Differentiation between different kinds of mixing in

water purification – Back to basics

P Polasek
Water & Wastewater Treatment Consultant, PO Box 61965, Marshalltown 2107, South Africa

Abstract

The term mixing is confusing because it is used to describe transport mechanisms for both flash mixing (reagent dispersion
and homogenisation with water mixing) and agitation (flocculation mixing) because each of these mechanisms requires dif-
ferent flow characteristics in order to take place with maximum efficiency. Flash mixing should take place under conditions
of mixing on macro-scale with macro-turbulent eddies being formed and agitation under conditions of mixing under micro-
scale with micro-turbulent eddies being formed. Agitation takes place under high- or low-intensity agitation. Only the condi-
tions of agitation can be characterised by velocity gradient. Differentiation between flash mixing and agitation is discussed.

Keywords: mixing, agitation, mixing intensity, homogenisation, flocculation

Introduction velocities. These slow mixing conditions are referred to in

this paper as the customary flocculation conditions.
Mixing is an important operation in any water purification
process. It facilitates dispersion and homogenisation of added It follows from the above that the difference between these two
reagents with water and contacts between the particles leading mixing conditions is only in the mixing intensity, characterised
to their combining into readily separable flocs. The efficiency by velocity gradient G .
of the water purification process is, therefore, dependent on the The rapid and slow mixing conditions as described above are
mixing conditions under which the formation of flocculent sus- suitable for jar tests, i.e. a batch process, but not for the water-
pension takes place. works through-flow process. In a through-flow system the char-
When designing a flocculation system, the mixing condi- acter of mixing applied to the dispersion and homogenisation of
tions, which include uniform distribution of a velocity field in added reagent with water is different to that of the floc formation,
the agitated volume of water, are not optimised in respect of the should these two processes take place most efficiently. Theory
most effective utilisation of the added destabilisation reagent assumes that the final products of homogenisation of hydrolys-
and the formation of flocs, the properties of which should be ing destabilisation reagent with water, which takes place in a
most suitable for the method that is selected for their separation. rapid mixing chamber, are destabilised particles of impurities,
The reasons are that the importance of the mixing intensity, its and that these destabilised particles are transformed in the
duration and flow characteristics on the properties of formed subsequent floc-formation process, which takes place in slow
flocs such as their shape, size and compactness (density), are not mixing flocculation chamber, into readily separable flocs. How-
yet fully appreciated and/or understood in engineering practice. ever, these theoretical assumptions are seldom obtained under
In waterworks design practice, which prevails to date current design practice and operational conditions. The likely
(Schutte, 2006), the processes of the reagent dispersion and causes for deviations from theory have their origin in defects
homogenisation with water and the floc formation take place in of a hydrodynamic nature. These include inability to complete
two separate chambers under the conditions of rapid and slow dispersion and homogenisation of the added reagent with water
mixing: in the rapid mixing chamber and formation of suspension within
• Rapid mixing is intended for dispersion and homogenisation the flocculation chamber. This results in a functional shifting of
of added reagent with water and, therefore, is considered a the individual processes into subsequent unit operations, where
suspension not forming mixing. It takes place with a mean- the optimum conditions for such processes no longer exist. For
root-square velocity gradient G = 80 to 100 s-1 over a period instance, the dispersion of reagent and its homogenisation with
of T = 10 to 60 s (Amirtharajah and Trusler, 1986; Claus, water continue in the flocculation chamber and the floc forma-
1967; Fair and Geyer, 1958; Hudson, 1965). tion process in the sedimentation tanks/clarifiers and filters and
• Slow mixing is intended for the formation of flocculent sus- sometimes even into the reticulation system. Obviously, this
pension. It takes place with a velocity gradient G = 20 to 60 adversely affects the performance efficiency of the works in its
s-1 for a period of T = 15 to 30 min and even longer (Fair and entirety as well as the quality of the purified water. Therefore, in
Geyer, 1958; Hudson, 1965). Generally, the resultant flocs through-flow system, the rapid and slow mixing cannot be dif-
formed are of a wide range of sizes, densities and settling ferentiated by mixing intensity only but by different transport
mechanisms applicable for each of these processes. Regrettably,
 +27 082 833 4330; fax: +27 12 347-4969; this is not always respected in waterworks design.
e-mail: [email protected] The lack of differentiation between different characteristics
Received 4 April 2006; accepted in revised form 26 January 2007. of flow required for rapid and slow mixing often results in both

