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) is widespread, creating problems
for producers where it is spread by the banana aphid, Pentalonia
nigronervosa. Recently, New Caledonia conducted a campaign to
eradicate BBTV and so far 200 000 plants have been destroyed.
However, it is very difficult to succeed in such an endeavour when
bananas are so widely grown in traditional systems.
• Nematodes are destructive in many locations.
• Banana weevils, Cosmopolites sordidus, cause damage in some
countries.
• Banana scab moth, Nacoleia octasema, is widespread and results in
low quality bananas and reduced yields in some cases.
Environmental stresses
• Cyclones and high wind are damaging to bananas, particularly
the taller varieties.
• Drought, particularly on atolls, greatly reduces banana production.
• Salt spray on small islands damages bananas.
• Poor soil fertility reduces yield, fruit size and quality. Fertilizer is
seldom used on banana, however the tradition is to use animal
manure and organic matter.
Markets
Bananas was a major export earner for the Pacific Islands until the
1970s with exports going to New Zealand and other developed country
markets. However, the large transnational banana producers then
captured these markets based on price and quality, so the Pacific
countries’ profitable export markets quickly disappeared. There are
still a few small banana exporters in the region, based on niche exports
such as organic banana. The major constraint to banana production
is thus a lack of an export market to absorb higher levels of production.
The result is that farmers are limited to the small local market or
producing from home consumption. They lack the incentive to invest
in increased production and improving the quality of bananas. This
also means that NARS do not target bananas as a priority crop for
research and extension.
Current banana research and development
SPC Regional Germplasm Centre
The SPC Regional Germplasm Centre distributes accessions of bananas,
taro, yams, sweet potatoes and other vegetatively propagated crops
to the 22 SPC member countries and territories. INIBAP has provided
FHIA lines and modest funding for the multiplication and distribution
of new banana lines in the region. FHIA-01, -02, -03, -17, -18, -23 and
-25 have been distributed to American Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated
States of Micronesia (FSM), Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Palau,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Wallis and Futuna. Distribution
of thousands of accessions of the FHIA lines is continuing. Reports
indicate interest in the material, but in most cases the new lines have
not reached farmers’ fields yet.
• Recent results from New Caledonia indicate FHIA-17, -18 and -23
had excellent BLS resistance but grew very slowly during and after
the cool dry season. Earlier results of organoleptic testing indicate
that FHIA-01 is acceptable as a dessert banana and FHIA-02 is
acceptable as a cooking banana. These lines are being distributed
to farmers for testing.
• In the FSM, the FHIA trials conducted by the community college
indicate the resistance to BLS is excellent but organoleptic tests
have not been conducted yet.
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• American Samoa reported that FHIA-25 produces well and is
resistant to BLS, but Samoans prefer a cooking banana with a
harder texture. Suckers are being distributed to farmers for further
testing.
• FHIA-01 has been distributed in Samoa for many years. An
INIBAP- funded survey in Samoa through the University of the
South Pacific indicates acceptance of FHIA-01.
• In Wallis and Futuna the FHIA lines are being distributed to
farmers.
There have been problems with confusion over the identification of
the 7 FHIA lines. What is needed is a guide to the identification and
characteristics of the lines. We hope that this will be available soon.
New Caledonia
Since 1990, the Pocquereux Fruit Research Station of the Institute of
New Caledonian Agriculture (with links to CIRAD) has had a banana
research programme to control BLS through chemical methods,
selection of BLS tolerant banana cultivars and epidemiological studies
to better understand the interaction between the pathogen, the plant
and the climate. These efforts are linked with extension efforts with
both subsistence and commercial banana producers. Pocquereux also
participates in the Musa Germplasm Information System (MGIS). The
station is one of the BLS evaluation sites for the Banana Improvement
Project (BIP), which evaluates 80 different cultivars with the aim of
selecting diploids as parents for breeding programmes. This is our
leading center of banana research in the region.
ACIAR/QDPI Banana Improvement Project
This project conducted important banana research in the Pacific during
the late 1980s and early 1990s, with collaborating Ministries of
Agriculture in the Cook Islands, Samoa and Tonga. Trials were
conducted to screen improved banana lines for pest and disease
resistance as well as to better understand these pests. Training and
technical assistance were also an important component of this project.
It is important to note that QDPI and other Australian banana
researchers are an important source of technical assistance for the
Pacific Islands on banana-related problems.
Future Dir
Future ections ffor
Directions or Bananas in the Pacif
Pacif ic with INIB
acific AP
INIBAP
Multiplication and distribution of improved banana lines

The SPC Regional Germplasm Centre will continue to multiply and
distribute improved banana lines to the Pacific countries. At the
present, this includes mostly the FHIA lines, but we hope that other
new lines with characteristics that are appropriate for the Pacific will
be coming from INIBAP.
• We hope that there will be a publication of a FHIA identification
guide through INIBAP
Diversity analysis for banana
The action plan developed in September 2001 for the newly established
Pacific Agricultural Plant Genetic Resources Network (PAPGREN)
included mention of the need for diversity analysis of bananas. This
would be carried out in close collaboration with IPGRI/INIBAP, using
a variety of tools and information sources. The newer techniques will
complement the more traditional indicators of diversity, such as
morpho-agronomic and ethno-botanical studies. As a result of this
study, several activities could be developed.
Targeted collecting, e.g.
• AAB cooking bananas with resistance to BLS
• Identification of resistance to BBTV
• Dwarf plantains AAB for breeding
• Fe’i bananas
Nutritional studies for the Fe’i bananas
Importation research has been conducted in the FSM led by the
nutritionist Lois Englberger (Annex 1 and references). Additional work
needs to be undertaken to understand the nutritional analysis in
relation to the diversity. In this way, this unique group can be conserved
and utilized to improve the nutritional status in areas with vitamin A
deficiency and other related nutritional problems.
Development of a regional collection for Pacific bananas
The result of the diversity studies and targeted collection could result
in a valuable collection of bananas for multiplication and distribution
to the Pacific Island countries and territories. This would be an
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important output for PAPGREN and the Regional Germplasm Centre
of SPC.
On farm conservation
There was useful input from INIBAP to the recent workshop on on-
farm conservation in the Pacific, highlighting PNG, Fe’i bananas and
Pacific plantains in New Caledonia as priorities for action. As
PAPGREN develops plans for in situ conservation (both on-farm and
in protected areas) in the region, bananas will no doubt feature
prominently.
References
Daniells J. 1995. Illustrated Guide to the Identification of Banana
Varieties in the South Pacific. ACIAR Canberra.
Englberger L., J. Schierle., G.C. Marks and M. Fitzgerald. 2002.
Micronesian banana, taro, and other foods: newly recognized
sources of provitamin A and other carotenoids. J Food Comp
Anal (in press).
Englberger L., W. Aalbersberg, P. Ravi, E. Bonnin, G.C. Marks, M.H.
Fitzgerald and J. Elymore. 2002. Further analyses on
Micronesian banana, taro, breadfruit and other foods for
provitamin A carotenoids and minerals. Submitted to J Food
Comp Anal.
FAO. 2002. Banana Production.
Government of Samoa. 2000. 1999 Census of Agriculture Report.
Department of Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture.
Kagy V., J.F. Buchy. 2002. La Banane en Nouvelle-Caledonie Situation
2001, Institut Agronomique neo Caledonien (unpublished).
Kagy, V. 2002. Note de Synthese sur Le Bunchy Top en Nouvele-
Caledonie, Institut Agronomique neo Caledonien
(unpublished).
Kagy, V. 2002. Evaluation de la Croissance des Hybrides, Institut
Agronomique neo Calédonien (unpublished).
Banana production in the Pacific

(not including PNG)
25000
Cook Islands
Fiji Islands
20000 French Polynesia
Guam
Kiribati
FSM
Production (Mt)
15000
New Caledonia
Niue
Samoa
10000
Solomon Islands
Tokelau
Tonga
5000 Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Wallis and Futuna Is
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Figure 1. Banana production in the Pacific (not including PNG).
Table 1. Area of production and yield of banana in the South Pacific.

Area Production Yield
(ha) (t) (kg/ha)
PNG 50 000 710 000 142 000
Rest of Region 9 155 53 402 61 048
Total 59 155 763 402 66 445
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Annex 1
Fe’i banana research in the Federated States of Micronesia
Health research relating to banana has been conducted by the nutritionist, Lois
Englberger, in Kosrae and Pohnpei, two of the four states of the Federated States
of Micronesia (FSM). The overall aim of her research related to identification of
foods which might contribute to vitamin A status, as vitamin A deficiency has
been identified as a serious health problem in the country, both among children
and women, affecting not only eye health and vision but increased morbidity and
mortality. Her work on banana has included:
• An analysis for provitamin A and other carotenoids and selected minerals;
• An ethnographic study providing insight into the factors affecting production,

acquisition, consumption and acceptability of the different cultivars;
• A dietary study that showed banana fits into the present daily diet.
Provitamin A carotenoids, most importantly beta-carotene, contribute to vitamin
A status and protection against vitamin A deficiency. Epidemiological evidence
indicates that consumption of carotenoids (including those which have no vitamin
A activity) decreases risk to certain chronic diseases, such as cancer, heart
disease and diabetes, which have also become serious health problems in FSM.
Yellow and orange coloration of the edible flesh was used for selecting those
cultivars for analysis which might have the most potential for health benefits,
based on the fact that carotenoids often may be identified by those color traits.
Some common cultivars without yellow or orange coloration were analyzed for
purposes of comparison. Increased coloration was found to closely match with
increased carotenoid content, with five distinct colors identified in the cultivars,
white, creamy, yellow, yellow-orange and orange.
In all, 17 banana cultivars from Kosrae and Pohnpei were analyzed and
characterised. There was a great range of carotenoid content, from 30 to 6360
µg/100 g edible portion. The Karat banana cultivar was found to contain over 25
times the beta-carotene content of the common Cavendish, and the Uht En Yap
cultivar was found to contain 250 times the beta-carotene content of the common
Cavendish. Thirteen Micronesian cultivars were identified which would provide
the total or up to half of the estimated daily requirements for vitamin A, within
normal eating patterns.
It was concluded that certain cultivars of banana have particular potential in FSM
for providing important health benefits and decreasing risk to vitamin A deficiency
and chronic diseases. On that basis, it was concluded that these cultivars should
be promoted for family consumption and possible commercialization. Lack of
planting material is a major limitation at present. A study of Chuuk and Yap
cultivars has not yet been carried out. It is suggested that nutritional projects, in
conjunction with agricultural agencies, would have great benefit for both the health
and agriculture sectors in FSM. It is also suggested that certain banana cultivars
elsewhere may be identified for promotion and increased health and enjoyment.
Somaclonal variation approach to breeding Cavendish banana 173
Somaclonal variation approach

