Part F

Instructional Materials

 Basic Concepts of Electricity

 Fundamentals of Direct Current
 Fundamentals of Alternating Current

Introduction

Electricity is used to provide energy for traditional, electrical applications such as lighting, heating, cooling, cooking,
communication and transportation .Electricity is the movement of electrons from atom to atom. An understanding of the
electrical properties of Matter is required because the movement of electrons from atom to atom produces electrical energy.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

Definition of Terms

Atom - The smallest particle that an element can be reduced to and still maintain the properties of that element.

Electron - A negatively charged particle in an atom

Proton - A positively charged particle that also exist in the nucleus of the atom

Neutron – A neutral particle with a mass approximately the same as proton that exist in the nucleus of the atom

Classification of Materials

Conductor – A material that has very little resistance and permits electrons to move through it easily

Insulator – A material has a very high resistance and resist the flow of electrons.

Semi-conductor – A material that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and that of an insulato
Electron flow

Early scientist believed that electrons flowed from positive to negative, Later, when atomic structure was studied
electron flow from negative to positive was introduced. The two different theories are called conventional current flow and
electron current flow. Conventional current flow is current flow from positive to negative while electron flow is current flow
from negative to positive

Ohm’s Law

The ratio of the potential difference (V) between in any two points on a conductor to the current (I) flowing between them is
constant, provided the temperature of the conductor does not change. German Scientist George Simon in 1827

Definition of Terms
 Voltage – The amount of electrical pressure in a circuit and the unit is in Volts, V
Resistance – The opposition to the flow of electrons, and the unit is in ohms, Ω
Current – The amount of electrons flowing through an electrical circuit and the unit is in Amperes, A
Power – The rate of doing work or using energy and the unit is in Watts, W

Short Circuit
Characteristics of Short circuit
When two points of a circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire, they are said to be short circuited.

1. Has zero resistance

2. No voltage can exist across it because V = IR = I x ) = 0
3. Current through it (called short circuit current) is very large

Open Circuit

Characteristics of Open Circuit

Two points of are said to be open circuited when there is no direct connection between the. Obviously an open represents a
break in the continuity of a circuit

1. Resistance between the two points is infinite

2. There is no flow of current between the two points

…
Example of Series Circuit
Series Resistance and Inductance
 Definition of Terms

Inductance – the property of a circuit that causes it to oppose in change in current due to energy stored in a magnetic field,
and the unit is in henry.
Impedance – the total opposition of any combination of resistance and inductive reactance and the unit is in ohms
Power factor – the ratio of resistance and impedance, the ratio of rue power used in an AC circuit to apparent power
delivered to the circuit.
Frequency – the number of air pressure fluctuation cycles produced per second, and the unit is in hertz
Apparent Power- It is the product of applied voltage and circuit current, and the unit is in volt-amperes VA
Active Power – It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance, and the unit is in watts, W Reactive
Power – It is the power developed in the inductive reactance, and the unit is volt-ampere reactive VAR

Example of Series Resistance and Inductance

1. Given R-L circuit, R = 3.5Ω and L = 0.1 H. Find XL, Z, I, VR, VL, P,Q, S if a 50 hz voltage V= 220V is applied across the
circuit.
Mesh or Delta 3 Phase Connection
Definition of Terms

Phase Voltage – Voltage induced in each winding

Phase Current – Current induced in each winding
Line Voltage – Voltage supplied to the system
Line Current – Current supplied to the system
Wye or Star 3 Phase Connection
Chapter 2 (Week 4-6 Marine Electrical safety)

 Electrical safety and Electric Shock

 Electrical safety procedure

Ship’s Electrical safety

There are basic safety precautions you must bear in mind before attempting any electrical work . The possible dangers
arising from the misuse of electrical equipment are well known. Electric shock and fire can cause loss of life and damage to
equipment.

Ship’s staff must operate in a safe manner and maintain it in a safe condition at all times. Failure to do so will cause
danger with serious consequences arising. Keep in mind an essential list of DO’s and DO NOT’s when working with electrical
equipment.

1. DO get to know the ship’s electrical system and equipment. Study the ship’s diagrams to pinpoint the location of
switches and protection devices supplying distribution boards and essential items of equipment. Write down this
information in a note book. Become familiar with the normal indications on switchboard instruments so that abnormal
operation can be quickly detected.
2. DO operate equipment according to the manufacturer’s recommendation.
3. DO maintain equipment according to the manufacturer’s recommendation or the ship owner’s maintenance procedures.
4. DO ensure that all guards, covers and doors are securely fitted and that all bolts and fixings are in place and tight.
5. DO inform the officer of the watch before shutting down equipment for maintenance.
6. DO switch off and lock-off supplies, remove fuses, and display warning notices before removing covers of equipment for
maintenance.
7. DO confirm that circuits are DEAD (by using an approved voltage meter) before touching conductors and terminals.
8. DO NOT touch live conductors under any pretext
9. DO NOT touch rotating parts
10. DO NOT leave live conductors or rotating parts exposed.
11. DO NOT overload equipment
12. DO NOT neglect or abuse equipment
You should think SAFETY at all times and so develop a safety conscious attitude. This may well save your life and the lives
of others. Most accidents occur due to a momentary loss of concentration or attempts to short circuit standard safety
procedures.

DO NOT let this happen to you.

Safety

Codes and Standards

National, state and local codes and standards are used to protect people and property from electrical dangers. A code is a
regulation or minimum requirement. A Standard is an accepted reference or practice. Codes and Standards ensure electrical
equipment is built and installed safely and every effort is made to protect people from electrical shock.

National fire Protection Association (NFPA)

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is a national organization that provides guidance in assessing the hazards of
the products of combustion. The NFPA publishes the National Electrical Code (NEC). The purpose of the NEC is the practical
safeguarding of persons and property from the hazards arising from the use of electricity. .