Available on website http://www.wrc.org.za 249

ISSN 0378-4738 = Water SA Vol. 33 No. 2 April 2007
ISSN 1816-7950 = Water SA (on-line)
these processes taking place in the same unit operation (the rapid tion of local under- and over-dosed volumes of water. In the
mixing stage is totally omitted), where the optimised conditions under-dosed volumes of water an insufficient amount of reagent
do not exist for either of them. prevents sufficient destabilisation of impurities. In the over-
Certain misunderstandings and misconceptions with respect dosed volumes of water excessive amounts of the reagent result
to the importance of the different character and intensity of mix- in the restabilisation of the just-destabilised particles of impuri-
ing and its duration that are applicable to these two processes ties. This results in lowering the efficiency of the purification
have their roots in the term mixing. The term mixing is indis- process, or in the need for increasing the reagent dosage. Con-
criminately used to describe the different characters of mixing sequently, the water contains a mixture of particles in differ-
(transport mechanisms) required for both of these processes. In ent stages of destabilisation, i.e. destabilised, non-destabilised,
order to avoid confusion as to which transport mechanism is partly destabilised and restabilised particles. Homogenisation
referred to, there is a need to differentiate between the two kinds then continues under sub-optimal conditions in the subsequent
of mixing and to identify them under different names, namely unit operations, which are intended for the formation of flocs
(Polasek, 1980a; 1981): and their separation and not for the homogenisation of the desta-
• Flash mixing (dispersion/homogenisation mixing) bilisation reagent with the water. This is the reason why a sepa-
• Agitation (flocculation mixing). rate, adequately sized flash mixer should always form a separate
unit operation of any waterworks. Furthermore, with respect to
The character of mixing that suits best the requirements of these homogenisation efficiency, it is equally important that the addi-
processes can be defined as follows: tion of the reagent is continuous, steady and free of pulsation.
• Flash mixing (dispersion/homogenisation) – mixing on The flash mixing of organic polymers is a specific problem.
macro-scale, in which partial volumes of water are trans- Their stock solutions are usually highly viscous and cannot be
ferred over long distances and macro-turbulent eddies are easily dispersed and homogenised with water. In addition to this
formed. problem organic polymers also have a tendency to mutually bind
• Agitation (floc formation) – mixing on micro-scale, in which to one another or onto surfaces already occupied. This neces-
partial volumes of water are transferred over short distances sitates intensive flash mixing over a longer period. On the other
and micro-turbulent eddies are formed, and uniform distri- hand, the mixing must be carefully controlled in order to avoid
bution of a velocity field throughout the volume of agitated breakage of the polymer chains through prolonged flash mixing.
water is produced. This problem can be overcome by dosing a solution of low con-
centration that is more readily dispersible.
It should be emphasised that flash mixing influences the effi- When pretreatment of water with alkali or acid is required,
ciency of the destabilisation process, which determines the qual- the limiting requirement for the homogenisation mixing is not
ity to which the water is purifiable by the works under the reac- the velocity of homogenisation but the completion of the reac-
tion conditions applied, whilst the conditions of agitation under tions of added reagent(s) with water together with the adjustment
which the flocculation process takes place profoundly influence of water pH prior to the addition of destabilisation reagent.
the separability of formed flocs in general, and the attainable When pretreatment of water by oxidation is required, an
settling velocity in particular, as well as the processing of the adequate contact period under the conditions of turbulent flow is
produced sludge. required for the completion of oxidation reactions. Its efficiency
is dependent on the oxidizing agent as well as on the type and
Flash mixing arrangement of the oxidation chamber.