to breeding Cavendish banana
for resistance to fusarium wilt race 4
Shin-Chuan Hwang*
Abstract
Fusarium wilt of banana, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense
(Foc) race 4, is the major constraint for cultivation of banana in Taiwan.
For obtaining a resistant variety to replace the susceptible Cavendish,
Taiwan Banana Research Institute (TBRI) initiated an innovative
breeding program based on somaclonal variation approach. This
breeding program which began in 1984, already produced a total of
13 resistant/tolerant clones; all derived from the wilt-susceptible
variety Giant Cavendish. To solve the fusarium wilt problem, three of
them were released as the new varieties, Tai-Chiao No.1 in 1992, Tai-
Chiao No.3 in 2001 and Formosana in 2002, for commercial
production. The former two varieties are mediocre in resistance to
fusarium wilt and in productivity, and moderate success has been
obtained. Formosana not only showed a high level of resistance to
fusarium wilt but also produced a bunch about 40% heavier than that
of its progenitor Giant Cavendish, a breakthrough in banana breeding.
This new variety was released for commercial planting beginning
January 2002 to replace both Tai-Chiao No.1 and Tai-Chiao No.3. With
its superb agronomic and horticultural characteristics, it is believed
that Formosana will soon become the major banana variety grown in
Taiwan. The novel breeding strategy based on somaclonal variation
has proved to be a useful method for the improvement of banana.
Introduction
Introduction
In Asia, the oldest international banana trade exists in Taiwan where
banana production for exporting to the neighbouring Japanese market
began in the early 1900s. The banana industry, involving small
producers mostly, expanded rapidly and reached the peak production
on over 50 000 hectares in the mid-1960s, ranking Taiwan the second
largest banana-exporting country in the world. Under the subtropical
climate, bananas produced in Taiwan have top eating quality, and
they are highly esteemed in the Japanese market.
*Director, TBRI, Chiuju, Pingtung, Taiwan.
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Over the last 20 years, production of Cavendish banana in Taiwan,
however, has been seriously jeopardized by the intractable fusarium
wilt (Hwang 1985; Su et al. 1977). The fungus attacking Cavendish,
previously considered highly resistant to this disease, belongs to the
type of race 4 of Foc (Su et al. 1977). The disease, found in 1967, has
spread rapidly to epidemic proportions within few years and caused
considerable losses to the banana growers. At present, about 4000 of
the total 6000 hectares of banana growing in the central and southern
part of Taiwan is affected. Attempts in controlling the disease using
soil sanitation, soil fumigation and soil amendment, etc. were
unsuccessful (Hwang 1985; Su et al. 1986). A commercially acceptable
resistant variety is needed, urgently.
Banana breeding based on the traditional crossing (pollinating)
approach is extremely difficult, for Cavendish especially, because of
the female seed sterility inherent in Cavendish varieties. Over seventy
years of crossing a short Gros Michel with a resistant diploid to obtain
a resistant tetraploid competitive with the Cavendish cultivars has
been unsuccessful (Stover and Buddenhagen 1986). For this reason,
for obtaining a fusarium wilt resistant Cavendish, an innovative
breeding approach based on somaclonal variation was taken by the
TBRI in 1984 (Hwang and Ko 1988; 1991). This paper gives an account
of the progress this breeding program has made highlighting the recent
development of a superb high-yielding, fusarium-resistant variety,
Formosana, a breakthrough in banana breeding.
In vitro pr
vitro opa
propagation and somac
opag lonal v
somaclonal aria
varia tion
ariation
Although in vitro propagation of vegetatively propagated crops such
as banana has shown the potential for producing substantial genetic
variability, known as somaclonal variation (Snowcroft and Larkin
1982), it is generally believed that the probability of success in obtaining
an improved Cavendish clone that also corrects its susceptibility to
fusarium wilt race 4 based on somaclonal variation would be extremely
low, if not impossible. The key to the success is to produce a large
number of seedlings in vitro for screening.
The initiative of the development of tissue culture program at TBRI
came from the fusarium wilt. As a systemic disease, it spreads readily
through the movement of infested suckers, the conventional planting
material used by farmers (Hwang 1985; Su et al. 1986). The adoption
of disease-free plantlets by farmers has proved useful to check the
spread of the disease (Hwang et al. 1984; Su et al. 1986). Field surveys
revealed that these plants showed up to 3% somaclonal variation
(Hwang 1986). A wide range of mutated traits is found including

stature, leaf shape, plant color, and pseudostem and fruit
characteristics, etc. Some are detectable when plants are young and
others after flowering. Most somaclonal variants were genetically stable,
thus offering an option for the improvement of banana cultivars.
Because using in vitro plantlets also has the advantages of having a
higher survival rate than suckers, lower cost in disease and pest control
and a shorter harvesting period, etc., more and more banana growers
have begun using plantlets to establish their fields. TBRI has mass-
produced more than 2 millions of disease-free plantlets of a Cavendish
variety Giant Cavendish each year for use by farmers and for research
including breeding (Hwang and Su 1998).
Resistant clones identif
clones ied in scr
identified eening pr
screening og
ogrram
prog
A mass-screening program for detecting resistance to Foc race 4 that
began in 1984, was set up by planting in vitro-produced plantlets in a
nursery soil heavily infested with diseased tissue (Hwang and Ko 1988;
1991). The diseased tissue was plowed and thoroughly mixed with
soil in order for the pathogen to distribute uniformly, maintaining an
inoculum dose ranging from 300 to 1000 propagules/g soil throughout
the testing. Two-month-old plantlets of the wilt-susceptible varieties
propagated by the method (Hwang et al. 1984) were used for screening
by planting them at high density (20 000 plants/ha) in the nursery.
After 3-4 months, depending on seasonal temperature, the surviving
plants were dug up and the rhizomes examined for infection. Those
free of infection were again multiplied in vitro for additional tests to
confirm resistance.
From 1984 to 1986, about 30 000 tissue-cultured plants of Giant
Cavendish were screened and ten resistant clones selected, following
final evaluation (Hwang and Ko 1988; 1991; 1992). From 1992 to 1995,
two resistant clones were found among 11 180 tissue-cultured plants
of Tai-Chiao No.2, a semi-dwarf Cavendish cultivar (Hwang and Tang
2000). The efficiency of selection was about two to three resistant clones
for every 10 000 plants screened. Among the ten selected clones derived
from Giant Cavendish, five were highly resistant with a disease
incidence of less than 10%, while the other five were moderately
resistant, with an infection rate of 10-30%, compared to over 70% in
Giant Cavendish. The horticultural characteristics of these resistant
clones are presented in Table 1.
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Table 1. Horticultural characteristics of Foc race 4-resistant clones derived
from Giant Cavendish by somaclonal variation.
Clone Resistance Horticultural Characteristics
GCTCV-40 High Tall and slender pseudostem; weak petiole
with narrow and drooping leaves; small bunch
GCTCV-44 High Short and slender pseudostem; weak petiole and
drooping leaves; bunch normal but weak pedicel
GCTCV-46 Moderate Black spots on pseudostem and leaf sheath;
upright leaves; small bunch with short fingers
GCTCV-53 Moderate Dark green pseudostem; drooping leaves; elongate
male bud; small bunch with short fingers
GCTCV-62 Moderate Pale green pseudostem; fewer suckering; small
bunch and fingers.
GCTCV-104 High Pale green pseudostem; fewer fingers; long
growing cycle
GCTCV-105 High Shorter and slender pseudostem; compact bunch
with more number of short fingers
GCTCV-119 High Very tall; wavy leaves; short fruit stalk; long
growing cycle; fewer hands but large fingers;
sweeter fruit
GCTCV-201 Moderate Robust pseudostem; short fruit stalk; malformed
hands
GCTCV-215 Moderate Tall and slender pseudostem; leaf tip curl and
splitting; fewer suckering; normal bunch but slender
fingers; long growing cycle
GCTCV-216 Moderate Very tall; very large and heavy bunch; long growing
cycle
GCTCV-217 High Erect leaves; compact, but heavy bunch; less
curved fingers
GCTCV-218 High Robust pseudostem; wider and thicker leaves; very
heavy bunch with more number of hands; less
curved fingers; long growing cycle
GCTCV- Giant Cavendish tissue-cultured variant.
High - disease incidence less than 10%; Moderate - disease incidence of 10-30%.
In addition to the normal screening procedure, work on selection was

also conducted on the ordinary commercial farms, in collaboration
with farmers. By 1990, the tissue-cultured plants had already grown
widely on more than half of the banana farms, and many of these
farms were invaded by the fusarium wilt, seriously. On these farms,
selection was targeted at those apparent healthy plants occasionally
found in disease hot spot, with special attention to those showing
morphologically different from the normal Giant Cavendish plant but
bearing normal bunches. Suckers of these putative resistant plants were
collected and further multiplied in vitro for testing against Foc race 4.
Clones GCTCV-216, GCTCV-217 and GCTCV-218 were selected this
way (Hwang and Tang 2000).
Improvement of rresistant
Impro esistant clones
clones
With exception of the latest selected clone GCTCV-218 which is
horticulturally superior to its progenitor Giant Cavendish, all the rest
of resistant clones are inferior either in agronomic traits or in yield
(Hwang and Ko 1988; 1989). As indicated in Table 1, many resistant
clones possess undesirable agronomic characters such as excessive
height, weak petiole with drooping leaves, and produce under-sized
bunch, while others like GCTCV-216 and GCTCV-217 produce heavy
bunches but having too large hands of the former and too short fingers
of the latter, rendering them unacceptable to the market. Selection of
improved variants from these inferior resistant clones was attempted,
again based on somaclonal variation approach.
When large numbers of tissue-cultured plantlets of resistant clones
were planted in the field, a few plants with improved agronomic
characters were found in each clone (Hwang and Ko 1989). These
improved types had thicker pseudostems, grew faster, and produced
bigger bunches than their respective resistant progenitors. The clone
GCTCV-119 for instance, the bunch weight of the original resistant
parent was 17.2 kg. only, while that of the improved variant was
increased up to 26.5 kg. The growing cycle of the improved variant
was also shortened from 15 months of its progenitor to 13 months
only. The frequency of improved variants found in these resistant clones
varied from 0.2 to 10.1% (Hwang and Ko 1989). Of considerable interest
is that the gene(s) conferring resistance to Foc race 4 in most of the
resistant clones appears to be transmissible to their respective improved
variants. Among these four improved variants tested, GCTCV-44-1,
GCTCV-53-1 and GCTCV-119-1 remained to be resistant to Foc race
4, and GCTCV-40-1 only had lost wilt resistance (Hwang and Ko 1989)
as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Fusarium wilt on improved variants compared to their resistant parents.
Improved clone Planting Number of plants Disease