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a national organization that helps identify industrial and public needs for
standards. ANSI coordinates and encourages activities in national standards development.

Occupational Safety and health Administration (OSHA)

The Occupational Safety and health Administration (OSHA) is a federal agency that requires all employers to provide a safe
environment for their employees. All work areas must be free from hazards likely to cause serious harm.electrical environment..
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) is a national organization that assist with information and standards
concerning proper selection, ratings, construction, testing and performance of electrical equipment. NEMA standards are used
as guidelines for manufacture and use of electrical equipment.

Personal Protective Equipment

Electrical workers use personal protective equipment to prevent injury. Protective helmet or hard hats protect electrical
workers from impact, falling and flying objects and electrical shock.

Clothing made of durable material such as denim provides protection from contact with sharp objects and rotating
equipment. Safety glasses, respirators, ear plugs and gloves are used based on the work task performed. For example, gloves
made from rubber may be used to provide maximum insulation from electrical shock hazards. Insulated rubber boots and
rubber mats provide insulation to prevent electrical shock.

Head Protection

Head protection requires using a protective helmet. A protective helmet is a hard that is used in the work place to
prevent injury from the impact of falling and flying objects, and from electrical shock.

Eye protection

Eye protection must be worn to prevent eye or face injuries caused by flying particles, contact arcing, and radiant
energy. Eye protection includes safety glasses, face shields and goggles.

Safety glasses are an eye protection device with special impact –resistant glass or plastic lenses, reinforced frames,
and side-shields. Plastic frames are designed to keep the lenses secured in the frames are if an impact occurs and to
minimize the shock hazard when working with electrical equipment. Side shields provide additional protection from flying
objects. Tinted lens safety glasses protect against low-voltage are hazards.

A face shields is an eye and face protection device that covers the entire face with a plastic shield and is used for
protection from flying objects. Tinted face shields protect against low-voltage arc hazards. Goggles are an eye protection
device with flexible frame that fit snugly against the face to seal the areas around the eyes and may be used over prescription
glasses. Goggles with clear lenses, protect against small flying particles or splashing liquids. Tinted goggles are sometimes
used to protect against low-voltage arc hazards.

Safety glasses, face shields, and goggle lenses must be properly maintained to provide protection and clear
visibility..

Ear protection

Ear protection devices are devices worn to limit the noise entering the ear and includes earplugs and earmuffs. An
earplug is an ear protection device made of moldable rubber, foam, or plastic and inserted into the ear canal./ An earmuff is an
ear protection device worn over ears.. Power tools and equipment can produce excessive noise levels.

Hand and Foot Protection

• Hand protection consist of gloves worn to prevent injuries to hands cause by cuts or electrical shock .Electrical gloves
are gloves made of latex and are used to provide maximum insulation from electrical shock. Latex gloves are stamped
with a working voltage range such as 500 V to 26,500 V.
• Foot protection, Safety shoes with reinforced steel toes protect against injuries caused by compression and impact.
Insulated rubber-soled shoes are commonly worn during electrical work to prevent electric shock.

Rubber Insulating Matting

Rubber Insulating Matting is a floor covering that provides technicians protections from electrical shock when working on live
electrical circuits. Dielectric black fluted rubber matting is specially designed for use in front of open cabinets or high voltage
equipment. Matting is used to protect technicians when voltages are over 50V.

Lockout /Tagout

Electrical power must be removed when electrical, equipments is inspected, serviced, repaired, or replaced. Power is
removed and the equipment must be locked out and tagged out to ensure the safety of personnel working with the equipment.
 A danger tag has the same importance and purpose as a lock and is used alone only when a lock does not fit
the disconnect device. The danger tag shall be attached at the disconnect device with a tag tie or equivalent and shall have
space for the worker’s name, craft and other required information.

Electrical Shock.

Improper electrical wiring or misuse of electricity causes destruction of equipment and fire damage to property. Safe
working habits are required when troubleshooting an electrical circuit or component because the electric parts that are normally
enclosed are exposed.

An electrical shock results any time a body becomes part of an electrical circuit. Electrical shock varies from a mild
shock to fatal current. The severity of an electrical shock depends on the amount of electric current that flows through the
body, the length of time the body is exposed to the current flow.
Chapter 3 (Week 7-9 ) Electrical Measuring Instrument

 Multimeter
 Clampmeter
 Insulation Resistance Meter

Introduction

Meters measure quantities such as voltage, current, resistance power etc. Meters maybe permanent or portable.
Permanent meters are installed to constantly measure and display quantities. Portable meters are used to take momentary
measurements. Portable meters are normally used when setting up or troubleshooting a circuit.

Meters are either single function meters or multi meters. A single function meters is a meter capable of measuring and
displaying only one quantity. A Multimeter is a meter that is capable of measuring two or more quantities.

Typical Uses of Different Meters:

Voltmeter – Give a voltage reading in application such as battery chargers, power supplies and power distribution system

Ammeter – Indicates amount of current a load, circuit or process is using

Wattmeter – Gives a power reading in such applications as amplifiers, heating elements, and power distribution systems

Frequency meter – Indicates AC power line frequency in such applications as variable speed motor drives.

Ohmmeter – Indicates a load, circuit, or component resistance before power is applied to a circuit.

Tachometer – Monitors speed of moving objects, motors, gears, engines and machine parts
Definition of Terms:

Clamp on Ammeter : A meter that measures current in a circuit by measuring the strength of the magnetic field around a
conductor

Megohmmeter : device that detects insulation deterioration by measuring high resistance values under high test voltage
conditions

Voltage

Voltage (V) is the amount of electrical pressure in a circuit. Voltage is measured in volts (V). The amount of voltage in
a circuit can be measured using a voltmeter. A voltmeter is used to measure the amount of voltage in a circuit that is powered.

Safety precautions must be taken to ensure that no part of the body comes in contact with a live part of the circuit.
Safety precautions must also be taken to ensure that the voltmeter is properly used because voltage measurements are taken
when a circuit is powered.