Effective flash mixing is required in terms of the chemical reac- Agitation

tions point of view because homogenisation of the hydrolysing
destabilisation reagent with water is accompanied by many The agitation of water is brought about by hydraulic or mechani-
chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, polymerisation of the cal means. Since non-uniform distribution of a velocity field
products of hydrolysis and the diffusion of polymers to the sur- exists in the agitated volume of water, the magnitude of tangen-
face of particles of impurities. Some of these reactions are irre- tial forces varies throughout the flocculating system. This results
versible. The most important reaction is adsorption. The hydro- in considerable differences in the magnitude of tangential forces
lysing reagent particles have a tendency to mutually bind to one that are affecting the flocs being formed. Consequently, flocs of
another when there is no free particle surface area in their vicin- different sizes and structures and of a broad range of sedimen-
ity. This leads to the formation of precipitates or to the binding tation velocities are formed, which unfavourably influence the
of the particles of the hydrolysing reagent onto the surfaces of sizing of the sedimentation plant. In case of the mechanical agi-
particles of impurities already occupied by the hydrolysing rea- tation these variations are influenced by the type, size and speed
gent, thereby causing restabilisation of these particles. In both of rotation of the stirrer, geometry of the basin and character of
instances, these particles become inactive resulting in ineffec- the flow induced by the stirrer. In the case of the hydraulic agita-
tive utilisation of the destabilisation reagent dosage applied. tion, these variations are influenced by water velocity in flume,
The principle task of the dispersion and homogenisation geometry of the flume and changes in the direction of flow.
processes is the maximum utilisation of the added reagent in the Under the customary flocculation conditions, slow mixing
chemical reactions. Therefore, achieving the highest uniform- is considered to be instrumental for the formation of readily
ity in the concentration of the added reagent and the pH in the settleable suspension. Its purpose is to facilitate the formation
water being purified in the shortest period of time is essential. of large, kinetically unstable flocs. The idea that the formation
The mixing conditions required are attained in a flash mixer that of large flocs is beneficial is associated with the belief that the
provides for the transfer of small quantities of destabilisation intensity of agitation should not exceed a certain limit beyond
reagent over long distance and their dispersion inside the turbu- which floc breakage occurs. Therefore, slow mixing is often
lent eddies. designed such that its intensity decreases as the process of floc-
Ineffective dispersion / homogenisation results in the forma- culation progresses (tapered flocculation).

250 Available on website http://www.wrc.org.za

ISSN 0378-4738 = Water SA Vol. 33 No. 2 April 2007
ISSN 1816-7950 = Water SA (on-line)
 The basic changes taking place during the flocculation proc- bulent eddies are formed inside which the added reagent is
ess include the changes in the number of the destabilised parti- dispersed
cles of impurities, the number of flocs being formed from these • Agitation (flocculation mixing) – the mixing on micro-scale,
particles and in the size, shape and density of the formed flocs. in which partial volumes of water are transferred over short
The flocs formed under the accustomed flocculation conditions distances and micro-turbulent eddies are formed which
are large, voluminous and of a geometrically loose, widely facilitate formation of readily separable flocs. Depending
branched, spatially extended lattice structures containing large on the ultimate size of the flocs required, which is deter-
volumes of voids filled with water. They are of low density and mined by the selected method of separation, agitation takes
very fragile with a tendency to fragment. Such flocs are grossly place in one or two consecutive phases differentiated by dif-
non-homogenous in size as well as in density (Tesarik, 1967; ferent intensities of agitation (IHDS flocculation process),
Hereit et al., 1983). Since sedimentation tanks must be sized for namely:
the finest suspension, such flocs are not particularly suitable for - High-intensity (high energy) agitation aimed at the
rapid sedimentation. formation of micro-flocs, G H > 50 s-1 applied over the
In contrast to the customary flocculation conditions, the entire flocculation process until flocculation optimum is
inline high-density suspension (IHDS) flocculation process reached
takes place with high agitation intensity over the entire floccula- - Low-intensity (low energy) agitation aimed at the forma-
tion process until flocculation optimum is reached. As a result tion of large and rapidly settleable macro-flocs, G L <50 s-1.
the compaction of the formed flocs and thereby their density are
very favourably influenced. The floc densification is a result of The high- and low-agitation intensities involve the same trans-
reduced volume of voids in the micro-flocs filled with entrapped port mechanism and differ only by the agitation intensity, i.e.
water (Polasek, 1980b; Polasek and Mutl, 2003; 2005a; 2005b; magnitude of the G -value. Irrespective of the agitation intensity,
Polasek and Van Duuren, 1981). Depending on the resultant size the conditions of agitation must be designed to create uniform
of flocs required, their formation can take place under two dif- distribution of a velocity field throughout the volume of agitated
ferent agitation intensities: water.
• High intensity (high energy) agitation with G H > 50 s-1
• Low intensity (low energy) agitation with G L < 50 s-1 References

