Session 2.

1
Solid State Fundamentals: Conductors and Insulators

By the end of this session, you will be able to

1. Determine what conductors and insulars are.

2. Contrast the characteristics of conductors and insulators.

3. List examples of common conductors and insulators and their applications.

Lecture:

What are Conductors?

In simple terms, an electrical conductor is defined as materials that allow electricity
to flow through them easily. This property of conductors that allow them to conduct
electricity is known as conductivity.
The flow of electrons in a conductor is known as the electric current. The force
required to make that current flow through the conductor is known as voltage.
When a charge is transferred to such an element, it gets distributed across the
entire surface of the object, which results in the movement of electrons in the object. The
charges transferred to an electrical conductor distribute until the force of repulsion
between electrons in areas of excess electrons is decreased to the minimum value. When
such an object is brought in contact with another conductor, the charge gets transferred
from the first conductor to the other until the overall repulsion due to charge is minimized.
Metals, humans, and earth are all conductors.

What are Insulators?

Insulators are materials that hinder the free flow of electrons from one particle of
the element to another. If we transfer some amount of charge to such an element at any
point, the charge remains at the initial location and does not get distributed across the
surface. The common process of charging of such elements includes charging by rubbing
(for some elements, with the help of suitable materials) and charging by induction.

Difference between Conductors and Insulators

Let us look at the basic difference between conductors and insulators in a nutshell.

Comparison Chart
Basis For
Conductor Insulator
Comparison

Definition Material which permits the Restrict the electric current or

electric current or heat to heat to pass through it.
pass through it.

Electric Field Exist on the surface but Do not exist on insulator.

remain zero inside the
conductor.

Magnetic Field Store energy Do not store energy

Potential Remain same at all the Remain zero.

point on conductor.

Thermal High Low

Conductivity

Covalent bond Weak Strong

Conductivity Very high Low

Resistance Low High

Electrons Freely move Do not move freely

Resistivity Vary from high to low High

Temperature Positive temperature Negative temperature coefficient

coefficient coefficient of resistance of resistance
 Basis For
Conductor Insulator
Comparison

Conduction Full of electrons Remain empty

band

Valence Band Remains Empty Full of electrons

Forbidden gap No forbidden gap Large forbidden gap

Examples Irons, aluminum, silver, Rubber, wood, Paper, etc.

copper, etc.

Application For making electrical wires As a insulation in electrical

and conductor cables or conductor, for
supporting electrical equipment
etc.

Key Differences Between Conductor and Insulator

1. The conductor is the type of material which allows the electric current or heat to pass
through it whereas the insulator does not allow the electric current or heat to pass
through it.
2. The electric field exists only on the surface of the conductor, and it remains zero inside
the conductor whereas it does not exist on an insulator.
3. The conductor, when placed in a magnetic field do not store energy whereas the
insulator stored energy in a magnetic field.
4. The thermal conductivity of the conductor is high, whereas the thermal conductivity of
the insulator is low. Thermal conductivity is the property of the material which allows the
heat to pass through it without any obstruction.
5. The covalent bond between the atoms of a conductor is very weak whereas in an
insulator it is very strong. The covalent bond is the chemical bond between the atoms
which involve the sharing of electrons.
6. In conductor, the electrons freely move from atom to atom whenever a potential
difference is applied across it whereas, in an insulator, the electrons are fixed due to
atomic level forces.
7. The conductivity of the conductor is high, whereas the conductivity of the insulators is
low. Conductivity is the rate at which the heat or charge flows through the material.
8. The resistance of the conductor is very less, and hence the electrons freely move from
atom to atom. The resistance of the insulator is very high.
9. The conductor has a large number of free electrons whereas insulator does not have a
large number of free electrons.
10. The potential on the conductor remains same at all the point whereas in insulators the
potential remains zero.
11. The resistivity of the conductor varies from high to low whereas the resistivity of an
insulator is very high. Resistivity is the resisting power of the material.
12. The conductor has positive thermal coefficient of resistance whereas the insulator has
the negative thermal coefficient of resistance. The thermal coefficient of resistance
describes the change in the physical property of the material with temperature. If the
resistance increases with the temperature, then it is called the positive thermal
coefficient of resistance. In negative thermal coefficient, the resistance decreases with
the increase in temperature.
13. The conduction band of a conductor is full of electrons whereas the conduction band of
an insulator is empty.
14. The valence band of a conductor is empty whereas the valence band of an insulator is
full of electrons.
15. There is no forbidden gap in conductor whereas the forbidden gap in an insulator is very
large. The forbidden gap is the gap between the valence band and the conduction band
of material. It determines the conductivity of the material. If the gap is small, then the
electron is easily moved from the valence band to the conduction band and hence the
material is considered as a conductor. If the gap between them is large, then the material
is express as an insulator.
16. Copper, silver, aluminium, mercury are the examples of the conductor. The wood, paper,
ceramic etc., are the examples of an insulator.
17. The conductor is used for making electrical wires and cables. The insulator is used for
separating the current carrying conductors and for supporting the electrical equipment.