Voltage measurements are normally taken to establish that there is voltage at a given point in a circuit and to
determine if the voltage is at the proper level.

AC Voltage Measurement

Exercise caution when measuring AC voltage over 24V.

Warning: Ensure that no body part contacts any part of the live circuit, including the metal contact points at the tip of the test
leads.
To measure AC voltages with a voltmeter, apply the procedure:

1. Set the function switch to AC voltage. Set the meter on the highest voltage setting if the voltage in the circuit is
unknown.
2. Plug the black test lead into the voltage jack.
3. Plug the red test lead into the voltage jack.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit. The position of the test leads is arbitrary. Common industrial practice is to connect
the black test lead to the grounded (neutral) side of the AC voltage.
5. Read the voltage displayed on the meter.

DC Voltage Measurement

Exercise caution when measuring DC voltage over 60V. See Figure 8-2

Warning: Ensure that no body part contacts any part of the live circuit, including the metal contact points at the tip of
the test leads.

To measure DC voltages with a voltmeter, apply the procedure:

1. Set the function switch to DC voltage. Select a setting high enough to measure the highest possible circuit
voltage if the meter has more than one voltage position or if the circuit voltage is unknown.
2. Plug the black test lead into the voltage jack.
3. Plug the red test lead into the voltage jack.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit. Connect the black test lead to the circuit ground and the red test lead to
the point at which the voltage is under test. Reverse the black and red test leads if a negative sign appears in
front of the reading on a digital meter.
5. Read the voltage displayed on the meter.
Current

Current (I) is the amount of electrons flowing through an electrical circuit. Current is measured in amperes (A). The
amount of current in a circuit can be measured using ammeter. An ammeter is used to measure the amount of
current flowing in a circuit that is powered.

Safety precautions must be taken to ensure that no part of the body comes in contact with a live part of the
circuit.

Safety precautions must also be taken to ensure that the ammeter is properly used because current
measurements are taken when a circuit is powered

Current Clampmeters

Power currents (AC) can be measured simply by means of a clampmeter which acts as a current transformer.
The instrument tongs are clipped round single insulated conductor-the circuit is not interrupted.

The value of current is obtained from the magnetic flux strength around the conductor and is usually displayed
on a digital display

Many modern clampmeters are virtually multimeters with the addition of facilities to measure voltage and
resistance as well as measuring currents up to 1000A

Care must be taken when measuring the current in unisulated conductors.

Clamp- On Ammeter – AC Measurement

Clamp- on ammeters measure the current in a circuit by measuring the strength of the magnetic field around a
conductor.

Warning: Care must be taken to ensure that the meter does not pick up stray magnetic fields. When ever possible,
separate the conductors under test from other surrounding conductors by a few inches.

To ensure AC using a clamp-ammeter, apply the procedure:

1. Set the function switch to AC current. Select the proper setting to measure the highest possible circuit current
if the meter has more than one current position or if the circuit is unknown.
2. Plug the current probe accessory into the meter when using a multimeter that requires a current probe.
3. Open the jaws by pressing against the trigger.
4. Enclose one conductor in the jaws. Ensure that the jaws are completely closed before taking readings.
5. Read the current displayed on the meter.

Resistance

Resistance ® is the opposition to the flow of electrons. Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).

An ohmmeter is a device that is used to measure the amount of resistance in a component (or circuit) that is
not powered.

A megohmmeter is a device that detects insulation deterioration by measuring high resistance values under
high test voltage conditions. Megohmmeter test voltages range from 50V to 5000V.
Ohmmeter – Resistance Measurement

An ohmmeter measures resistance with all power to the circuit is OFF. Low voltage applied to a meter set to
measure resistance causes inaccurate readings. High voltage applied to a meter set to measure resistance causes
meter damage. See Figure 8-5

Warning: Ensure that no voltage is present in the circuit or component under test before taking resistance
measurements.

To measure resistance using an ohmmeter, apply the procedure:

1. Check to ensure that all power is OFF in the circuit or component under test and disconnect the component
from the circuit.
2. Set the functions switch to the resistance position, which is marked Ω on digital meters.
3. Plug the black test lead into the common jack.
4. Plug the red test lead into the resistance jack.
5. Ensure that the meter batteries are in good condition. The battery symbol is displayed when the batteries are
low. Digital meters are zeroed by an internal circuit.
6. Connect the meter test leads across the component under test. Ensure that contact between the test leads
and the circuit is good. Dirt, solder flux, oil, and other foreign substances greatly affect resistance readings.
7. Read the resistance displayed on the meter. Check the circuit schematic for parallel paths. Parallel paths with
the resistance under test cause reading errors. Do not touch exposed metal parts of the test leads during the
test. The resistance of a person’s body can cause reading errors.
8. Turn the meter OFF after measurements are taken to save battery life.

Megohmmeter – Resistance Measurement

Megohmmeters deliver a high voltage to the circuit under test. See Figure 8-6
Warning: Ensure that no voltage is present in a circuit or component under test before taking any resistance
measurements. Ensure that no body part contacts the high voltage.

To use a megohmmeter, apply the procedure:

1. Ensure that all power is OFF in the circuit or component under test. Test for voltage using a voltmeter if
uncertain.
2. Set the selector switch to the voltage at which the circuit is to be tested. The test voltage should be as high or
higher than the highest voltage to which the circuit under test is exposed.
3. Plug the black test lead into the negative (earth) jack.
4. Plug the red test lead into the positive (line) jack.
5. Ensure that the batteries are in good condition. The meter contains no batteries if the meter includes a crank.
The meter contains no batteries or crank if the meter plugs into a standard outlet.
6. Connect the line test lead to the conductor under test.
7. Connect the earth test lead to a second conductor in the circuit on earth ground.
8. Press the test button or turn the crank and read the resistance displayed on the meter. Change the meter
resistance or voltage range if required.
9. Consult the equipment manufacturer or meter manufacturer for the minimum recommended resistance
values. The insulation is good if the meter readings is equal or higher than the minimum value.
Insulation Resistance

All electrical equipment has insulation. The purpose of the insulation is to keep electric currents in the
conductors and prevent contact with live wires. The electrical resistance of insulation must be very high (MΩ) to
prevent current leaking away from conductors. Insulation resistance is measured between:

1. Conductors and earth

2. Conductors
The insulation resistance includes the resistance of the insulation material and also the resistance of any surface
deposits of dirt, oil, moisture, etc. Surface deposits can reduce the insulation resistance.