material tested (%)
GCTCV-40-1 Sucker 47 57.1
Plantlet 45 44.4
Plantlet 219 4.5
Plantlet 118 6.2
Plantlet 900 4.8
Giant Cavendish Sucker 157 50.9
Plantlet 150 63.3
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Further work on improvement of these resistant clones each year based
on somaclonal variation has led to the continued discovery of many
new, useful, resistant improved variants. Two of them, GCTCV-215-1
and TC1-229, were released for commercial production in 1992 and
2001, respectively (Hwang et al. 1994; Hwang and Tang 2000).
Release of resistant clones for commercial planting
About 70% of Cavendish banana production in Taiwan is consumed
locally and 30% is exported to the neighbouring Japanese market.
Bananas entering the Japanese market, the most competitive market
in the world, receive the best price and must match the highest quality
standards. Based on the results of field performance and fruit quality
evaluation of these resistant clones developed by the breeding program,
GCTCV-215-1, TC1-229 and GCTCV-218 were acceptable to both
farmers and market and were released officially for commercial
production.
GCTCV-215-1, a moderately resistant clone was released in 1992 as
the new variety Tai-Chiao No.1 for commercial production on over
1500 ha (Hwang et al. 1994). This is the first release anywhere of a
mutated Cavendish variety. It was selected in 1988 and is the
secondary variant of GCTCV-215. It is slightly taller than Giant
Cavendish and has a more slender pseudostem and longer growing
cycle. Although the bunch weight of this new variety is about 10%
lighter than that of Giant Cavendish, it is reputed to have more uniform
bunch shape and more even ripening, giving better fruit quality.
Surveys in infested fields planted with this new variety showed that
the percentage of wilt incidence averaged 6.5% in 1994 and 5.1% in
1995, while the incidences for Giant Cavendish were 69.0 and 42.6%
(Hwang et al. 1994; Hwang and Tang 2000). The release of Tai-Chiao
No.1 has reduced considerably the yield loss to fusarium wilt and
enabled growers to resume banana production on many abandoned
infested farms.
TC1-229, a semi-dwarf variant of Tai-Chiao No.1, was selected from a
farmer’s field in 1992 (Hwang and Tang 2000). It is about 50-70 cm
shorter than its progenitor Tai-Chiao No.1. Other traits such as growth
cycle, bunch weight and level of resistance to Foc race 4, were not
significantly different from those of Tai-Chiao No.1. Since wind damage
is one of the major constraints for cultivation of banana in Taiwan,
planting the shorter variety would reduce yield losses and facilitate
farm management. For this reason, the clone was released in 2001 as
the new variety Tai-Chiao No.3 for commercial production.
GCTCV-218. The clone was discovered by a farmer on his farm planted

with tissue-cultured plantlets of Giant Cavendish provided by TBRI.
Resistance to Foc race 4 of this new clone, designated GCTCV-218,
was confirmed following a series of tests conducted at TBRI
experimental farm followed by semi-commercial trials on grower’s
farms.
Results of these studies revealed that both disease resistance and higher-
yielding characteristics of GCTCV-218 were fairly stable across a wide
range of environment regimes. Fusarium wilt incidence on GCTCV-
218 averaged 4.1%, ranging from 1.6 to 12.2%, which is significantly
lower than 9.8% of the wilt-tolerant variety Tai-Chiao No.1 and 29.6%
of the wilt-susceptible variety Giant Cavendish. The weight of bunches
harvested from GCTCV-218 averaged 30.6 kg, which is 10.1 kg on
average heavier than that of Giant Cavendish.
The new clone, about 2.8 m tall, also beats the Giant Cavendish in
other agronomic traits such as having more robust pseudostem,
stronger petioles, thicker leaves, better hand formation, and being more
uniform in the size of hands. The fruit was of high quality and received
favorable response from both the Japanese and local market. A
comparison of salient features between GCTCV-218 and its parent
variety Giant Cavendish is shown in Table 3.
GCTCV-218, officially named Formosana, was released for commercial
planting on 1500 ha in January 2002 to replace both Tai-Chiao No.1
and Tai-Chiao No.3 for the first year. It is estimated that planting
GCTCV-218 would result in an increased yield from 32.4 to 51.6 t/ha
on fusarium-infested farms, and from 38.4 to 54.5 t/ha on clean farms,
accounting for 59% and 42% of yield increase, respectively.
Table 3. Comparison of salient features between Formosana and Giant Cavendish
on the first plant crop.
Plant Pseudostem Leaf No. of No. of Bunch Crop
Variety height girth ratio hand/ finger/ weight cycle
(cm) (cm) bunch bunch (kg) (month)
GC 274 73 2.50 8.5 147 21.3 12
FM 281 82 2.33 11.5 191 30.2 13
GC: Giant Cavendish; FM: Formosana; Data are means of two crop cycles.
Conclusion
For decades, banana production in Taiwan has been greatly challenged
by the intractable fusarium wilt problem. For the control, the
susceptible variety Giant Cavendish must be replaced by the resistant
variety. For obtaining a resistant Cavendish whose breeding based on
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crossing has been seriously handicapped by the female seed sterility,
an appropriate method for breeding must be developed. Because in
vitro propagation of banana has shown the potential for producing
substantial genetic variability, a novel approach based on somaclonal
variation was taken by TBRI in 1984 (Hwang and Ko 1984). Much
interest, support and effort have been devoted in this direction over
the past 16 years leading to the continued discovery of many
interesting, useful resistant clones and to the release of three
commercially acceptable resistant varieties, Tai-Chiao No.1, Tai-Chiao
No.3 and Formosana for commercial production in Taiwan. The most
ideal variety Formosana is now planted in about 1500 ha of infested
farms, saving the banana industry from destruction by fusarium wilt.
The most significant achievement made by this breeding program is
the successful development of the superb variety, Formosana. The plant
brings together many useful traits including fusarium wilt resistance,
high-yielding, improved agronomic characters and improved fruit
quality, a breakthrough in banana breeding. This is the most productive
Cavendish considered by TBRI. Commercialization of Formosana
would have great impact on Taiwan banana industry. First, it would
reduce the loss of production to fusarium wilt from the present 15%
level to less than 5% every year. Second, the yield per hectare would
be increased by over 50%, hence greatly reducing the production cost,
the key constraint for banana production in Taiwan. Third, for decades,
Taiwan banana has been suffering a seasonal uneven ripening problem
that greatly reduces its competitiveness in the Japanese market.
Planting Formosana to replace Giant Cavendish will solve this problem
for bananas produced by Formosana ripen evenly. Fourth, it is believed
that planting the most productive Cavendish variety Formosana has
great potential for Taiwan bananas to enter the new export markets
because of its lower production cost and better fruit quality, thus more
competitive on international market.
In comparison with the traditional banana breeding based on crossing
(pollinating) which has not produced any improved Cavendish variety
for commercial use over the past 70 years, the somaclonal variation
breeding has proved to be an efficient, useful approach for the
improvement of Cavendish cultivars. The innovative approach has
the following features that make the selection so efficient and thus the
goal of breeding attainable.
1. A wide range of genetic variability found among in vitro mass-
produced plants offers a higher probability of success in selecting
desirable mutated traits. As shown in this study, the chance of
success of selection for resistance to fusarium wilt was about two

to three clones for every 10 000 plants screened (Hwang and Ko
1988; Hwang and Tang 2000).
2. Most mutated traits occurring in somaclonal variation including
resistance to fusarium wilt are genetically stable across a wide
environment range, as demonstrated by the field performance of
the oldest released variety Tai-Chiao No.1. Since its selection in
1988 and commercialization in 1992, about fivemillion tissue-
cultured plants of Tai-Chiao No.1 have been propagated and
distributed to farmers. The agronomic traits and level of resistance
have shown to be consistent from crop to crop over the years
(Hwang and Tang 2000).
3. Although most resistant clones originally obtained from the breeding
program have major deficiencies, somaclonal variation approach
offers the chance to select the improved types from their in vitro-
derived progenies (Hwang and Ko 1988; Hwang and Tang 2000).
Thus, breeding of banana this way can be like for other crops,
making it is much less a ‘dead-end’ game. The secondary semi-
dwarf improved variant TC1-229 and tertiary semi-dwarf
improved variant TC1-600 obtained from the taller progenitor Tai-
Chiao No.1 (Hwang and Tang 2000) are cases in point.
4. The tissue culture program that began in 1983, has produced more
than two million seedlings each year for use by farmers. Work on
selection, through linkage to this tissue culture program, can be
conducted extensively on commercial farms in collaboration with
farmers, thus increasing the chance of success of selection and
making the selection cheaper as well. The best resistant variety
Formosana was discovered this way.
Banana breeding by somaclonal variation approach is now widely
used in many other breeding programs in various countries. In addition
to Cavendish, it is believed that this method would be applicable to
other types of banana and for inducing resistance to other major
diseases including black sigatoka, nematodes, and even to viral diseases
as well. The genetics of fusarium wilt resistance of banana is not
known. With the rapidly advancing biotechnology in the area of DNA
mapping, these resistant/tolerant somaclones will be useful for
identifying gene(s) that confer resistance by comparing the expressed
DNA of a resistant somaclone with that of its susceptible progenitor.
It would be also interesting to determine if the enhanced resistance in
these somaclones is due to mutations to different or similar genes.
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References
Hwang S.C., C.L. Chen, J.C. Lin and H.L. Lin. 1984. Cultivation of
banana using plantlets from meristem culture. HortSci. 19:231-
233.
Hwang S.C. 1985. Ecology and control of fusarial wilt of banana. Plant
Prot. Bull. (Taiwan) 27:233-245.
Hwang S.C. 1986. Variation in banana plants propagated through
tissue culture. J. of the Chinese Soc. of Hort. Sci. 32:117-125.
Hwang S.C. and W.H. Ko. 1988. Mutants of Cavendish banana
resistant to race 4 of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Plant Prot.
Bull. (Taiwan) 30:386-392.
Hwang S.C. and W.H. Ko. 1989. Improvement of fruit quality of
Cavendish banana mutants resistant to race 4 of Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Plant Prot. Bull. (Taiwan) 31:131-138.
Hwang S.C. and W.H. Ko. 1991. Somaclonal resistance in Cavendish
banana to Fusarium wilt. Plant Prot. Bull. (Taiwan) 33:124-132.
Hwang S.C. and W.H. Ko. 1992. Breeding for resistance to fusarial
wilt of Cavendish banana by using tissue culture method. Pp. 229-
237 in Proceedings of the SABRAO International Symposium on
the Impact of Biological Research on Agricultural Productivity held
at Taichung, Taiwan.
Hwang S.C., W.H. Ko. and C.P. Chao. 1994. GCTCV-215-1: a
promising Cavendish clone resistant to race 4 of Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. cubense. Plant Prot. Bull. (Taiwan) 36:281-191.
Hwang S.C. and H.J. Su. 1998. Production of virus-free banana
plantlets in Taiwan. FFTC Extension Bull. No.460, 7p.
Hwang S.C. and C.Y. Tang. 2000. Unconventional banana breeding
in Taiwan. Pp.449-464 in Disease of Banana, Abaca and Ensete.
CABI Publishing, CAB International, UK.
Stover R.H. and I.W. Buddenhagen. 1986. Banana breeding polyploidy:
disease resistance and productivity. Fruits 41:175-191.
Su H.J., T.Y. Chuang and W.S. Kong. 1977. Physiological race of fusarial
wilt fungus attacking Cavendish of Taiwan. Taiwan Banana Res.
Inst. Spec. Publ. 2. 21p.
Su H.J., S.C. Hwang and W.H. Ko. 1986. Fusarial wilt of Cavendish
banana in Taiwan. Plant Dis. 70:814-818.
Snowcroft W.R. and P.J. Larkin. 1982. Somaclonal variation: a new

option for plant improvement. Pp. 159-178 in Plant Improvement
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eds.). Academic Press.
INIBAP pr
INIBAP og
ogrrams and
prog
technical pr
technical esenta
presentations
esentations
The Banana Asia Pacific Network 187
The Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET):