Examples of Conductors
Conductors are the metals that pass electricity freely and the examples of
conductive materials are Copper, Aluminium, Brass, Graphite, Gold, Brass, Bronze, and
Steel etc.

1. Copper
Copper is a conductive material having a low resistance. The electrons are loosely
attached to a nucleus and flow freely. The energy losses in copper are less when
compared with other conductive metals. The property of high melting point makes the
copper suitable for heating applications. The copper has good thermal conductivity,
electrical conduction, and corrosion resistant. It can be recycled in many forms, tough
and easy to the alloy. Copper has nonmagnetic properties, disinfectant, easily linked to
other metals.

Here are some of the uses of Copper.

Applications of Copper
1. Used in the household for electrical wiring and grounding other than aluminum.
2. Used in Solenoid
3. Electric Bells
4. Water Pipes
5. Electromagnets
6. Locks
7. Electric motors
8. Cookware
9. Power stations
10. Transformers
11. In electrical Cords
12. Pipes and fitting
13. Natural gas pipes
14. Seawater
15. Telecommunication

2. Silver
Silver withstands corrosion and provides oxidation. Hence, it is good for electrical
usage. It is also used in medical applications for antimicrobial analysis. It is a perfect
metal for making jewelry and industrial pipes and fittings.

Applications of Silver
1. Filmy photography
2. Used as catalyst
3. Jewels
4. Used as contact with switches
5. Automobiles
6. In solar panels
7. Soldering metals
8. Used as a disinfectant for preventing wounds.
9. For refining petroleum waste particles.
3. Aluminium
Aluminium is a metal utilized in electronics for its valuable mechanical electrical
attributes. They are used in making conductor pipes, motor assembly housing, and heat
sinks. Aluminium is used in various applications and areas such as:

Aluminium applications
 Antennae
 Telescopic Handlers
 Ladders
 Pharmaceutical coverings
Packaging Applications
 Metal packing
 Food and beverage drinking outlets
 Inclosure applications as screw caps for mineralized water, oils etc.

Foil Applications
Used in making coffee cups, nuts, chocolates, drinks etc.

4. Brass
Brass is used for electrical purpose due to its low cost. Some percentage of zinc
is mixed with different proportions, making almost 15 types of brasses. Generally, Brass
is one of the alloys of copper. It is used for switches, connectors, contacts etc. The
interesting thing is brass is a good metal for making musical instruments due to its
acoustic and ductile properties.

5. Bronze
This is one of the copper alloys that contain lead, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. It
is robust in nature when compared with brass. It is corrosion resistant and flexible. Bronze
is used in ball bearings, surgical instruments, and cast artifacts.

