CSE40418

Advanced Structural Analysis

Structural Dynamics：
Single-degree-of freedom
discrete systems - Part 1
Professor YU Tao
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
 Causes of Violent Structural Vibration

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5qRFLH5y_g
 Causes of Violent Structural Vibration

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eAXVa__XWZ8
 Causes of Violent Structural Vibration

http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=3-kksSHBHck
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

In dynamic analysis of civil engineering

structures, it is often convenient to idealize a
real structure as a concentrated or lumped
mass m supported by a massless structure
having stiffness k in a certain direction.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
The pergola has a heavy concrete roof supported by light steel columns. The
roof may be idealised as a rigid slab with a lumped mass m, and the light
columns may be assumed to be massless. Since the lateral displacements of
the roof is only due to the sway of the columns, the relevant stiffness k is the
sum of the lateral stiffnesses of the columns.

𝑥
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
If the water tank is full, it can be assumed to be a lumped mass m supported
by a relatively light tower that can be assumed to massless. The cantilever
tower provides the lateral stiffness k.

𝑥
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
In the absence of external excitation, which could be
earthquake or wind for example, the differential equation
governing the lateral displacement 𝑥(t) as a function of time is

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 =0

in which an overdot denotes a differentiation with respect to

time t. The variable 𝑥ሷ is therefore the acceleration of the mass
m.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

The solution to the differential equation

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 =0

would show that if the mass m is displaced through some initial

displacement 𝑥 (0), then released and permitted to vibrate
freely, the structure will oscillate about its initial equilibrium
position.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

The solution to the equation

𝑥(0)
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 =0 𝑥
𝑥

indicates that the same maximum

displacement (amplitude) occurs
oscillation after oscillation, and the
idealised system would never
come to rest.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
In reality, if the roof of the pergola or the water tank is excited laterally for
an instant, it would oscillate with ever decreasing amplitude and eventually
come to rest. This process is called damping.

𝑥(0)
ሶ

𝑥(0)
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

The kinetic energy and strain energy of a real vibrating

structure are dissipated by various damping mechanisms
such as the thermal effect of repeated elastic straining of the
material, internal friction when a solid is deformed, friction
of steel connections, friction between structural frames and
partition walls, etc.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
Damping in civil engineering structures is often enhanced
by special damping devices. Insufficient damping leads to a
building to continue oscillating long after the excitation
forces (e.g., earthquake/wind) has passed.
Structural Dynamic Analysis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dd5WqmWIRzw
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

It is virtually impossible to describe mathematically each of

the energy dissipating mechanisms that may exist in real
structures. Damping is therefore highly idealised in dynamic
analysis of civil engineering structures. In most cases,
damping in a frame can be represented by a linear viscous
damper or dashpot.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
The damping force fD varies linearly with the velocity 𝑥ሶ
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥ሶ
in which c is the viscous damping coefficient.
𝑥

𝑥ሶ
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
The damping coefficient c is selected so that the vibrational
energy it dissipates is equivalent to that dissipated by all the
damping mechanisms present in the actual elastic structure. It
is therefore called equivalent viscous damping.

It should be noted that energy dissipation due to inelasticity is

not normally modelled by a viscous damper, especially if the
excitation is earthquake ground motion.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
The system shown consists of a mass concentrated at the roof
level, a massless frame that provides lateral stiffness, and a
viscous damper. The beam and columns are assumed to be
inextensible.
𝑥

𝐹(𝑡)
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

The system is an idealisation of a single storey structure. Each

structural member (and gravity load) of the actual structure
contributes to the inertia mass, elastic stiffness and damping
properties. However, in the idealised system, each of these
properties is concentrated in three separate components: mass
component, stiffness component and damping component.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis

In dynamic analysis, the number of independent displacements

required to define the displaced positions of the masses is
called the number of degrees of freedom (DOFs).