The flow of leakage currents through such surface deposits is called tracking which is also affected by the
creepage and clearance distances between terminals .Equipment must be maintained in a clean condition to prevent
tracking and to maintain a high value of insulation resistance (usually at least 1 MΩ).

All marine electrical equipment is constructed and rated to work satisfactorily in a maximum ambient air
temperature of 45°C.

Using a( megger) tester (at 500 V DC for a

Insulation Resistance (IR)
440V circuit)
Continuity Resistance (low Ω)
Component Resistance(Ω or kΩ) Typically using Multimeter
Voltage(AC or DC)
Using a clampmeter (or multimeter for
Current
small currents)
Chapter 4 Week 10-13

Transformer, Electric Motors, Generators, Distribution Board

Motor – A machine that develops torque (rotating mechanical force) on a shaft which is used to produce work.

Transformer – An electric device that uses electromagnetism to change voltage from one level to another or to
isolate one voltage from another

Generator – Electrical machine that converts mechanical power into Electrical Power

Step Down Transformer – A transformer in which the secondary coil has less turns of wire than the primary coil.

Step –Up Transformer – A Transformer in which the secondary coil has more turns of wire than the primary coil

Autotransformer – A transformer that changes voltage level using the same common coil for both the primary and
secondary
Transformers

Electrical generation on board ship is typically at 3 phase AC 440V, 60 hz, while fixed lighting and other low
power loads are supplied with 220V AC single-phase. Ships with High voltage generation require 3 phase
transformer to supply the low voltage engine-room and accommodation sub-switchboards e.g. using 6600/440V units
Transformers are rated in apparent power (VA or kVA) units

Instrument Transformers

Transformers are used to supply instrument and protection relays with proportionally small currents and
voltages derived from the large currents and voltages in a high power network.

Voltage transformers (VTs) supply voltmeter and the voltage operated coils of instruments and relays. A
standard secondary voltage of 110V is used. Current transformers (CTs) supply ammeters and the current operated
coils of instruments and relays with a standardized 5A or 1A.

The use of VTs and CTs allows standardized instruments and relays to be used. They also improve safety by
providing low voltage and low current isolated supplies for monitoring instruments and protection relays.

VTs are built like small power transformers. They are not normally used at voltages less than 3 kV. CTs can
be of the wound primary or bar primary type.
 Power Distribution System

The function of a Ship’s Electrical Distribution System is to safely convey the generated electrical power to
every item of consumer equipment connected to it.The Main switchboard supplies bulk power to motor group
starter boards (often part of the main board), Section boards and Distribution boards. Protection, e.g, circuit-
breakers and fuses, strategically placed throughout the system automatically disconnects a faulty circuit within the
network. Transformers interconnect the high voltage and low voltage distribution sections of the system. The
required electrical services are broadly considered as Main and Emergency supplies.

Main supply

The majority of the ships have 3-phase AC, 3 –wire, 440V insulated-neutral system. This means that the
neutral point of star-connected generators is not earthed to the ship’s hull. For continental European vessels, a
380V, 3 phase system is common.

Ships with very large electrical loads have generators operating at high voltages (HV) of 3.3 KV, 6.6 KV and
even 11 KV. Such high voltages are economically necessary in high power systems to reduce the size of current,
and hence reduce the size of conductors and equipment required. The frequency of an AC power system can be 50
hz or 60 hz.

Lighting and low power single-phase supplies usually operate at the lower voltage of 220V AC . These
voltages are derived from step-down transformers connected to the 440V system.

The Distribution system is the means by which the electrical power produced by the generators is delivered
to the various motors, lighting, galley services, navigation aids, etc, which comprise the ship’s electrical load.
 The Electrical energy is routed through the main switchboard, then distributed via cables to section and
distribution boards then ultimately to the final load consumers.

The circuit-breakers and switches are means of interrupting the flow of electric current, and the fuses and
relays protect the distribution system from the damaging effects of large fault currents.

The main electrical load is divided into essential and non-essential services.

Essential services are those required for the safety of personnel and for the safe navigation and propulsion
of the ship. They include certain supplies to navigational aids, communications, machinery spaces, control stations
and steering gear. The essential services may be supplied directly from the main switchboard or via section boards
or distribution boards.

Emergency supplies are necessary for loads which required to handle a potentially dangerous situation.

To maintain generator operation during an overload, a preferential load shedding arrangement is employed. This
achieved by the special overload relay, called a preferential trip relay.

If a generator overload develops the preference trip relay sets an alarm and acts to trip selected non-essential loads.

This reduces the generator load so that it may continue to supply essential circuits.

If a generator overload condition develops, its preference overload trip will operate to energized the timing relay. The
timing relay then operates to disconnect non-essential services in a definite order at set time intervals, e.g

 1st trip – air conditioning and ventilation- 5 seconds

 2nd trip-refrigerated cargo plant – 10 seconds
 3rd trip – deck equipment- 15 seconds

This order of tripping obviously varies with the ship type. When sufficient non-essential load has been disconnected,
the preference overload trip resets and no further load is disconnected.
The generator preference trip system can also be initiated by low generator frequency or by low speed at the
generator prime-mover.