A platform for Musa R&D collaboration
Agustin B
B.. Molina*
Bananas and plantains are fruits most extensively grown in Asia. The
fruits are non-seasonal and therefore consumed the whole year round.
As the premier fruit of the region, bananas and plantains contribute
significantly to the diet and nutrition of the people, particularly the
poor. This important fruit commodity, which is grown primarily for
domestic consumption, is an important source of income to numerous
small farmers and entrepreneurs.
In November 1984, a group of countries and organizations established
the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain
(INIBAP) with headquarters in Montpellier, France. INIBAP’s mandate
includes coordination of research efforts, dissemination of research
information and generation of funds to support priority research and
development activities on bananas and plantains. Recognizing the
enormous complexity involved in world banana agriculture and to
ensure relevance and flexibility in its program thrusts, INIBAP decided
to set up regional networks in West Africa, East Africa, Latin America
and the Caribbean and finally Asia and the Pacific in 1991.
Asia is the recognized Center of Origin of the genus Musa and
possesses the greatest wealth of banana germplasm in the world. It is
also the source of practically all commercial cultivars of dessert bananas
and holds an enormous collection of hardy and high-yielding cooking
bananas with great potential for the other regions of the world. The
Asia-Pacific Network (ASPNET) in 1991 started with Australia, China,
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and the Taiwan
Banana Research Institute (TBRI) as its initial members and later
expanded to also include Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Pakistan
and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC).
The relaunching of the regional network
While INIBAP is pleased with the progress made by the network, there
was a need to review the modus operandi of the network under the
framework of the Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) of collaboration
signed between IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
*Regional Coordinator, INIBAP-Asia Pacific, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

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(IPGRI) and the Asia Pacific Association of Agricultural Research
Institutions (APAARI) and to revisit its aims and objectives, with the
aim of re-launching the network as a truly NARS-based initiative
enhanced by INIBAP networking activities. This meeting was held in
Sri Lanka in October 2001 with the presence of representatives of
Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Thailand, SPC and TBRI. A new member, Cambodia, was
invited to the meeting. Highlights of the meeting were as follows:
formulation of the logical framework which would help in the
development of a constitution, renaming of the network to Banana
Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET) and invitation for Papua New Guinea
as an additional member of the network separate from SPC.
Regional approaches to identify agricultural research and development
priorities are now given much attention. There is a growing concern
as to how regional priorities can be matched with national and
international priorities, taking care of the R&D needs of the national
systems. It is expected that the re-launching of BAPNET would result
to stronger partnership among NARS to pursue agreed research
agenda for greater mutual benefit. INIBAP-Asia Pacific on the other
hand, would catalyze activities of BAPNET like coordination,
publication of regional materials, information dissemination, fund
sourcing as well as link BAPNET to INIBAP’s global programmes such
as the International Musa Testing Program (IMTP) Phase III, germplasm
management (i.e. Musa Germplasm Information System [MGIS]),
collection, conservation and characterization) and the Global
Programme for Musa Improvement (PROMUSA).
Signif icance of B
Significance APNET
BAPNET
The former structure of collaboration in the region (ASPNET) was in
place but it was aimed at establishing priorities for INIBAP, rather
than for the activities of existing NARS. With the BAPNET operating
within the APAARI framework, collaboration is expected to be with a
more coherent research strategy for the region, based on the needs
and priorities of the participating countries. Most countries in the region
have an established national banana network and corresponding
research programmes. Therefore, regional priorities can easily be
identified and established resulting to a coordinated approach and
create synergy to banana research in the region. Continued
collaboration in banana research in the region is essential to avoid
duplication thereby enhancing efficiency of research. This is essential
as there is a growing interest of the donor community in crops not
traditionally researched and those with important roles in poverty
The Banana Asia Pacific Network 189
alleviation. A regional capacity building programme for human

resource development can also be developed and organized.
BAPNET promotes cooperation in exchange of germplasm,
technologies and information. Furthermore, problems on unfavorable
policies related to world trade, fluctuating economic conditions in the
region resulting to unprofitable banana cultivation venture and
movements of pest and diseases can be discussed.
Role of INIBAP-AP in enhancing the netw
INIBAP-AP or
networ k
ork
Secretariat
BAPNET has appointed the INIBAP-AP as its Secretariat with the
Regional Coordinator (RC) as Executive Secretary. The major role of
the Secretariat is to provide the overall organizational management
of BAPNET. Among its specific activities are: (1) facilitate the networks’
activities in the areas of training, germplasm conservation,
enhancement, evaluation, utilization, information systems and
publications; (2) facilitate the development and implementation of the
BAPNET strategic plan; (3) facilitate communication/information
exchange between network members; (4) lead efforts to source funding
for BAPNET; (5) facilitate the provision of technical assistance;
(6) represent the needs of the region to INIBAP; and (7) inform the
Steering Committee of activities in Global Programmes relevant to the
region.
Annual Steering Committee meeting
In this regard, INIBAP-AP sponsors the annual meeting of the Steering
Committee with one of the members as host. INIBAP provides the
forum where regional policies and strategic plans are discussed. Priority
areas for research and development as well as training opportunities
are identified. The members have the opportunity to present their
national programs and to check which can run in tandem with the
regional programs of BAPNET and furthermore with the global
programs of INIBAP.
Regional programs can also be developed, packaged, and submitted
to possible donors. The RC can lead efforts for fund sourcing for these
regional programs. Moreover, he can represent the needs of the region
to INIBAP.
Link BAPNET to global programs
BAPNET provides a link to the global programs of INIBAP such as
the IMTP III, MGIS and Collection, Conservation and Characterization.
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The IMTP is an INIBAP coordinated global testing of elite materials,
clones, and cultivars developed from Musa breeding programmes in
various countries of the world. These are tested for its resistance to
fusarium, sigatoka and nematodes, yield and adaptability to local
conditions. The MGIS is a database wherein various curators of banana
germplasm collections contribute taxonomic descriptions and
agronomic evaluations of their collections. The Asia Pacific region is a
major contributor to this database. MGIS provides an access to a
comprehensive data on the many germplasm collections worldwide.
Collecting missions in Vietnam, China and the Philippines have been
accomplished. Collecting missions are still ongoing in Indonesia and
India. Most of the members of the network are participating in these
global programs.
Link BAPNET to PROMUSA
The PROMUSA was developed as a means to bring together all the
major efforts in the area of Musa improvement. The global programme
builds on existing achievements and is based on ongoing research
initiatives. PROMUSA is therefore a mechanism to further maximize
the outputs and accelerate the impact of the overall Musa improvement
effort. It provides a platform of collaboration among Musa researchers
worldwide in a flexible mechanism that can promote and result to
many kinds of collaboration.
Information development and exchange
INIBAP has an active global and regional information and
documentation program. Several books, manuals, proceedings,
factsheets, serials, etc. are published and distributed regularly. INIBAP
publications are also available in CDROM and can be accessed through
the INIBAP website. Moreover, two global databases are maintained
at INIBAP Hq namely: MUSALIT (a bibliographic database on banana
researches) and BRIS (database on banana researchers). On the
otherhand, the network has the Regional Information System for
Banana and Plantain – Asia and Pacific (RISBAP), which supports
the global database, MUSALIT. The RISBAP Bulletin, a regional
newsletter supported by INIBAP-AP and published at least three times
a year, is another regional mechanism for improving the dissemination,
utilization and access of information on banana and plantain in the
region.
Musa diversity in Southeast Asia - An analysis of data 191
Musa diversity in Southeast Asia –

An analysis of data
Olivier Guinard, Suzanne Shar
Guinard, Sharrrock*
ock*
and Elizabeth Arnaud
Introduction
Introduction
Southeast Asia and the Pacific is the centre of diversity of the genus
Musa. This diversity includes a wide range of wild species, which are
divided amongst the sections Australimusa, Callimusa, Rhodochlamys,
Eumusa and a large number of different types of cultivated banana
varieties which fall into various genome groups (AA, AAB, AAB etc).
This diversity provides the raw materials used by banana breeding
programmes to develop new, improved high yielding varieties with
enhanced capacity to withstand pest and disease attack. These
improved varieties are starting to be introduced and grown in many
countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
Due to the high levels of sterility in most cultivars, banana breeding is
a complicated, time consuming and expensive task. For this reason,
very few breeding programmes exist in the world, and most of the
major programmes are located outside Asia. For this reason, there is a
great interdependence between countries and regions for Musa
germplasm.
INIBAP’
INIBAP’
AP’s ole in Musa div
s rrole er
diver sity mana
ersity gement
manag
Conservation
INIBAP maintains the world collection of Musa germplasm. This
collection is held in vitro at the INIBAP Transit Centre (ITC), which is
located at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL), Belgium. This
collection of germplasm is held ‘in trust’ for the world community
and ownership of the accessions in the collection remains with the
country of origin. All material held in the world collection is provided
to INIBAP under the terms and conditions of a Germplasm Acquisition
Agreement (GAA) which confirms that the material will stay in the
public domain, and will be made freely available for distribution on
request. The world collection acts as a safety back-up, or duplicate
*Germplasm Conservation Scientist, INIBAP, Montpellier, France.
This paper is a shortened version of a paper prepared by Olivier Guinard, an intern with
the Quebec Ministry of International Relations as part of his internship with INIBAP. A
copy of the full version of the paper is available from INIBAP on request.
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collection for NARS, and accessions are available for repatriation,
should they be lost from national collections.
Collecting
INIBAP supports germplasm collecting activities, with a particular
focus on filling gaps in germplasm collections. In recent years, collecting
missions have been held in China, Vietnam and Indonesia.
Distribution
All accessions in the world collection maintained by INIBAP are held
in vitro and are routinely indexed for the presence of virus infections.
In line with the Guidelines for the safe international movement of Musa
germplasm, only those accessions in which no virus particles are found
are made freely available for distribution. All germplasm is distributed
under the terms and conditions of a Material Transfer Agreement which
ensures that the germplasm stays in the public domain.
Characterisation
INIBAP carries out molecular and cytological analysis of all germplasm
it maintains. This information is made freely available to users of the
germplasm, as well as to germplasm curators and researchers in the
country of origin of the germplasm. Such information thus adds value
to the germplasm and supplements characterisation and evaluation
data collected by users of the germplasm.
Information management - the Musa Germplasm information System
(MGIS)
Following a request by Musa researchers and genebank curators,
INIBAP has developed an information system which allows genebank
curators to efficiently manage the information they generate about
the accessions in their collections. As well as being a tool for curators,
the MGIS also provides a mechanism by which information can be
exchanged between curators. All data entered in MGIS remains the
property of the country entering the data, but by sending updates to
INIBAP, national data can also be incorporated into the global
database. The global database is made available by INIBAP to
participating institutes on CD-ROM and will shortly be available for
free consultation on the internet.
MGIS presently contains passport data for 4810 accessions from 16
different institutes, and these include photographs for 763 accessions.
Characterization data is available for 1745 accessions and agronomic
evaluation data for 1643 accessions. MGIS is therefore a mine of
information on Musa germplasm and provides a unique resource for

Musa researchers around the world.
Analysis of MGIS contents
MGIS is becoming increasing widely used by curators around the
world as a repository of information on Musa germplasm. It is therefore
starting to provide a useful tool which can be used to carry out analyses
at the global level. Through examining the contents of MGIS,
information can be obtained, for example, on the extent of diversity
being held in ex situ collections. Such information is essential in
developing future collecting strategies and helping countries to
rationalise ex situ collections, and also provides the base upon which
national and regional conservation strategies can be developed.
What is being conserved?
A first analysis of the contents of MGIS, shows that the vast majority
of accessions recorded by genebank curators are cultivated varieties.
These make up around 80% of the accessions recorded in the database
(Figure 1). These accessions cover reasonably well all the various
genome groups (Figure 2).
13% 9%
Wild
Cultivars
Unclassified
78%
Figure 1. Type of accessions recorded in MGIS.
AAA/AAB
AT/AAT
0.16% 0.79%
AAS
ABB 0.03% Fe'i
BBB AA
12.01% 0.74%
0.29% 26.13%
AB
3.44%
AS
AAB 0.16%
31.02%
AAA
25.23%
Figure 2. Genome groups of cultivars recorded in MGIS.