The high and low agitation intensities involve the same trans- AMIRTHARAJAH A and TRUSLER SL (1986) Destabilisation of par-
port mechanism and differ only by the agitation intensity, i.e. the ticles by turbulent rapid mixing. Proc. ASCE, J. Env. Eng. Div. EE
magnitude of the G -value. 112 1085.
CLAUS E (1967) Mischungsprobleme in der Wasseraufbereitung. J.
When the micro-flocs are required these are formed with a
Wasser - Wassertechnik, 17 332.
high agitation intensity preferably with a G H = 100 – 500 s-1 in FAIR GM and GEYER JC (1958) Elements of Water Supply and Waste-
the first flocculation phase. When rapidly settleable macro-flocs water Disposal. Wiley, New York.
are required these are formed in the second flocculation phase HEREIT F, MUTL S and VAGNER V (1983) The formation of separa-
with a low agitation intensity, preferably with a G L = 5 – 20 s-1, from ble suspensions and the methods of its assessment. Proc. Int. Conf.
the micro-flocs formed with high G H in the preceding first floc- IWA. Paris, France. 0095-0099
culation phase (Polasek, 1980b; Polasek and Mutl, 2003; 2005a; HUDSON HR (Jr) (1965) Physical aspects of flocculation. JAWWA 57
2005b). The resultant macro-flocs are much denser than those (7) 885-892.
POLASEK P (1980a) Methods and testing procedures for monitoring
formed under the customary flocculation conditions because
and evaluating waterworks performance. Proc. Int. Conf. SAFIL.
they are formed from much denser micro-flocs. October, Johannesburg, South Africa.
The agitation intensity together with its duration should be POLASEK P (1980b) HR clarifier performance results. Proc. Int. Conf.
optimised with respect to the properties of flocs that are required SAFIL. October, Johannesburg, South Africa.
in view of the separation method selected. The character of flow POLASEK P (1981) Principles of formation of suspension and its sepa-
induced by agitation must be designed such that the most uni- ration. J. WS&E 6 September, Johannesburg, South Africa.
form distribution of the velocity field throughout the flocculation POLASEK P and MUTL (2003) Acceleration of gravity separation
chamber is achieved, if maximum separation efficiency at the process. Proc. Filtech Europa - Int. Conf. on Filtration and Separa-
tion Technology. October, Düsseldorf, Germany.
highest settling velocity of the formed flocs is to be attained.
POLASEK P and MUTL S (2005a) Acceleration of gravity separation
process. J. Filtr. 5 (1) 33-39.
Conclusions POLASEK P and MUTL S (2005b) High rate clarification technology.
Proc. IWA Spec. Conf. Particle Separation. June, Seoul, South
The term mixing as currently used does not differentiate between Korea.
the transport mechanism required for the dispersion and homog- POLASEK P and VAN DUUREN FA (1981) The performance results
enisation of added reagent with water and that for flocculation of from the operation of high rate clarifiers at Bethlehem municipal
destabilised particles into larger flocs, even though their charac- waterworks. Proc. Water Industry’81, Int. Conf. June Brighton,
UK.
ters are entirely different. Therefore, it is necessary to differenti-
SCHUTTE F (2006) Handbook for the Operation of Water Treatment
ate between: Works. WRC Report No TT265/06. Water Research Commission,
• Flash mixing (reagent dispersion and homogenisation mix- Pretoria, South Africa.
ing) – the mixing on macro-scale, in which partial volumes TESARIK I (1967) Flow in sludge blanket clarifiers. J. Sanit. Eng. Div.
of water are transferred over long distances and macro-tur- Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. SA 6 105-120.

Available on website http://www.wrc.org.za 251

ISSN 0378-4738 = Water SA Vol. 33 No. 2 April 2007
ISSN 1816-7950 = Water SA (on-line)