Emergency supply

An emergency electrical power service must be provided on board in the event of a main power failure. Such
a supply is required for emergency lighting, alarms, communications, watertight doors and other services
necessary to maintain safety and to permit safe evacuation of the ship.

Regulation require that the emergency power source be a generator, or batteries or both. The emergency
power source must be self-contained and not dependent upon any other engine room power supply. A battery when
fully charged is obviously self-contained. An emergency generator must have an internal combustion engine as
prime mover and have its own fuel supply tank, starting equipment and switchboard in the near vicinity.

The emergency power source must come into action following a total mains failure. Emergency batteries can
be arranged to be switched into service immediately following a main power failure. Emergency generators can be
hand cranked, but are usually automatically started by compressed air or a battery to ensure immediate run-up
following a main power failure.

The emergency power system must be ready and available at all times. Such reliability requires special care
and maintenance. At regular intervals it must be tested to confirm that it does operate correctly. The testing is
normally carried out during the weekly emergency fire and boat drill practice sessions. The main generators are not
shut down but emergency power sources are energized and connected to supply the emergency services for the
period of the practice session.

Generators and Main Circuit Breakers

Introduction
 The electrical power demand aboard ship will vary according to the ship type and its day-to-day operational
needs (at sea or in port). To meet the power demand, two or more main generators are used which are backed up by
an emergency generator and an emergency battery service.

The construction, operation, protection and maintenance of generators is described together with review of
main circuit breakers and the main switchboard.

AC Generator Operation

Main generator power ratings range from, typically, 100 kW to 2 MW at 440V, 60 hz AC, or 380 V, 50 hz AC
driven by diesel, steam turbine, gas turbine or propulsion shaft driven prime movers. As the demand for
increased electrical power installations arise (e.g. for specialist offshore vessels and cruise liners) it is necessary to
generate at high voltage (HV) with voltages typically at 6.6 kV, 60 hz but 3.3 kV and 11 kV are also used.

An emergency generator, typically 20 kW to 200 kW at 400 V or 220 V, will be diesel driven and fitted with an
automatic start facility.

Battery supplies from lead acid or alkaline cells, usually rated at 24 V DC, provided sufficient power for the
emergency alarm and communication systems together with some lighting and power essential for safety during a
main power failure.

As the vast majority of ships use alternating current generators (sometimes called alternators),

The frequency f(measured) in hertz) of the emf is the number of waveform cycles per second. This
obviously depends on the rotational speed and the number of poles, so (f = n.P) or f= (N/60).p where n= speed in
rev/s, N = rev/min and p= pairs of poles.

These two basic relationship for voltage and frequency dictate how to control the voltage and frequency
output of a generator. In practice the speed is maintained practically constant by the generator’s prime mover which
fixes the output frequency. The constant speed then allows the size of generated voltage to be directly controlled by
the size of pole flux (excitation)

Generator Construction

Construction

The two main parts of any rotating AC machine are its stator and rotor

The fabricated steel stator frame supports the stator core and its three phase windings as shown in fig. 3.4

The stator core is assembled from laminated steel with the windings housed in slots around the inner
periphery of the cylinder core.

The stator coils are interconnected (in the end winding regions) to form three separate phase windings
with six ends. These phase ends are found in the stator terminal box .The rotor of a main AC generator provides the
field excitation from its electromagnetic poles.

Two constructional forms of rotor are available as shown in fig 3.6

1. Salient pole type

2. Cylindrical type
The salient pole type has projecting poles bolted or keyed onto the shaft hub. Field excitation windings are
fitted around each pole. This type of rotor is used with medium and slow shaft speeds(1800 rpm and below) and is
the most common arrangement for marine generators

Cylindrical type rotors are generally used with large power, high speed (1500-3600 rpm) steam/gas turbine
drives.
 The rotor poles are supplied with direct current (D.C) from an exciter. If the exciter equipment is a
conventional DC generator or is static (see section on excitation methods), the DC excitation current is fed into the
field windings via carbon brushes on a pair of shaft mounted slip-rings.

To eliminate the maintenance problems associated with rotating contacts, a brushless arrangement is usual
for marine generators. All brush gear, commutators and slip rings are eliminated by using an AC exciter with its
output being rectified by shaft-mounted silicon diodes as shown in fig 3.7. The diodes are connected as three phase
ac/dc bridge circuit.

The AC exciter has its own DC field poles fitted on its stator while the rotor carries its three phase AC exciter
output windings. This construction layout is inverted compared with that of the main generator.

Alternator Types
Two principal types of synchronous alternators are: (10 the revolving- armature alternator and (20 the
revolving-field type alternator
The revolving armature alternator generally is used for low-power installations. An alternator designed
for limited use has semi-conductor rectifier diodes installed on the exciter, thus eliminating the brushes and
slip rings.
Field Excitation
Direct current must be used in the field circuit of an alternator. As a result all types of alternators must
be supplied with field current from a DC source.

Frequency
The frequency of an alternator is direct function of (a) the speed of rotation of the armature or the field
and (b) the number of poles in the field circuit.

Voltage Control
The voltage output of an alternator increases as the speed of rotation increases or as the field
excitation increases to the point of magnetic saturation of the field poles.
 For practical purposes, an alternator must be operated at a constant speed to maintain a fixed
frequency.
 Thus, the only feasible method of controlling the voltage output is to vary the field excitation
Field Rheostats are used to vary the resistance of the total field circuit. This variation of resistance, in
turn, changes the value of field current.
 A low value of field current results in less flux and less induced voltage at a given speed.
 A high field current results in greater field flux and a higher induced voltage at a given speed.
 The value of flux at which the field poles saturate determines the maximum voltage obtainable at a
fixed speed and frequency.

Rotating-Field Alternators
Rotating –field alternators are used extensively because of the ease with which a high-load
current can be taken from the machine without the use of slip rings or sliding contacts. Thus, the use of
rotating-field alternators results in a savings in initial cost and fewer maintenance requirements.