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Amongst the wild species, accessions of the section Eumusa,
particularly Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana predominate, with wild
species from the sections Australimusa, Rhodochlamys and Callimusa
being generally poorly represented (Figure 3). A number of wild Musa
species are not included in the database at all.
400
350
300
No of accessions
250
200
150
100
50
0
Australimusa Callimusa Rhodochlamys Eumusa
Figure 3. Distribution of wild accessions in MGIS according to sections

of the genus Musa.
Although there are a number of accessions of M. acuminata recorded

in the database, there is an uneven representation of the various
subspecies. For example, only 4 accessions of Calcutta 4 (M. acuminata
ssp. burmannicoides), the main source of black sigatoka resistance used
by the banana breeding programmes, are recorded in germplasm
collections. In addition, many accessions recorded as M. acuminata
are unclassified at the subspecies level (Figure 4).
malaccensis
17.25%
unclassified burmanica
30.59% 1.96%
burmaniccoides
1.18%
truncata
0.39%
zebrina banksii
5.10% 32.94%
microcarpa siamea
7.45% 3.14%
Figure 4. Subspecies of Musa acuminata in MGIS.

Analysis of national-level data in MGIS
Considering that the Asia Pacific region is the centre of diversity on

Musa, it was decided to carry out a more detailed analysis of the data
in MGIS originating from seven countries in this region. This
preliminary analysis was carried out in order to identify gaps and
inconsistencies in the data and to make recommendations towards
future germplasm management strategies for the region. The analysis
was based on the standard MGIS database, supplemented by searches
made using the experimental MGIS web site. In addition, information
about Musa diversity in each country was obtained from the literature,
with particular use of the following publications: The records of Paul
H. Allen (INIBAP/FHIA 1999), ASPNET meeting reports, Valmayor
et al. 1990 and Banana Cultivar Names and Synonyms in Southeast
Asia (INIBAP-ASPNET 2000). The countries included in the analysis
were: Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, China,
Malaysia and Indonesia.
Philippines
The Philippines Musa germplasm collection is maintained by the Bureau
of Plant Industry, Davao National Crop Research and Development
Centre (DNCRDC). This collection has been designated a regional
collection of which 294 accessions are recorded in MGIS. Information
on the country of origin is available for 78% of these accessions.
According to information in MGIS, 43% of the accessions maintained
in Davao originate from Philippines. The remainder originate from
Malaysia, Thailand, PNG and Indonesia.
According to searches in the literature, 124 accessions which have
been recorded as being present in Philippines are not included in the
Davao collection. Of these, 38 can however be found in other
collections (e.g. Honduras, INIBAP). Only 31 accessions from the
Philippines have been duplicated in the international collection
maintained by INIBAP.
An attempt was made to analyse the extent of diversity present in the
Davao collection, but due to problems in the classification data entered
in MGIS, this was not possible to do. Efforts are required to correct
this data in the database.
Vietnam
Information is available in MGIS on the collection maintained at the
Phu Ho Crop Research Centre. Data has been entered for 84 accessions,
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of which 48 are duplicated in the international collection. For these
accessions, molecular and cytological information is available from
INIBAP. According to the data in MGIS, no wild Musa species are
maintained in the Phu Ho collection, although several are reported in
the literature as being present in Vietnam. One of the major problems
encountered in analysing data from Vietnam related to the large
number of synonyms that seem to exist (Figure 5). A further problem
was the use of Vietnamese characters which cannot be read by other
users of MGIS.
Chuoi Ngu Chuoi Ngu Thoc

PHU0065 PHU0005
ITC1358 Chuoi Ngu Toc ABB
ITC1429
ABB
Tau Ngu
Chuoi Xiem
Chuoi Tay Chuoi Mat Moc

PHU0052
ITC1366
ITC1426 Chuoi Su Trang Chuoi Rung Hoa Sen
ABB PHU0070
Unclassified
Musa acuminata
ITC1431
AAw
Chuoi Rung Hoa Soan

Chuoi Su PHU0071
Unclassified
Chuoi Rung Chuoi Rung Hoa Xoan

PHU0068 ITC1432
ITC1385 Unclassified
Unclassified
Ho Huu Nhi 2000.
Valmayor et al. 2000.
ITC data in MGIS
PHU data in MGIS
Personal speculation
Figure 5.. Ambiguous synonymical links in MGIS and literature.
Malaysia
No records from Malaysia have been entered in MGIS and only a few
cultivars originating from Malaysia, which are present in other
collections around the world, are recorded in the database. These
include 6 accessions which are recorded by INIBAP as being present
in the international collection. None of the wide diversity of wild
species from Malaysia is recorded in MGIS.
Indonesia
Information on the germplasm collection maintained by the Research
Institute for Fruits (RIF) in Solok, Indonesia is available in MGIS. A
total of 197 accessions have been recorded in the database. Following
a literature search, 60 accessions known from Indonesia are not
recorded in any collection in MGIS. Only 7 accessions from the RIF
collection are duplicated in the international collection. An analysis of
the extent of diversity present in the collection revealed that a wide
range of cultivar genotypes and wild species are maintained in the
genebank.
One problem regarding data from Indonesia related to the
nomenclature used. For example, the accession Susu which is present
in several collections, recorded as originating in Indonesia in MGIS,
and is listed as an Indonesian accession by Valmayor (1990), is not
listed as Susu by RIF. Instead, the RIF collection lists: Susu olahan,
Susu ternate and Klutuk susu. It is not clear which Susu is being
referred to by the other collections. A similar problem exists with the
accession Kepok
Thailand
No data from Thailand has been recorded in MGIS. However, 37
accessions are present in the international collection originating from
Thailand and many accessions are present in the regional collection
in the Philippines. Many wild Musa species are known to exist in
Thailand but none of these are recorded in MGIS.
Papua New Guinea
The national Musa germplasm collection is maintained by the National
Agricultural Research Institute at Laloki. To date, only 39 out of a
collection of 309 accessions have been recorded in MGIS. This lack of
data relates to computer problems in PNG. However, more than 250
accessions from the collection are duplicated at both South Johnstone
Research Station in Australia and in the international collection.
Information about PNG accessions is therefore available from data
entered by South Johnstone and INIBAP. Such data includes
characterisation data as well as molecular and cytological data. An
analysis of the extent of diversity included in the collection shows that
both cultivars and wild species are well represented and the diversity
reflects that found in the country as a whole.
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China
Information on Chinese accessions is available from the South China
Agricultural University (SCAU). Information on 98 accessions is
available and these consist mainly of AAA and ABB cultivars. No
accessions from China have been sent to the international collection.
Conclusions and recommendations
During this first analysis of data in MGIS, some immediate difficulties
were identified:
• Lack of data – especially related to origin of accessions.
• Searches by name were difficult due to the use of vernacular
prefixes, such as Chuoi, Pisang, Kluai
• The use of special characters (Vietnamese) which could not be
recognised by non-Vietnamese computers;
• Inconsistencies in the naming of wild species:
- Musa acuminata ssp. banksii
- M. acuminata ssp. banksii
- M. banksii
- Banksii
- Etc.
As a result of this work, a number of recommendations were made:
• Efforts should be made to add data from important missing
collections (Malaysia, Thailand)
• Existing data needs to be completed and corrected;
• NARS should make more effort to include wild species in
germplasm collection
• Vernacular names should be standardised, and the use of prefixes
should be avoided
• Full scientific names should be used for wild species. e.g. Musa
acuminata ssp. banksii;
• Data on the origin of accessions should be completed to assist
further analysis using GIS tools such as DIVA-GIS
Finally, it was recommended that, in recognition of the interdependence
of countries for germplasm, and following the agreement that has been
reached on the International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture, countries should share germplasm and related
information through INIBAP, making use of tools such as MGIS to

facilitate this. The information available in MGIS should be used in
the future to develop conservation strategies for Musa diversity.
References
Rosales F., E. Arnaud and J. Coto (eds). 1999. A Tribute to the Work of
Paul H. Allen : A catalogue of wild and cultivated bananas.
INIBAP, Montpellier, France. 364p.
Valmayor R.V., D.R. Jones, Subijanto, P. Polprasid and S.H. Jamaluddin.
1990. Bananas and Plantains in Southeast Asia. INIBAP. 46p.
Valmayor R.V., S.H. Jamaluddin, B. Silayoi, S. Kusumo, L.D. Danh,
O.C. Pascua and R.R.C. Espino. 2000. Banana Cultivar Names
and Synonyms in Southeast Asia. INIBAP. 24p.
Preliminary analysis of the MGIS 201
Preliminary analysis of the Musa

Germplasm Information System data for
Southeast Asia using the Geographical
Information System software DIVA-GIS
Olivier Guinard, Suzanne Shar
Guinard, Sharrrock*
ock*
and Elizabeth Arnaud
Introduction
Introduction
DIVA-GIS is a computer software developed by the International Potato
Centre (CIP) and the International Plant Genetics Resources Institute
(IPGRI) to map and analyse biological diversity. It was specifically
designed to help spatially analyse the distribution of germplasm as
well as their specific traits – morphological or genetic (Hijmans et al.
2001; Hijmans et al. 2002).
In 2002, INIBAP carried out a preliminary investigation into the
potential use of DIVA-GIS as a tool to analyse data recorded in the
Musa Germplasm Information System (MGIS). The benefits of carrying
out GIS-based analysis are considered to be as follows:
At the global level:
• The ability to build maps showing the location of germplasm
collections and provide access to environmental data at those
sites through a single click;
• The ability to build maps showing the spatial distribution of Musa
diversity, at the district, national, regional or even global scale;
• Providing assistance in decision-making regarding collecting
campaigns;
• Providing the capacity to analyse diversity distribution according
to environmental factors;
• Establishing correlations between the geographical distribution of
varieties and species and the distribution of the main pests and
diseases;
• Associating environmental factors with specific genetic traits;
• Improving MGIS data by checking the integrity of location
information in MGIS;
*Germplasm Conservation Scientist, INIBAP, Montpellier, France.