Typically, more DOFs are needed to define the stiffness

properties of a structure compared to the DOFs required to
define the inertial properties.
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
In static analysis, assuming the beam to be inextensible and
therefore the column sways to be uniform, there are three DOFs
involved in determining the lateral stiffness of the frame: one
horizontal displacement and two joint rotations.
𝑥

𝐹(𝑡)
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
For dynamic analysis, the system has only one DOF: lateral
displacement of the mass at the roof level.

The system is termed a single-degree-of-freedom (SDF) system.

𝑥

𝐹(𝑡)
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
For the system shown, the governing differential equation of
equilibrium is

𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ + 𝑐𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑡)
𝑥

𝐹(𝑡)
 Structural Dynamic Analysis
Two types of dynamic excitation are common:
𝑥 𝑥𝑡
𝑥
𝐹(𝑡)

𝑥𝑔
Applied force F(t) Seismic ground motion
 Equation of motion
x(t)
k

c F(t)
m

F(t): dynamic loading (external excitation);

x(t): displacement response;
m: mass of the SDOF system;
k: linear stiffness of the spring;
c: damping constant (coefficient) of the dashpot.
 x(t)
k

c F(t)
m

F(t) ⎯ time-varying force to produce response;

x(t) ⎯ define the position;
m ⎯ produce inertial force;
k ⎯ provide elastic resistance to displacement;
c ⎯ present energy-loss mechanism, depending
on system’s motion (velocity).
The equation of motion is formulated by expressing
the equilibrium of all forces acting on the system.

x(t)

fD(t)
fI(t) F(t)
fS(t)

F (t ) − f I (t ) − f D (t ) − f S (t ) = 0
fI(t): inertial force. The inertial force is the product of the mass
and acceleration
𝑓𝐼 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ

fS(t): elastic restoring force. The elastic restoring force is the

product of the spring stiffness and displacement
f S (t ) = k x(t )
fD(t): damping force. Assuming a viscous damping mechanism,
the damping force is the product of the damping constant and
velocity
f D (t ) = c x (t )
In conclusion,
𝐹(𝑡) − 𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ − 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑐 𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ =0

or
𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ + 𝑐𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑡)
 Influence of gravitational force

The above SDOF system is rotated 90o so that the force of gravity
acts in the direction of the displacement:

m v(t ) + c v(t ) + k v(t ) = p (t ) + W

In the above equation, v(t) is the total displacement. If v(t) is
expressed as the sum of the static displacement st caused by
the weight W plus dynamic displacement v (t ) measured from
the static equilibrium position, i.e.,
v(t ) =  st + v (t )
f S (t ) = k v(t ) = k  st + k v (t )
so
m v(t ) + c v(t ) + k  st + k v (t ) = p(t ) + W

Noting that kst=W leads to

m v(t ) + c v(t ) + k v (t ) = p (t )
Noting that v(t ) = v (t ) and v
(t ) = v(t ) yields

m v(t ) + c v (t ) + k v (t ) = p(t )
Influence of support excitation

An earthquake attacks buildings through exciting ground

motion to the base (support). Denote the horizontal ground
motion caused by the earthquake by vg(t),
 f I (t ) + f D (t ) + f S (t ) = 0

f I (t ) = m vt (t ) f S (t ) = k v(t ) f D (t ) = c v(t )

where vt(t) is the total displacement of the mass, i.e.,

vt (t ) = v(t ) + vg (t )
so
m v(t ) + m vg (t ) + c v(t ) + k v(t ) = 0
or

m v(t ) + c v(t ) + k v(t ) = −m vg (t )

where − mvg (t ) denotes the effective support excitation

force.
Springs in parallel or in series

To determine the equivalent spring constant (stiffness) ke for a

system in which two or more springs are arranged in parallel or
in series.
For two springs in parallel, the equivalent spring stiffness ke is
ke = k1 + k2
In general for n springs in parallel:
n
k e =  ki
i =1
 Proof

For spring k1: P1 = k1 y1

For spring k2: P2 = k2 y2

Because y1 = y2 = y

so P = P1 + P2 = k1 y1 + k2 y2 = (k1 + k2 ) y

According to the definition of equivalent stiffness,

we have
P
ke = = k1 + k2
y
For two springs assembled in series, we have

y1 = P / k1 y2 = P / k2

y = y1 + y2 = P / k1 + P / k2

ke = P / y
1 1 1 k1k2
= + or ke =
ke k1 k2 k1 + k2

In general for n springs in series:

1 n 1 n1
= or ke = 1 
ke i =1 ki i =1 ki
Examples of calculating equivalent stiffness

Case (a): The deflection  at the free end of a uniform cantilever

beam acted upon by a static force P at the free end is
PL3
=
3EI
so
P 3EI
kbeam = = 3
 L
 The beam and the coil spring are connected as springs in
series, so the system equivalent spring constant:

1 1 1 kbeamk
= + or ke =
ke kbeam k kbeam + k

Case (b): The deflection  at the centre of a simply supported

beam resulting from a force P applied at the centre is

PL3 P 48EI
= , so kbeam = = 3
48EI  L
Again, the connection of springs is in series, so:

1 1 1 k beam k
= + or ke =
ke kbeam k k beam + k
Case (c): The deflection  at the free end of a uniform cantilever
beam under a force P acting on the free end is

PL3 P 3EI
= , so kbeam = = 3
3EI  L
The beam and the two coil springs are connected as springs in
parallel, so the system equivalent spring constant is:
3EI
k e = kbeam + 2k or ke = 3 + 2 k
L
Free vibration (F(t) = 0)

m x(t ) + c x (t ) + k x(t ) = 0

Undamped free vibration (c = 0)

The SDOF system without damping (c=0) specializes to

m x(t ) + k x(t ) = 0
Free vibration is initiated by disturbing the system from its static
equilibrium position by imparting the mass a displacement y0
and a velocity v0 at time zero, i.e.,

x(t ) t = 0 = x(0) = y0

x (t ) t = 0 = x (0) = v0
The solution to the above homogeneous differential equation is
assumed to be the form
x(t ) = A cos t + B sin t
Introducing the equation of motion and initial conditions yields

A(k − 2 m) cos t + B(k − 2 m) sin t = 0

A = y0
B = v0
Because A and B are not zero, there must hold

k − 2 m = 0
So we have
v0 k
A = y0 B= =
 m
 Consequently the response expression is obtained as
v0
x(t ) = y0 cos t + sin t

where k
=
m
The response also can be expressed as

x(t ) = C sin(t +  ) = C cos(t −  )

where the response amplitude C is
2
v 
C = A2 + B 2 = y02 +  0 

and the phase angles  and  satisfy
y0 v0 / 
tan  = tan  =
v0 /  y0
The undamped free vibration response is periodic, and

k
= (rad/sec)
m
 ⎯ natural circular frequency of vibration, in units of
radians per second;
 2 m
T= = 2 (sec)
 k
T ⎯ natural period of vibration, in units of seconds. It
represents the time for an undamped system to
complete one cycle of free vibration;

 1 1 k
f = = = (Hz)
2 T 2 m

f ⎯ natural (cyclic) frequency of vibration, in units of

hertz (Hz) [cycles per second (cps)]. It represents
the number of cycles vibrated in one second.
This 250 m high chimney has a natural
vibration period of 3.6 seconds.
This 60-storey Trans-America Building in
San Fransisco has a natural vibration
period of 2.9 seconds.
This 26-storey Alcoa Building in San
Fransisco has a natural vibration
period of 2.2 seconds in the
transverse direction, and 1.7 seconds
in the longitudinal direction.
This 3-storey Medical Centre Building in California has a natural
vibration period of 0.74 second in the transverse direction, and
0.63 seconds in the longitudinal direction.
This concrete gravity dam has a natural vibration period of about
0.3 seconds, depending on the reservoir depth.
The Golden Gate Bridge has a natural vibration period of about
18.2 s in the transverse direction, 10.9 s in the vertical direction,
3.8 s in the longitudinal direction, and 4.4 s for torsional vibration.
 An example to calculate natural frequency and period:

The system consists of a weight of W = 50.7 lb attached to a

cantilever beam through the coil spring k2. The beam cross
section: h = ¼ in and b = 1 in. E = 3.0107 psi, L = 12.5 in.
k2 = 10.69 lb/in.
 PL3 P 3EI
= , so k1 = k beam = = 3
3EI  L
bh 3 1 (1 / 4) 3 1 3EI
I= = = (in ) 4 k1 = 3 = 60 lb/in
12 12 768 L
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + ke = 9.07 lb/in
ke k1 k2 60 10.69

 = ke m (m = W / g and g = 386 in / sec2 )

= 9.07  386 / 50.7 = 8.31 rad / sec

T = 2  = 0.756 sec

f =  2 = 1.32 Hz
Viscously damped free vibration (c  0)

The SDOF system with damping (c0) in free vibration is

m x(t ) + cx (t ) + k x(t ) = 0

with initial displacement y0 and velocity v0 at time zero,

x(t ) t =0 = x(0) = y0 x (t ) t = 0 = x (0) = v0

Dividing the equation of motion by m gives

x(t ) + 2x (t ) + 2 x(t ) = 0

where = k m as defined before, and

 c c c
 = = =
2m 2 km ccr
is the damping ratio or fraction of critical damping, and

2k
ccr = 2m = 2 km =

is the critical damping coefficient.

Three cases may occur:

(1) If c > ccr (or  > 1), the system is overdamped;
(2) If c = ccr (or  = 1), the system is critically damped;
(3) If c < ccr (or  < 1), the system is underdamped.
(1) Overdamped system (c > ccr or  > 1):
The system does not oscillate and eventually returns to its
equilibrium position.
v0 + y0 − t
x(t ) = [ y0 cosh 'Dt + sinh '
D t )] e
D'

where 'D =   2 − 1 .
(2) Critically damped system (c = ccr or  = 1):
The system returns to its equilibrium position without
oscillating. ccr is called the critical damping coefficient
because it is the smallest value of c that inhibits oscillation
completely. It represents dividing line between oscillatory
and non-oscillatory motion.

x (t ) = [ y0 + ( v0 + y0 )t ] e −t

(3) Underdamped system (c < ccr or  < 1):

Civil structures, such as buildings, bridges, dams, offshore
structures, nuclear power plants, etc., all fall into this
category, as typically, their damping ratio is less than 0.10.
Examples of overdamped systems include automatic door closer.
Scales for measuring dead weight are critically damped.
(3) Underdamped system (c < ccr or  < 1):
The system oscillates about its equilibrium position with a
progressively decreasing amplitude.
v0 + y0
x(t ) = [ y0 cos Dt + sin Dt )] e − t
D

where D =  1 −  2 .

Alternatively, this expression can be written as

x(t ) = Ce −t cos( D t − )

where

( v + y ) 2
(v0 + y0)
C= y02 + 0 20 tan  =
D D y0
Characteristics of underdamped free vibration:
(1) D =  1 −  is the damped natural frequency.
2

Damping has the effect of lowering the natural frequency

from  (undamped) to D.
(2) The motion is oscillatory, but not periodic.
(3) The amplitude of vibration is not constant during the
motion but decreases with every cycle of vibration.
(4) The displacement amplitude decays exponentially with
time. The envelope curves are Ce-t .
(5) The oscillations occur at equal intervals of time. This
time interval is designated as the damped period TD:
2 2 T
TD = = =
D  1 −  2 1 − 2
Damping has the effect of lengthening the natural
period from T (undamped) to TD.
Logarithmic decrement in damped free vibration:

(1) The logarithmic decrement  is defined as the natural

logarithm of ratio of any two successive peak amplitudes,
y1 and y2, in free vibration, that is
y1
 = ln
y2
(2) The points on the exponential envelope curve y(t) =
Ce-t appear slightly to the right of peak values. As an
approximation, we have

y1 = Ce− t1 y2 = Ce−  (t1 +TD )

y1 2
 = ln = TD =
y2 1 − 2

(3) If  is small (<0.2), 1 −  2 1 and this gives the

following approximation:
  2
 1 y1
 = ln
2 2 y 2
 Logarithmic decrement in damped free vibration:

(4) The logarithmic decrement  can also be calculated as the

ratio of two consecutive peak accelerations, which are easier
to measure than displacements. Differentiating y(t) two times
obtains
y1 = Ce − t1 ( 2 2 − 2D )

y2 = Ce− (t1 +TD ) ( 22 − 2D )

 y1 2
 = ln = TD =
y2 1 − 2
so the  in terms of accelerations is identical to the  in terms
of displacements.