Stator Windings
The three-phase armature windings are embedded 120 degrees from one another in the slots of
a laminated steel core which is clamped securely to the alternator frame.

Rotating Field
The rotating field portion of a rotating-field alternator consists of field poles mounted on a shaft
which is driven by the prime mover. The magnetic flux established by the rotating field poles cuts
across the conductors of the stator winding to produce the induced output voltage of the stator.
The following comparison can be made between the rotating-armature alternator and the
rotating-field alternator. In rotating-armature alternator, the armature conductors cut the flux established
by stationary field poles. For the rotating field alternator, the motionless conductors of the stator
winding are cut by the flux established by rotating field poles. In each case an induced voltage is
generated.
 Automatic Voltage Control

Automatic voltage regulators change the alternator field current to compensate for any increase
or decrease in the load current. A relay is used to increase or decrease the field resistance through
contactors bridged across a field circuit resistor. As the AC line voltage falls, the relay shorts out
sections of the field resistor to cause an increase in the flux and thus the induced voltage. An increase
in the in the AC line voltage causes the relay to open contactors across the field resistor to decrease
the field current, flux and induced voltage. .

Parallel Operation of Three-phase Alternators (Electricity 4, AC motors Controls Alternators third Edition, Walter
N. Alerich pp 17)

When to parallel alternators

Two alternator are paralleled whenever the power demand of the load circuit is greater than the power output
of a single alternator.

The output voltage of an alternator is continuously changing in both magnitude and polarity at a definite
frequency. Thus, when two alternators are paralleled, not only must the rate of the rise and fall of voltage in both
alternators be equal, but the rise and fall of voltage in one machine must be exactly in step, they are said to be in
synchronism. Alternators cannot be paralleled until their voltages, frequencies and instantaneous polarities are
exactly equal.

Achieving Synchronization

Three main step are required to achieve synchronization.

1. The speed of one or both machines is varied so that both alternators generate output voltages at the desired
frequency.
2. The AC voltage output of both machines is equalized using the field rheostats.
3. The frequency of one machine is increased or decreased by making slight changes in its speed until the
frequencies of both machines are exactly equal and opposite in instantaneous polarity. The process of
synchronization can be observed by an electrician using synchroscope or connecting the alternators in
parallel through a set of synchronizing lamps. The lamps indicate the exact instant at which the machines
have like instantaneous electrical polarities. In addition, the lamps prevent the circulation of short circuit
currents between the alternators during the synchronizing processs.

Synchroscope
A synchroscope is recommended for synchronizing two alternators since it shows very accurately the
exact instant of synchronism. The pointer rotates clockwise when an alternator is running fast and
counterclockwise when an alternator is running slow. When the pointer is stationary, pointing upward, the
alternators are synchronized. The synchroscope is connected across one phase only. For this reason it
cannot be used safely until the alternators have been tested and connected together for the proper phase
rotation. Synchronizing lamps or other means must be used to determine the phase rotation.

Prime Movers
In industrial applications, alternators are driven by various types of prime movers such as steam
turbines, water turbines and internal combustion engines. Regardless of how alternators are driven, speed
variation is a factor in paralleling the machines. Thus, the electrician should have a knowledge of speed
governors and other regulating devices.

Procedure for Paralleling Alternators

Since the apprentice is likely to be required to parallel alternators driven by DC motors sometime in his
or her instruction, the following steps in the procedure for paralleling these machines. Figure 3-4 illustrates a
typical circuit for paralleling two three-phase alternators

1. Set the field rheostat (R2) of alternator G2, to the maximum resistance position.
2. Knowing the number of field poles in alternator G2, determine the speed required to generate the desired
frequency.
3. Energize the prime mover to bring alternator G2 up to the required speed
4. Set switch S3 to read the AC voltage across one phase of G2. Adjust field rheostat R2 until the output
voltage is equal to the rated voltage of the load circuit.
5. Close the load switch and switch S4, to feed the load circuit. Readjust the speed of the prime mover to
maintain the pre determined speed required for the desired frequency.
6. Readjust R2 to obtain the rated AC voltage of the load circuit
7. Energize the prime mover to drive the second alternator G1. Adjust the speed of the alternator to the
approximate value required to match the frequencies of the alternators.
8. Set switch S3 to measure the AC voltage across one phase of G1. Adjust field rheostat R1 until the AC
voltage is equal at either position of switch S3. The voltage output of both alternators is now equal.
9. Phase rotation, With paralleling switch S2 open, close switch S1. The three sets of lamps across the
terminals of the open switch will respond in one of two ways;
a. The three lamps will brighten and dim in unison.
b. Two lamps will brighten in unison as the remaining lamp dims. Then the two bright lamps will dim as
the dark lamp brightens
10. If the lamps respond as in (a, the alternators are connected for the proper phase rotation. The operator
then may proceed to the next step in synchronizing the alternators.
11. If the lamps respond as in 9b, the alternators are not in the proper phase rotation. To correct the condition,
interchange any two alternator leads at the terminals of switch S2. All the three lamps should dim together
and brighten together. No attempt to parallel the alternators should be made until the lamps respond in this
manner.
12. The three lamp sets will flicker (dim and brighten) at a rate equal to the frequency difference between the
two alternators. Adjust the speed control of prime mover M1 to make the lamps flicker at the lowest
possible rate.
13. Interchange two lamp set leads(not alternator leads) at the terminals of switch S2 so that the alternators
can be synchronized using the two bright, one dark method.
14. Again adjust the field rheostat of alternator G1 until both alternators have the same output voltage as
measured at either position of the voltmeter switch S3.
15. With one hand on switch S2, watch the lamps. Close the switch at the exact instant that two lamps are
either at their brightest and the other lamp is out. This operation shorts out the synchronizing lamps and
parallels the alternators.
16. Ammeters I1 and I2 indicate the amount of load current carried by each alternator. If the load circuit has a
unity power factor, then the sum of the ammeter reading should equal the reading of the ammeter in the
load circuit.
17. Note that a change in the field excitation of either alternator does not appreciably change the amount of
current supplied to the system. Such a change in field excitation does, however, affect the power factor of
the specific alternator. The field rheostat of each machine should be adjusted to the highest power factor
as indicated by the lowest value of current from the individual machine. Increasing or decreasing the
mechanical power to either alternator will increase or decrease the load current of that machine. As a
result, the division of the load between the alternators can be changed by slight changes in the alternator
speed.