This paper is a shortened version of a paper prepared by Olivier Guinard, an intern with
the Quebec Ministry of International Relations as part of his internship with INIBAP. A
copy of the full version of the paper is available from INIBAP on request.
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• Promoting the entry of data in MGIS.
At the national level:
• Checking whether the national collection represents the range of
diversity in the country;
• Helping in the decision making regarding the acquisition or
elimination of material;
• Visualising national diversity;
• Completion and validation of location coordinates.
Materials and Methods
Data conversion and entry into MGIS
Passport and characterisation data from accessions in the collections
of South Johnstone Australia (SJR), the Indonesian Research Institute
for Fruit (RIF) and the Vietnamese Phu Ho Fruit Crop Research Centre
(PHU) were extracted from MGIS using an SQL query, generating a
DIVA-GIS compatible dbase-IV file. These three collections were chosen
because they contained precise latitude and longitude coordinates of
the collecting sites of accessions as well as morph-taxonomic
descriptions and agro-evaluation data related to the accessions.
Data from the more recent collecting missions in Indonesia and for
China were also extracted from MGIS. These accessions did not have
any associated location coordinates and were thus assigned coordinates
using the ‘assign coordinates’ function of DIVA-GIS.
These accessions were appended to the original .DBF file, resulting in
a file which contained information on 461 accessions, each of which
had 76 types of data associated with them, including important
information such as longitude and latitude of collecting site, passport
data, as well as minimum descriptor data. This was the basic file from
which data was imported to create maps using DIVA-GIS.
Results
Visualizing Musa distribution
A first map was generated to show the original location (collecting
site) of accessions used in the study (Figure 1). This map also highlights
the countries from which data was availability for use with DIVA.
Countries with valid MGIS data are coloured green, while other
countries with MGIS data but no collecting site coordinates were
coloured grey.
Wild Musa accessions were then categorized and displayed on a map
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according to their respective taxonomic sections. The map (Figure 2)
showed that recent collecting missions in China have revealed the
presence of Musa laterita (Rhodochlamys) on the border of the Guangxi
province of China and northern Vietnam, much to the east of where
this species had been reported previously. An even more striking
example is a Musa coccinea (Callimusa) accession reported in the
Guangdong province of China, which if truly native, and not
introduced, could expand the traditional distribution of the Callimusa
section much to the northeast.
These first maps show the limited areas in which germplasm has so
far been collected and for which relevant data is available. However,
they also illustrate how DIVA-GIS can help in determining in which
regions to organize future collecting missions, as well as providing a
clear means to visualise the distribution of diversity in any given area.
Georeferencing Musa characteristics

Only relatively few of the accessions recorded in MGIS actually have
both valid collecting site coordinates as well as morphological and
agronomic traits associated with them. However, using available data,
Musa accessions were classified according to their classes for each
morphological trait entered in DIVA-GIS. Maps which showed obvious
differences were retained (Figure 3 A-D). By superimposing maps
showing environmental variables: soil type, altitude, ecoregion etc., it
is easy to correlate specific germplasm-related traits with
environmental or other factors. For example, if data were available,
DIVA- GIS would provide an ideal tool to link pest and disease
distribution and associate environmental factors with tolerance/
resistance traits in germplasm.
Assessing diversity richness

DIVA-GIS has the capacity to analyse diversity in a number of ways
(Hijmans et al. 2002). Generally, DIVA-GIS divides geographic areas
into user-specified size square cells making up a grid. Using DIVA-
GIS, the amount of diversity to be found within each grid square can
be measured and maps produced indicating those areas of greatest
diversity richness (either at species or cultivar level). Insufficient data
is presently available in MGIS to create useful maps of this type,
although initial studies based on available data indicate that hot spots
of wild Musa diversity can be found on the northern coastal area of
PNG and in the Guangxi region of China near the Vietnamese border.
This result must of course be treated with caution at this stage, as
A B
C D
Figure 3. Musa morphlogical trit distribution in Southeast Asia. All characteristics included
in the Musa accessions that contained data were displayed in DIVA-GIS and
maps were selected on the basis of highlighting regional differences.
(A) Sucker development. (B) Pseudostem aspect. (C) Fruit length. (D) Fruit
pulp colour at maturity.
most “high richness” grid cells simply reflect the regions targeted by
INBAP and their collaborators in collecting missions held in the past
two decades.
With regard to diversity conservation, DIVA-GIS also contains a
function that prioritizes areas of richness in order of decreasing
importance. Briefly, the grid cell with the greatest number of distinct
species is identified and ranked one, while the species it harbours are
removed from the “total” list of species identified; a second grid-cell
containing the largest number of distinct remaining species is ranked
“2”, and so on. This type of analysis can be used to identify, for example,
priority areas for in situ conservation.
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Associating accessions with geo-referenced climate data
With DIVA-GIS, it is possible to associate accession-coordinates with
geo-referenced climate data observed from 1961 to 1990 and available
from the DIVA-GIS website. Through this feature, one can examine
the specific growth environment of a particular accession with regards
to mean annual rainfall, lowest and highest temperatures, average
temperature, etc. It is also possible to visualize the climate spectrum
associated with Musa occurrence. Using data related to wild accessions
a map was created showing that wild Musa species mainly occur in
locations where there is an average annual temperature of between
20 and 27 degrees Celsius and where there is 1300 to 4000 mm of
precipitation. DIVA-GIS is also able to locate the areas of a defined
Gone by 2040-2060
Still present in 2040-2060
Appears by 2040-2060
A
Figure 4. Climate envelope prediction of future favourable weather (2041-2060) for

wild species of Musa. (A) Prediction of areas with matching climate for
Southeast Asia (in yellow). Red shows areas that presently house
hospitable climate for Musa but that are predicted to change. Green areas
are new areas of favourable climate predicted to appear. (B) Same as (A),
world view.
geographic location where climatic factors fit this range. Most of the
regions that fit the climatic range are well known areas of Musa
occurrence, with the exception perhaps of the western coast of India,
where very few wild species of Musa have been reported.
It is also possible to forecast where the corresponding climate range

will occur in the future (2041 to 2060), thanks to mathematical
predictions based on data from the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change Data Distribution Centre (1999). When DIVA-GIS
was interrogated to locate matching areas of climate with expected
data for 2041-2060, the result was impressive: Figures 4a and 4b show
that the better part of presently favourable areas for banana production
in Asia will have disappeared (in red) whereas only very little will
have appeared (in green) or been conserved (in yellow).
Conclusions
DIVA-GIS is a versatile tool and the variety of maps produced during
the study reflects very little of the numerous capacities of this free
software. However, from a Musa scientist’s standpoint, its exploitation
is rather limited as incomplete and absent data remains problematic
at this time. Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and most of Indonesia
have no transferable records in MGIS. Many of the accessions recorded
in MGIS are not the direct result of collecting missions and the exact
locations of the original source of the accession is often not known to
the genebank curator. Indeed, out of over 1500 accessions listed in
MGIS as originating from SoutheastAsia, only 461 records have valid
collecting site coordinates. All these accessions were collected through
INIBAP-sponsored collecting missions and represent specific countries
(PNG, IDN, CHN, VNM) and regions (Figure 1). Therefore accessions
are mainly grouped together and do not give a complete overview of
the Southeast Asian Musa distribution.
When one counts the accessions in MGIS that have both coordinates
and characterization data (only 274), it is obvious that more
information is needed. When investigating morphological traits with
regards to geographic distribution, the absence of data for all regions
of central Southeast Asia (Philippines, northern Indonesia and
Malaysia) made localising specific traits difficult. However, it was
possible to discern some “regional” differences between PNG
germplasm and south China/Vietnam germplasm. Considering the
geographic distance between these accessions and the different
environments in which they are growing, it is understandable that
some traits would widely differ between these two regions.
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The major problem in highlighting differences of morphological
characteristics in DIVA-GIS has to do with the very nature of Musa.
Indeed, phenoplasticity means that specimens of the same genetic
makeup may develop very different morphological traits depending
on the environment they are growing in. It is therefore possible that
specimens from different regions may display distinct aspects, even
though these differences are not attributable to genetic differences. It
becomes increasingly apparent that the importance of “agronomic
traits” will eventually outweigh that of “morphological
characteristics”. Agronomic information is based on studies made on
specimens of different genotypes at the same location (the collection
they are held in). Agronomic traits also have the advantage of being
quantitative (numerical) whereas morphology is generally assessed
qualitatively (classes), so that agronomic data may increase the
precision in DIVA-GIS statistical analyses.
Whereas there is still much work to be done before the potential uses
of DIVA-GIS can be fully exploited, immediate benefits can already be
considered. The predicted favourable climate map presented in Figure
4 is an interesting and striking way to encourage curators to submit
data and could also provide a useful public awareness tool, highlighting
the need for greater support to efforts involving Musa germplasm
collecting and conservation.
Acknowledgements: Thanks are due to Luigi Guarino, Secretariat of

the Pacific Community (SPC) for training INIBAP staff in the use of
DIVA-GIS, and his kindness in answering our many questions about
the software.
References
Hijmans R.L., L. Guarino, M. Cruz and E. Rojas. 2001. Computer Tool
for Spatial Analysis of Plant Genetic Resources Data: 1. DIVA-
GIS. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 127: 15-19.
Hijmans R.L., L. Guarino and E. Rojas. 2002. DIVA-GIS, version 2: A

geographic information system for the analysis of biodiversity
data. Manual. International Potato Center, Lima, Peru.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Data Distribution Center.
1999. Providing Climate Change and Related Scenarios for
Impact Assessment. CD-ROM. Version 1.0. Climate Research
Unit, University of West Anglia, Norwich, UK.
Using GIS to support germplasm conservation and use 209
Using GIS to support germplasm

conservation and use
Luigi Guarino* and Robert Hijmans
Plant genetic resources (PGR) management is a complex process that

ranges from studying genetic diversity within a gene pool, to conserving
this variation and using it to solve agricultural and development
problems. Many activities in this process generate and/or require
geographic data. Geographic information system (GIS) software can
help manage and analyze such data, and thus make the whole process
of PGR management more effective and efficient. GIS can analyse
passport and characterization/evaluation data and combine it with
spatial information on human population density, climate, topography
and soil. These analyses are necessary for such important activities
such as monitoring genetic diversity, selecting priority sites for
collecting, designing in situ reserves and identifying priority material
for use in breeding programmes.
IPGRI is developing innovative methodologies and tools to support

the use of GIS in collaboration with national and international
organizations. This includes the design, development, and distribution
of low cost and easy to use software tools such as DIVA-GIS, a recently
released software for spatial analysis of genetic resources data.
DIVA-GIS allows users to map and verify the coordinates of accessions,
extract associated climate data, predict species distributions based on
climate, identify diversity hotspots and map the distribution of material
with specific characteristics. DIVA-GIS is available free of charge from
http://diva-gis.org and copies of the user manual and a tutorial can
be downloaded from the same site. Geo-referenced data on all countries,
including climate, land use, population density and administrative
boundaries is available from http://diva-gis.org/Data.htm.
DIVA-GIS has been used to analyze geographic patterns of diversity

among wild species in the genepools of the potato, cowpea and
groundnut. It is also being used at INIBAP for spatial analysis of the
data in the Musa Germplasm Information System.
DIVA-GIS was developed by the International Potato Center (CIP)

*Plant Genetic Resources Adviser, SPC, Suva, Fiji.
Adv acif
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and IPGRI, with major additional support from the System-wide

Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) of the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
For further information on DIVA-GIS, contact Robert Hijmans at
[email protected] or Luigi Guarino at [email protected]. More
information on these GIS activities is also available on-line at
http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/regions/Americas.
References
Guarino L., A. Jarvis, R.J. Hijmans and N. Maxted. 2001. Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and the conservation and use of
plant genetic resources. in Managing Plant Genetic Diversity.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Science and
Technology for Managing Plant Genetic Diversity in the 21st
Century (SAT21)(Engels, J. et al., eds). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
12-16 June, 2000. CAB International, Wellesbourne.
Hijmans R.J., L. Guarino, M. Cruz and E. Rojas. 2001. Computer tools
for spatial analysis of plant genetic resources data: 1. DIVA-
GIS. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 127:15-19.
Hijmans R., D.M. Spooner, A.R. Salas, L. Guarino and J. de la Cruz.
2002. Atlas of Wild Potatoes. IPGRI, Rome.
Appendixes 211
Appendixes
Programme 213
Appendix 1: Programme of the