(5) Greater accuracy in evaluating the damping ratio can be

obtained by considering response peaks which are several
cycles apart, say n cycles. In such a situation,

1 yi 1 yi
 = ln or  = ln
n yi + n n yi + n
1 y 1 yi
= ln i or = ln
2n yi + n 2n yi + n
Free vibration tests to measure damping

Because it is not possible to determine analytically the

damping ratio  for practical structures, this property should
be determined experimentally. Free vibration tests provide
one means of determining the damping.
1. Disturb the structure from its equilibrium position through
some displacement y0 and release the structure;

2. Record the free vibration of the structure to obtain the

displacement-time plot (as illustrated above) or the
acceleration-time plot;

3. Measure the time required to complete one cycle of

vibration to obtain the vibration period T;

4. Measure the peaks yi (or yi ) and yi+n (or yi + n ) where n is
the number of cycles separating two measured peaks;

5. Compute  = 1n ln( yi yi + n ) or  = 1n ln( yi yi + n ) ;

6. Compute  =  2 .
Example 1 of damped free vibration:
A machine weighing 1000 lb is mounted through a spring having
stiffness k = 2000 lb/in to a simply supported beam. The total system
is assumed to have 10% of the critical damping. Neglect the mass of
the beam. Determine the equivalent mass me, equivalent spring
constant ke, and equivalent damping coefficient ce for the system.

PL3 P 48EI 48  107

= kbeam = = 3 = = 7500 lb/in
48EI  L 40 3

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + ke = 1579 lb/in
ke kbeam k 7500 2000

me = W / g = 1000 / 386 = 2.59 (lb  sec2 / in )

ccr = 2 ke me = 2 1579  2.59 = 127.92 (lb  sec/in)

 = ce ccr = 0.10 , so ce = ccr = 12.79 (lb  sec/in)

 Example 2 of damped free vibration:

A free vibration test is conducted on a water tank. A cable attached

to the tank applies a lateral (horizontal) force of 16.4 kips and pulls
the tank horizontally by 2.0 in. The cable is suddenly cut and the
resulting free vibration is recorded. At the end of four complete
cycles, the time is 2.0 sec and the amplitude is 1.0 in. From these
data compute the following items.
(1) Compute damping ratio:
yi = 2.0 in, k = 4, yi+k = 1.0 in
1 y 1 2
Logarithmic decrement:  = ln i = ln = 0.1734
k yi +k 4 1
 0.1734
Damping ratio:  = = = 0.0276 = 2.76%
2 2
(2) Compute undamped period and frequency:
2.0
TD = = 0.5 sec T = TD 1 −  2 = 0.5 1 − 0.02762  0.5 sec
4
2 2
= = = 12.57 rad/sec
T 0.5
(3) Compute stiffness and weight of the structure:
P 16.4
Stiffness: k = = = 8.2 kips/in
 2.0
 k 8.2
Mass: m= = = 0.0519 kips  sec 2
/in
2
(12.57) 2

Weight: W = mg = 0.0519  386 = 20.03 kips

(4) Compute damping coefficient:

c = ccr =  2m =  (2 km )
= 0.0276 8.2  0.0519 = 0.0360 kips  sec/in
(5) Compute number of cycles required for the displacement
amplitude to decrease to 0.2 in.
1 yi
= ln yi = y0 = 2.0 yi +n = 0.2
2n yi + n
1 y 1 2 .0
So n= ln i = ln  13 cycles
2 yi +n 2  0.0276 0.2