Generator Protection
When a ship’s generator is subjected to an overload either a supporting generator must be paralleled
or non-essential load dropped. If the overload is allowed to trip a generator circuit breaker an even greater
overload will be thrown onto any paralleled machines and cascade tripping will occur resulting in a complete
loss of supply.

Preference tripping
If the overload builds up so quickly that an additional machine cannot be connected then a generator
overcurrent trip can be prevented by using a preference trip relay. This operates after a fixed time delay
causing non-essential loads to be shed.

Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection

In order to provide rapid tripping of a generator with an internal fault a high set instantaneous relay is
sometimes employed. Naturally it must only operate for currents in excess of the maximum generator fault
current otherwise system discrimination would be lost. Unfortunately this means that it can only be effective
when three or more generators are being run in parallel.

Reverse power protection

As reverse current protection cannot be applied in the case of A.C. it is necessary to utilize reverse
power to prevent the generator acting as a motor in the event of loss of power by the prime mover. Loss of
power may be accidental due to mechanical causes, fuel or steam deficiency, or may be an intentional
stoppage by an engineer. If the generator were left connected in parallel with another generator rotation would
continue with possible damage to certain types of prime mover.

Load Sharing

When a single generator is supplying an isolated load, the A.V.R circuits described so far are
satisfactory, but as soon as two or more generators are connected in parallel the problem arises of ensuring
that each generator supplies its fair share of the total load.
This implies that each generator is supplying the same power factor, which must be the power factor
dictated by the load. If the governor of one of the prime movers causes it to develop more than its share of the
kW load, the governors of the other prime movers will cause them to reduce their kW outputs to prevent the
system frequency from rising. If the A.V.R of one generator causes it to develop more than its share of the
kVar load, its power factor will fall to a lower (lagging) value than that of the load.

Shaft-Drive Generators
 Many ships are now being fitted with shaft-driven generators, especially those sailing for long periods
at a constant speed. The reasons for this trend are largely economic and concern particularly slow-speed
diesel-engine ships.
Other potential advantages include:
1. Saving in maintenance and repair costs due to reduction in running hours of auxiliary diesels
2. Saving in lubricating oil costs
3. Possible capital savings by reducing the number and rating of auxiliary diesels
4. A reduction in space and weight
5. Reduction in noise.

MOTORS AND STARTERS

Introduction

The drive power for compressor, pumps and fans aboard ship comes from Electric Motors. By far the most
common type of motor is the 3 phase AC cage-rotor induction motor. It is popular because it is simple, tough and
requires very little attention. Another advantage is that starting and stopping these motors can be done with simple
and reliable direct-on-line contactor starters. Three phase induction motors are usually supplied at 440V, 60 hz, but
3.3 KV and 6.6 KV, 60 hz are sometimes used for very large drives such as bow thrusters, cargo pumps, air
compressors and gas compressors.

Special types of motor can also be found on board ships. DC commutator motors are sometimes used for
driving deck machinery where speed control is important. Single-phase AC motors are used in low power drives such
as galley equipment and domestic tools.

Motor Construction
 The induction motor has two main components, the Stator and the Rotor. The stator carries three separate
insulated three phase windings which are spaced 120°(electrical degrees) apart and lying in slots cut into a
laminated steel magnetic core.

The rotor consists of copper or aluminum conductor bars which are connected together at their ends by short-
circuiting rings to form a cage winding. The conductor bars are set in a laminated steel magnetic core.

Induction Motor Operation

When the 3 phase AC supply voltages are connected to the three phase stator phase windings, the resulting
phase currents produce a multiple magnetic flux (φ).

Control Equipment

When an induction motor is connected directly to its three phase AC supply voltage, a very large stator current
of 5-8 X full load current is taken. This due to the maximum rate of flux cutting (s=100%) in the rotor, creating large
induced rotor currents.

Most induction motors are direct-on-line switch-started because such starters are inexpensive and simple to
operate and maintain. The high starting current surge will not cause serious heating damage to the motor unless the
motor is repeatedly started and stopped in a short period of time..

The contactor is an electromagnetically operated 3-pole switch initiated from local and/or remote stop/start
push buttons. If the current goes above the rated current for the motor, its contactor will be tripped out automatically
by an overcurrent relay(OCR) to disconnect the motor from the supply
Stator – The stationary part of an AC motor

Rotor – The rotating part of an AC motor

Push Button – A switch that makes (NO) or breaks (NC) a circuit when manually pressed

Reversing Rotation
The direction of rotation of a three-phase induction motor can be reversed readily. The motor will rotate
in the opposite direction if any two of the three line leads are reversed.

Speed Control
A squirrel-cage induction motor has almost no speed control. Recall that the speed of the motor
depends on the frequency of the three-phase source and the number of poles of the stator winding.
The frequency of the supply line is usually 60 hertz, and is maintained at this value by the local power
utility company. Since the number of poles in the motors is also a fixed value, the synchronous speed of the
motor remains constant. As a result, it is not possible to obtain a range of speed. The three-phase, squirrel
cage induction motor, therefore, is used for application where a wide range of speed is not necessary.
Week 14-16 Circuit Breaker, Fuse and Protective Relays

Trouble shooting of fuses

A fuse is an overcurrent protection device with a fusible link that melts and opens the circuit on an overcurrent
condition. Fuses are connected in series with a circuit to protect a circuit from overcurrents or shorts. Fuses maybe
one-time or renewable. One time fuses are fuses that cannot be reused after they have opened. One time fuses are
the most common. Renewable fuses are designed so that the fusible link can be replaced. A multimeter or voltmeter
is used to test fuses.