1st BAPNET Steering Committee meeting
Sunday, 6 October Arrival of participants
Monday, 7 October
8:00 am Registration – CB Perez Conference Room, PCARRD

8:30 Opening Ceremonies
Invocation Mr. Angelito Carpio
National Anthem
Introduction of Participants
Introduction of Conference Hosts
Welcome Remarks Dr. Patricio S. Faylon
Executive Director
PCARRD
Message Sec. Estrella F. Alabastro
DOST
Sec. Leonardo Q.
Montemayor, DA
Dr. Agustin B. Molina
Regional Coordinator
INIBAP-Asia Pacific
Presentation of Awards
Emcee : Dr. Jocelyn E. Eusebio
Director, Crops Research Division PCARRD
10:30 Coffee/Tea Break
Group picture taking
11:00 Session 1: Presentation of Country Reports
Rationale and Dr. Patricio S. Faylon
Objectives Chair, BAPNET Steering
Committee
11:15 Australia Mr. Robert Williams
11:35 Bangladesh Dr. Md. Shaihudul Islam
11:55 Cambodia Dr. Men Sarom
12:25 Lunch Break
1:30pm Continuation of Session 1
1:30 China Dr. Xu Linbing
1:50 India Dr. M.M. Mustaffa
2:10 Indonesia Dr. I Djatnika
2:30 Malaysia Dr. Nik Masdek
3:05 Papua New Guinea Mrs. Rosa Kambuou
3:25 Philippines Dr. Jocelyn E. Eusebio
3:45 Sri Lanka Dr. C. Kudagamage
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4:05 Thailand Dr. Prasert Anupunt
4:25 Vietnam Dr. Ho Huu Nhi
7:00 pm Welcome Cocktails/Dinner w/ Cultural Show
hosted by PCARRD
Tuesday, 8 October Continuation of Session 1
8:30 am Secretariat of the Mr. Tom Osborn
Pacific Community
8:50 Taiwan Banana Dr. S.C. Hwang
Research Institute
9:45 Session 2: INIBAP Programs and Technical
Presentations
9:45 INIBAP Programs Dr. Agustin B. Molina
10:00 Technical Present- Ms. Suzanne Sharrock
ations on Musa Dr. Luigi Guarino
Diversity in
Southeast Asia
and DIVA-MGIS
12:30 Lunch Break
1:30 pm Session 3: Workshop/Discussions
Facilitator: Dr. Jaine C. Reyes, UPLB
Wednesday, 9 October
8:30 Continuation of Session 3
12:00 nn Lunch Break
1:00 pm Continuation of Session 3
3:30 Synopsis of Dr. Patricio S.Faylon
Workshop
Election of New Chairman
and other Administrative
Matters
Date and place of next
BAPNET SC meeting
7:00 Hospitality Cocktails/Dinner hosted by INIBAP
Thursday, 10 October
8:00 am Field Trip (UPLB/Manila)
7:00 pm Farewell Dinner w/ Cultural Show
hosted by DA-BAR
Closing Ceremonies
Special number PUP Dance Troupe
Message Dr. Eliseo R. Ponce

Director, DA-BAR
Programme 215
Sec. Estrella Alabastro

DOST
Symbolic Present- Dr. Patricio S. Faylon
ation of Workshop Dr. Eliseo R. Ponce
Output by
PCARRD & DA-BAR
to INIBAP
Message of Dr. Ahmad Dimyati rep. by
New BAPNET Chair Dr. I. Djatnika
Special number PhilRice Chorale
Emcee: Mr. Nicomedes Eleazar
Assistant Director, DA-BAR
Friday, 11 October Departure of participants
List of participants 217
Appendix 2 : 1st BAPNET Steering

Committee meeting participants
BAPNET SC Members
Australia Mr Robert Williams
Program Leader – Tropical Tree Fruits
Queensland Horticulture Institute (QHI)
Agency for Food and Fibre (AFFS)
P.O. Box 20, South Johnstone Rd.
South Johnstone Qld 4859 Australia
Tel: (61-7) 40641130
Fax: (61-7) 40642249
Email: [email protected]
Bangladesh Dr Md. Islam Shahidul
Director General
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
Joydebpur, Gazipur 1701 Bangladesh
Tel: (880-2) 925 2715
Fax: (880-2) 925 2713
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Cambodia Dr Men Sarom
Director
Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute (CARDI)
Prateah Lang, National Road #3
Dangkor, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
(P.O. Box 01, Phnom Penh, Cambodia)
Tel: (855-23) 219692 to 94
Fax: (855-23) 219800
China Dr Xu Linbing
Vice Director, Agronomist
Pomology Research Institute
Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Wushan, Guangzhou 510640 China
Tel: (86-20) 38765640
Fax: (86-20) 38765468
India Dr. M.M. Mustaffa
Principal Scientist
National Research Centre on Banana (ICAR)
Thogamalai Main Road
Thayanur Post, Thiruchirapalli - 620 021 India
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Tel: (91-431) 2618104, 2618106

Fax: (91-431) 2618115
Indonesia Dr. Ahmad Dimyati
Director, CRIH/AARD
represented by Dr. Ika Djatnika
Head, Research Institute for Fruits
Komplek Balitbu
Solok - West Sumatra, Indonesia
Tel: (62-755) 20137
Fax: (62-755) 20524
Malaysia Dr Nik Mohd. Masdek Nik Hassan
Horticulture Research Centre
Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development
Institute (MARDI)
P.O. Box 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: (603) 89437445
Fax: (603) 89487590
Papua New Guinea Mrs Rosa Naipo Kambuou
Principal Scientist (Plant Genetic Resources)
National Agricultural Research Institute –
Dry-Lowlands Programme – Laloki
P.O. Box 1828, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Tel: (675) 328-1068 / 1015
Fax: (675) 328-1075
Philippines Dr Patricio S. Faylon
Executive Director
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural Resources Res. and Development
(PCARRD)
Los Baños, Laguna 4030 Philippines
Tel: (63-49) 5360014 to 20
Fax: (63-49) 5360132 / 5360016
[email protected]
[email protected]
Dr Eliseo Ponce
Director
Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR)
Department of Agriculture
3rd Flr., ATI Bldg.

Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
Tel: (63-2) 9288505
Fax: (63-2) 9275691
Sri Lanka Dr Chandrasiri Kudagamage
Director
Horticultural Crop Research and Development
Institute (HORDI)
P.O. Box 11, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Tel: (94-8) 388234 (direct), (94-8) 388011-3
Fax: (94-8) 388234
Email: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]
Thailand Dr Prasert Anupunt
Director
Horticulture Research Institute
Phaholyothin Rd., Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900
Thailand
Tel: (662) 5792759 ext. 122, 123
Fax: (662) 5614667
Vietnam Dr Ho Huu Nhi
Head, Agro-biotechnology Department
Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI)
Thanh tri, Hanoi, Vietnam
Tel: (84-4) 8617167
Fax: (84-4) 8613937
Taiwan Banana Dr Shin-Chuan Hwang
Research Institute Director, Taiwan Banana Research Institute
(TBRI) P.O. Box 18, Chiuju, Pingtung, Taiwan 90403 China
Tel: (886-8) 7392111/3
Fax: (886-8) 7393647
Secretariat of the Mr Tom Osborn
Pacific Community Agriculture Adviser
(SPC) Secretariat of the Pacific Community
PMB, Suva, Fiji Islands
Tel: (679) 370733
Fax: (679) 370021
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Executive Secretary Dr Agustin B. Molina
(INIBAP-AP) Regional Coordinator
INIBAP-AP, c/o IRRI
College, Laguna 4031 Philippines
Tel/Fax: (63-49) 5360532
Tel: (63-2) 8450563; 8127686 loc 6874
Fax: (63-2) 8450606
Other participants and guests

China Dr Huang Bingzhi
Fruit-tree Research Institute
Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Wushang, Guangzhou 510640 China
Tel: (86-20) 38765640
Fax: (86-20) 38765468
INIBAP Ms Suzanne Sharrock
Germplasm Conservation Scientist
INIBAP, Parc Scientifique Agropolis II
34397 Montpellier Cedex 5 France
Tel: (33) 467611302
Fax: (33) 467610334
Email: s.sharrock@cgiar org
Philippines Mr Nicomedes Eleazar P. Eleazar
Assistant Director
Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR)
3rd Flr., ATI Bldg.
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
Tel: (63-2) 9288505
Fax: (63-2) 9275691
Dr Jocelyn E. Eusebio
Director, Crop Research Division
PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna 4030 Philippines
Tel: (63-49) 5360014 to 20 loc 218
Fax: (63-49) 5360016 / 5360132
[email protected]
Dr Conrad Balatero
Assistant Director
Institute of Plant Breeding
U.P. Los Baños, College, Laguna 4031
Philippines
Tel: (63-49) 5362512

Fax: (63-49) 5363438
Dr Nestor Altoveros
U.P. Los Baños, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines
Tel: (63-49) 5362512
Fax: (63-49) 5363438
Dr Felipe de la Cruz
Tel: (63-49) 5362512
Fax: (63-49) 5363438
BPI-DNCRDC Ms Lorna Herradura

Senior Agriculturist
BPI-DNCRDC
Bago-Oshiro, Davao City
Tel/Fax: (63-82) 2930107
SPC Dr Luigi Guarino

Plant Genetic Resources Adviser
Secretariat of the Pacific Community
PMB, Suva, Fiji Islands
Tel: (679) 370733
Fax: (679) 370021
Facilitator Dr Jaine C. Reyes

Secretariat
INIBAP-AP Ms Versalynn N. Roa

Ms Maria Angeli Maghuyop
PCARRD Ms Edna Anit
Mr Angelito Carpio
Ms Susan Ilao
Mr Joselito Payot
Awards 223
Appendix 3 : Awards
THE INTERNATIONAL NETWORK FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF BANANA AND PLANT

INTERNATIONAL AIN
PLANTAIN
ASIA PACIFIC NETWORK
PACIFIC
Presents this
Plaque of Appreciation
to
Lapanday Agricultural and Development Corporation
In recognition of its cooperation and active participation in INIBAP programmes/activities

such as the International Musa Testing Programme III and the 3rd International Workshop
on Mycosphaerella leaf spot diseases of bananas in May 2002;
In grateful appreciation of its financial donation in support to the study of variability of

leaf spot disease in the Philippines and supporting the publication of the proceedings
of the 3rd International Workshop on Mycosphaerella leaf spot diseases of bananas in
May 2002;
In recognition of its generous participation in helping the local small-scale banana

industry by producing tissue culture planting materials of local cultivars as well as
selected INIBAP IMTP improved varieties at reasonable price and for providing free
training on nursery management to DMMMSU researchers.
This Plaque of Appreciation is given this 7th day of October 2002 in PCARRD, Los
Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
AGUSTIN B. MOLINA EMILE A. FRISON

Regional Coordinator Director
INIBAP-Asia Pacific INIBAP
Adv acif
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INTERNATIONAL AIN
PLANTAIN
PACIFIC
Presents this
to the
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry

and Natural Resources Research and Development
(PCARRD)
In recognition of its strong commitment in banana R&D, for its cooperation with
INIBAP, and for sponsoring and hosting the INIBAP office for Asia and the Pacific
in the Philippines;
In appreciation for hosting and co-hosting the International Workshop on