6. Iron
Iron is a good metal with shrinkable properties, damping capacity, fluid in nature.

Applications of Iron:
Cookware, manhole lids, Car parts, Bridges, metro buildings. It is a core element
in building generators, motors, transformers, Audio and video storage devices etc.
Permanent magnets made of iron are used in MRI medical application.
7. Mercury
Mercury is a metal used in various electronic products. It is used in thermometers,
light switches, Thermostatic devices (probes, heating and cooling systems), and vehicles.
Electronic medical devices like blood pressure meter use mercury. Some of the sensors
like Barometer, Hygrometer and Hydrometer use mercury for their operation.

8. Gold
Electronic devices make use of gold coating for eliminating corrosion. It is a good
resource for manufacturing electronic components. Gold is used in soldering joints,
switches, electrical contacts. Gold is used in mobile phones, GPS modules, PDA’s, Digital
calculators, Smart TVs etc. Application areas of gold include medical diagnostic
equipment, satellite components and mechanical parts in aerospace industry etc.

9. Platinum
Platinum as a conductor used as an alternative to gold. It is used in electrical
switches and contacts for preventing corrosion. Applications of platinum include chemical
processing (as a catalyst), Glass industry for making dyes, and extracting crude oil from
petroleum.

10. Graphite
Graphite is used as a semiconductor for making monocrystalline integrated chips. It is
used for making electrodes for plasma engraving. It is used in ion implantation, fiber
optics, surface tiles in space shuttles, and in cryogenic application designs. Automotive
cars use graphite for electrical motors and generator components, in bearing elements,
and in braking systems. In defense, graphite is used as an important element for building
weightless components. Some of them are the wheel and tracking vehicles, unmanned
ships, and airborne missiles.

11. Insulator
The Insulator is a material that retards the flow of electricity. There are different
insulators used in the electrical and electronic component and assemblies. Some of the
insulators are Porcelain, plastic, ceramic, polymer etc.

Examples of Insulators
 Porcelain
It is a material that resists electrical current at eminent temperature. Porcelain has good
dielectric strength, anticorrosive. Porcelain metal is desirable for tension applications
(high and low). It is widely used in chemical processing industries. Used in dental
restoration applications, lab applications, microwave ovens etc.

 Plastic
Plastics do not conduct electricity and hence it is the best insulator for various
applications. They have widely used household goods like lights, hair dryers, vacuum
cleaner, washing machine, refrigerator and many more. Plastics are used for electrical
insulation and wiring shields. They are also employed for heat insulation requirements.
They are used in toasters, fat roasters, coffee kettles, switches, vending machines etc.

 Ceramic
This material is used in areas like textiles, aerospace, electrical, electronics, mechanical
and many more. Ceramic is used in high-temperature devices, electrical appliances, thin
film circuits, heating elements, microwave ovens etc. They are used in high speed
spindles for cutting the PCBs (Printed Circuit boards), brushless motors, vehicle electrical,
and heat exchangers etc. They are also used in healthcare (medical components and
sensors), pacemakers, dental, hearing and medical implants etc.

 Fiber Glass
Fiberglass uses reinforced plastic used in various applications. There are different types
of glass fiber. Fiberglass is used in Beverage for bottling lines, aerospace, marine
industry, automotive, electronics and medical applications. It is also used in food
processing and automotive electronics.

 Quartz
Quartz is a material used for cutting the diamond crystals. It is the primary element in
making watches and semiconductor. Grinding machines employ quartz for milling and
crushing. Electronic circuits like VCXO, TCXO oscillators use quartz for generating
frequencies. Moreover, it is also used to separate out wanted and unwanted frequencies.

 Mica
Mica is an ore used as an electronic insulator, in paints, to eliminate dust and welding
rods. It is the best insulator used in fire extinguisher, pipe insulation, roofing industry,
gaskets, sports equipment, and also for making microscopic samples. The flow of
electricity depends on the material and metal used in semiconductors, conductor, and an
insulator. Hence, proper selection of conductor and insulator is required based on the
metallic properties.