To trouble shoot fuses, apply the procedure:

1. Turn the handle of the safety switch or combination starter OFF

2. Open the door of the safety switch or combination starter. The operating handle must be capable of opening
the switch. If it is not, replace the switch.
3. Check the enclosure and interior parts for deformation, displacement of parts, and burning. Such damage may
indicate a short, fire or lighting strike. Deformation requires replacement of the part or complete device. Any
indication of arcing damage or overheating, such as discoloration or melting of insulation, requires
replacement of the damage part.
4. Check the voltage between each pair of power leads. Incoming voltage should be within 10% of the voltage
rating of the motor. A secondary problem exist if voltage is not within 10%. The secondary problem may be
the reason the fuses have blown.
 5. Test the enclosure for grounding if voltage is present and at the correct level. To test for grounding, connect
one side of a voltmeter to an unpainted part of the enclosure and touch the other side to each of the incoming
power leads. A voltage difference is indicated if the enclosure is grounded. The line-to ground voltage
probably does not equal the line to line voltage reading taken in step 4
6. Turn the handle of the safety switch or combination starter ON to test the fuses. One side of a voltmeter is
connected to one side of an incoming power line at the top of one fuse. The other side of the voltmeter is
connected to the bottom of each of the remaining fuses. A voltage reading indicates the fuse is good. If no
voltage reading is obtained, the fuse is open and no voltage passes through. The fuse must be replaced.
Repeat this procedure for each fuse. When testing the last fuse, the voltmeter is moved to a second incoming
power line.
7. Turn the handle of the safety switch or combination starter OFF to replace the fuses. Use a fuse puller to
remove bad fuses. Replace all bad fuses with correct type and size replacement. Close the door on the safety
switch or combination starter and turn the circuit ON.

Trouble shooting of Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is reusable overcurrent protective device that opens a circuit automatically at a
predetermined overcurrent. CB’s are connected in series with the circuit. CB’s protect a circuit from overcurrents or
short circuits. CB’s are thermally or magnetically operated and are reset after an overload. A multimeter is used to
test CB’s. Circuit breakers perform the same function as fuses and are tested the same way

TO troubleshoot CB’s apply the procedure:

1. Turn the handle of the safety switch or combination starter OFF

2. Open the door of the safety switch or combination starter. The operating handle must be capable of
opening the switch. Replace the operating handle if it does not open the switch.
3. Check the enclosure and interior parts of deformation, displacement of parts and burning.
 4. Check the voltage between each pair of power leads. Incoming voltage should be within 10% of the
voltage rating of the motor.
5. Test the enclosure for grounding if voltage is present and at the correct level.
6. Examine the CB. It will be in one of three position, ON, Tripped, or OFF.
7. If no evidence of damage is present, reset the CB by moving the handle to OFF and then to ON. CB’s
must be cooled before they are reset. CB’s are designed so they cannot be held in the ON position if an
overload or short is present. Check the voltage of the reset CB if resetting the CB does not restore power.
Refer to Troubleshooting fuses, step 6. Replace all faulty CB’s. Never try to service a faulty CB.

Overload Relays

An overload relay in a motor starter is a time delay device that allows temporary overload without
disconnecting the load. The overload relay trips and disconnects the motor from the circuit when an overload occurs
and lasts longer than the pre-set time

Overload relays are electromagnetic or thermal. An electromagnetic overload relay is an

electromechanical relay operated by the current flow in a circuit. When the level of current in the circuit reaches a
preset value, the increase magnetic field opens a set of contacts.

A thermal overload relays is an electromechanical relay that operates by heat developed in the relay. When
the level of current in a circuit reaches a preset value, the increased temperature opens a set of contacts. The
increased temperature opens the contacts through bimetallic strip or by melting an alloy that activates a mechanism
that opens the contacts.

Overload relays are connected in series with a motor. The same amount of current passes through the
overload relay and the motor. Overload relays are designed to operate with their contacts normally closed (NC).
The contacts are connected in series with the starting coil. When contacts open, the starting coil is de energized and
the motor is disconnected from power.
Interpretation of Electrical & Electronic Diagrams

Electrical Diagrams

There are various types of diagrams which attempt to show how an electrical circuit operates. Symbols are
used to represent the various items of equipment. The shipbuilder provides a complete set of ship’s electrical
diagrams. It is important that you study these diagrams to be able to read and understand them completely and to
use them as an aid in locating electrical faults.

A block diagram shows in simplified form the main inter-relationships of the elements in a system, and how the
system works or may be operated.
A system diagram, shows the main features of a system and its bounds, without necessarily showing cause to
effect. Its main use is to illustrate the ways of operating the system. detail is omitted in order to make the diagram as
clear as possible, and so, easily understood.

A circuit diagram shows, in full, the functioning of a circuit. All essential parts and connections are depicted by
means of graphical symbols arranged to show the operation as clearly as possible but without regard to the physical
layout of the various items, their parts or connections. A circuit diagram is an essential tool for fault finding

A wiring diagram shows the detailed connections between components or items of equipment, and in some cases
the routeing of these connection. An equipment wiring diagram shows the components in their approximate positions
occupied within the actual enclosure. A wiring diagram may be a fairly simple circuit, but its layout makes it quite
difficult to use and to understand the sequential operation of the circuit. The purpose of the wiring diagram is mainly
to instruct the wiring installer how to construct and connect the equipment.

You should study the ship’s Electrical diagrams to gain an understanding of equipment operation prior to
carrying out maintenance or fault finding. Diagrams should be regarded as an essential tool when carrying out work
on Electrical equipment
Source: Hall D. T. Practical Marine Electrical Knowledge (2nd Edition)