Identification of Genetic Diversity of the Genus Musa on 5-10 September 1988,
the Regional Consultation on Banana and Plantain R&D networking, the first
Consultation Workshop of the Regional Information System for Banana and
Plantain on 1-3 April 1996, Regional Workshop on Disease Management of
Banana and Citrus on 14-16 October 1998 and this year the first Banana Asia
Pacific Network Steering Committee Meeting on 7-10 October 2002.
In acknowledgement of its vital role and contribution to the Regional Information

System on Banana and Plantain – Asia and the Pacific.
This Plaque of Appreciation is given this 7th day of October 2002 in PCARRD,
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Awards 225

INTERNATIONAL AIN
PLANTAIN
PACIFIC
Presents this
to the
Bureau of Agricultural Research
(DA-BAR)
In recognition of its strong commitment in banana R&D, for its cooperation and
annual financial contribution to IPGRI/INIBAP towards the conservation,
characterization and evaluation of Musa germplasm in the Philippines;
In sincere appreciation to its strong support to the national banana development

by funding a 3-year program to accelerate the evaluation, dissemination and
adoption of improved Musa varieties through the National Repository, Multiplication
and Dissemination programme;
In appreciation for co-hosting this year the first Banana Asia Pacific Network
Steering Committee Meeting on 7-10 October 2002.
This Plaque of Appreciation is given this 7th day of October 2002 in PCARRD,
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Adv acif
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INTERNATIONAL AIN
PLANTAIN
PACIFIC
Presents this
Plaque of Special Recognition

to
Dr. Ramon V. Valmayor

In recognition of his outstanding contribution to international banana research
and especially his dedication to supporting activities in the Asia-Pacific region,
where he became the founding Coordinator of the Asia-Pacific regional network
in 1991.
In sincere appreciation of his seven years as INIBAP Regional Coordinator for

Asia and the Pacific, during which time he worked untiringly to promote banana
research and collaboration in the region, and the two subsequent years providing
continued support to INIBAP as Honorary Research Fellow.
In acknowledgement of his dedication to research on the taxonomy and

classification of Musa, and particularly his contribution to the regional workshop
on ‘Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia’. For his efforts in
initiating a series of collecting missions covering Vietnam, Southern China,
Indonesia and N.E. India, resulting in the discovery of many undescribed banana
species and cultivars.
In tribute to his many publications and articles on Musa, and especially in

recognition of his recent impressive publication, “The Wild and Cultivated Bananas
of the Philippines”, an important reference work for the international Musa
community.
This Plaque of Special Recognition is given this 7 th day of October 2002 at

PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

Awards 227
The Banana Asia Pacific Network

Presents this
Pisang Raja Award

to
Suzanne Sharrock
In recognition of her tireless efforts towards Musa collecting and conservation,

which began in 1988 and 1989 when she lead, on behalf of IBPGR, four collecting
missions in Papua New Guinea assembling more than 200 accessions.
In sincere appreciation of her collaboration, as INIBAP Germplasm Conservation
Scientist, with INIBAP-ASPNET and now BAPNET, her generosity in sharing her
expertise on Musa conservation, guiding people through the maze of Musa
taxonomy and making people aware of the importance of conserving Musa diversity.
In acknowledgement of her striving to establish a consensus on the classification
of Musa varieties which is a crucial step toward a better utilization of genetic
resources in breeding programmes. One of her contributions in that respect is
the publication of a catalogue of Musa diversity, Musalogue. In recognition of her
forward-thinking and planning to link the MGIS database to a Geographical
Information System which aims to help researchers in their analyses and decision-
making on genetic resources and their conservation.
And thanking her for her never-ending enthusiasm and sense of humour that
bridge any divisions in the multicultural environment of banana research and
development.
This Pisang Raja Award is given this 7th day of October 2002 at PCARRD, Los
Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
PATRICIO S. FFA
PA AYLON AGUSTIN B. MOLINA
Chair, BAPNET Regional Coordinator, INIBAP-AP
EMILE A. FRISON
Director, INIBAP
List of acronyms and abbreviations 229
Appendix 4 : List of acronyms and

abbreviations
ABGC Australian Banana Growers Council

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research
AICRP All India Coordinated Research Project
APAARI Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research
Institutions, India
ASPNET Asia and Pacific Network
BAPNET Banana Asia Pacific Network
BBTV Banana Bunchy Top Virus
BIC Banana Industry Committee
BIP Banana Improvement Program
BIPB Banana Industry Protection Board, Australia
BLS black leaf streak
BOI-DTI Board of Investments - Department of Trade and
Industry, Philippines
BPI-DNCRDC Bureau of Plant Industry - Davao National Crop
Research and Development Center, Philippines
BBrMV Banana Bract Mosaic Virus
BS black sigatoka
BSV Banana Streak Virus
CABI CAB International, UK
CARDI Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute
CIP International Potato Center, Lima, Peru
CIRAD Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche
Agronomique Pour le Developpement, France
cm centimeter
CMV Cucumber Mosaic Virus
CPBQA Coastal Plains Banana Quarantine Area
CPBQS Coastal Plains Banana Quarantine Stations
CRCTPP Cooperation Research Centre for Tropical Plant
Protection, Australia
DA-BAR Department of Agriculture - Bureau of Agricultural
Research, Philippines
DMI demethylase inhibitor
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOA Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka
DOST Department of Science and Technology, Philippines
DTI Department of Trade and Industry, Philippines
ELISA enzyme-linked immuno solvent assay
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Italy
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Foc Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense
FRAC Fungicide Resistance Action Committee
FHIA Fundacion Hondureña de Investigacion Agricola,
Honduras
FSM Federated States of Micronesia
ft foot/feet
GAA Germplasm Acquisition Agreement
GAAS Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences
GC Giant Cavendish
GCTCV Giant Cavendish Tissue Culture Variant
GDP gross domestic product
GIS Geographical Information System
ha(s) hectare(s)
HVCC High Value Commercial Crops
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IMTP International Musa Testing Program
INIBAP International Network for the Improvement of Banana
and Plantain, Montpellier, France
ITC INIBAP Transit Centre, Leuven, Belgium
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute,
Macaresse, Italy
IPM integrated pest management
IRA import risk analysis
kg kilogram
KUL Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
m meter
MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute, Serdang, Malaysia
MGIS Musa Germplasm Information System
MINT Malaysian Institute for Nuclear Technology
mo(s) month(s)
MUSALIT INIBAP bibliographic database
NARI-DLP National Agricultural Research Institute - Dry
Lowlands Programme, Papua New Guinea
NARRDS National Agriculture and Resources Research and
Development System
NARS National Agricultural Research System
NGO non-government organization
NQ North Queensland
NRCB National Research Centre for Banana
NSW New South Wales
NT Northern Territory
PAU Pacific Adventist University, Papua New Guinea
PAPGREN Pacific Agricultural Plant Genetic Resources Network
PCARRD Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural Resources Research and Development
PCR polymerase chain reaction
List of acronyms and abbreviations 231
PGR plant genetic resources

PJB Pisang Jari Buaya
PNG Papua New Guinea
PROMUSA Global Programme for Musa Improvement
QABC Queensland Agricultural Biotechnology Centre
QBAN Quality Banana Approved Nursery
QDPI Queensland Department of Primary Industry
QHI Queensland Horticulture Institute
QUT Queensland University of Technology
RAPD random amplified polymorphic DNA
RC Regional Coordinator
RIF Research Institute for Fruits
RISBAP Regional Information System for Bananaa and
Plantain - Asia and the Pacific
sp/spp. species
R&D research and development
RDE research, development and extension
SCAU South China Agricultural University
SCUs state colleges and universities
SET-UP Small Enterprise Technology Upgrading Program
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Fiji
t tonnes
TBRI Taiwan Banana Research Institute
TCP tissue culture plant
TBPA Tully banana production area
UM Universiti Malaya, Malaysia
Unitech University of Technology, Papua New Guinea
UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia
UQ Queensland University
USM Universiti Sains Malaysia
VAM vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza
VASI Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute
VCG vegetative and compatibility group
VVOB Vlaamse Vereniging voor Ontwikkelingsamenwerking
en Technische Bijstand, Belgium (or Flemish
Association for Development Cooperation and
Technical Assistance)
WTO World Trade Organization
YS yellow sigatoka
INIBAP ISSN 1729-0805

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Advancing banana and

plantain R&D in Asia

A.B. Molina, J.E. Eusebio, V.N. Roa, I. Van den Bergh

Proceedings of the 1st BAPNET Steering Committee

A.B. Molina, J.E. Eusebio, V.N. Roa, I. Van den Bergh

Banana Asia Pacific Network (BAPNET) is grateful to all participants of

BAPNET would like to thank:

• Its local partners in the Philippines, the Philippine Council for

INIBAP programs and technical presentations

It was emphasized that the role of BAPNET is to coordinate the

The priority research programs identified were as follows:

• Collect, survey and map wild species.

*Executive Director, DOST-PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Strengthening NARS partnership towards

Distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen, a pleasant good

have already been attended to by the more advanced NARS.

Investments-Department of Trade and Industry (BOI-DTI). Moreover,

Distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen. a pleasant day to all of

*Assistant Director, DA-BAR, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.

On behalf of the Director of INIBAP, Dr Emile Frison, I would like to

have a network that is strongly NARS-based, initiated by the NARS.

Banana industry status

*Programme Leader, Tropical Tree Fruits, Queensland Horticulture Institute, Agency

Supply chain solutions

Black sigatoka eradication programme in Australia

Previous findings of black sigatoka

− Survey to determine extent of disease;

− Assessment of action required; depended on location of outbreak,

− Eradication of all diseased plants plus plants in a buffer area;

− Replacement of diseased plants with resistant plants;

− Follow-up surveys, one to two per year.

An eradication program was devised based on the biology and survival

conditions and August to October/November due to dry conditions. Ascospores

∗ Stage 1: April to June 2001 - surveillance;

Eradication of unmanaged plants

Banana research programmes in Australia

• A seminar on commercial seed production from fallows of ‘Callide’ Rhodes

Project duration: 1 January 2000 - 31 December 2002

Project title: Enhancing market penetration of Lady Finger bananas

Project Duration: 1 July 1999 - 30 June 2002

SH-3641, IRFA -910 and Cavendish cv. Williams.

thrips. Metarhizium and Beauveria also performed well when compared to

• Approximately 8000 plants were produced this year specifically to support

• AQIS registration has been renewed to facilitate safe importation of varieties.

Project title: Banana harvest forecasting project

Project duration: 3 January 2002 - 3 January 2003

Tully region. A DNA-based diagnostic test capable of distinguishing black and

Project duration: 1 July 2002 - 30 June 2005

Project Duration: July 2000 - June 2002

The banana industry status

Bangladesh is an agricultural country, which lies between 20.34 and

*Director General, BARI, Joydebpur, Gazipur, Bangladesh.

Consumption and trade

seeded cultivars growing in the homesteads, roadsides and forests all

Training programmes were organised for non-government organization

rice husk to banana covered with polyethylene film for 12 hours.

An overview of the production and banana

*Director, CARDI, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.