Chapter 1 ⮚ equipped with standard safelight installed not lower than

The Processing Room 1.3m(3ft) from the working bench or the processing tanks
This Chapter covers the introduction to the processing room and ⮚ constructed with an air inlet and outlet with exhaust fan – these
the accessories required inside it. This contains the areas found in openings must be designed so that no light shall enter the
the radiology department, processing room design and the darkroom while the processing is done
minimum requirements in putting up a processing room based on
⮚ preferably must have louver blocks, painted black to absorb
the Department of Health’s Administrative Order No. 35, series
whitelight, placed on the lower portion of the door for ventilation
of 1994, “Requirements for the Control of Radiation Hazards
from Clinical Diagnostic X-ray Facilities”.
⮚ adequate supply of water
Major requirements inside the darkroom are likewise found in ⮚ good drainage system
this chapter which are the loading bench, the sink, the different ⮚ contains master tank, for manual processing, or an automatic
types of lightproof entrances, types of illumination inside the processor or both
darkroom and the appropriate filters. Sections in the darkroom is ⮚ luminous interval timer
also discussed here, as well as the characteristicsof a good ⮚ metallic stem dial type thermometer
darkroom. ⮚ mercury or alcohol thermometer with metallic casing
⮚ standard manual processing technique chart that indicates time
development, temperature of the solution and the number of films
AREAS IN RADIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
developed
⮚ walls painted white or placed with white tiles on floors and
1. INFORMATION AREA OR RECEIVING AREA
walls –
⮚ A place where patient complete data receipted gathered and
⮚ Non Reflective Paint.
schedule for examination.
⮚ sink and a working dry bench
2. DRESSING ROOM ⮚ automatic electronic lock to avoid accidental opening of the
⮚ An area where the patient change their dress to laboratory room during processing
gown for examination. ⮚ must contain film hangers and film cassettes of different sizes
⮚ a small processing room measures 15 x 9 ½ feet that permits a
3. EXPOSURE ROOM daily production of about 200 radiographs.
⮚ An area where x-ray examination is conducted for routine and
special radiography, as well as, fluoroscopic procedure of Work surface (Loading Bench)
diagnosing certain disease. ⮚ at least 1.3 m long for the loading and unloading of cassettes
⮚ MOST important room ⮚ should be constructed of a hard, anti-static material that is
easily cleaned
4. DARK ROOM OR PROCESSING ROOM ⮚ A light color is appropriate for all surfaces in the room, as this
⮚ A room devoid of all white light in which the processing cycle reduces the safe-lighting wattage required and allows for the
of theexposed x –ray film takes place. detection of light leaks.
⮚ The most SECOND important room in Radiology Department. ⮚ Beige or mid-grey is a poor choice for darkroom counters or
floors since film emulsion is this color, and a film may not be
5. READING ROOM OR INTERPRETATION ROOM seen if it is placed on the counter.
⮚ An area where Radiologist makes diagnostic report or findings
tointerpret or rule-out pathologic conditions based on the patient Sink
request. ⮚ A large sink is required, installed at waist height to
⮚ Radiograph is viewed by the aid of NEGATOSCOPE or accommodate the cleaning of the rollers from the processor.
VIEWBOX. ⮚ This sink should be at least 60 cm wide by 45 cm deep and be
provided with both hot and cold water.
6. SORTING AREA ⮚ There should be a laundry tub hose at least long enough to
⮚ An area where patient’s diagnostic report were stored. reach into every part of the processor connected to a mixing
⮚ Sorting out or classifying name of film number and the period faucet
were examination was taken
Sections in the Darkroom
7. FILING ROOM 1. DRY SECTION
⮚ Where x – ray films/radiographs are stored. 2. WET SECTION
Processing Room/Darkroom Design ⮚ The minimum distance between these areas should be 4 Feet
⮚ there shall be a separate darkroom constructed near the x-ray LIGHTPROOF ENTRANCE
examination room - An entrance that is easily accessible while providing complete
Requirements protection from the outside.
Based on Department of Health A.O. # 35, Series of 1994
⮚ well-ventilated GENERAL TYPES OF LIGHTPROOF ENTRANCE
1. SINGLE DOOR
⮚ light-tight
⮚ The Radiologist and his Technologist are the only person who
⮚ minimum dimension of 2.0m x 1.5 m
routinely utilizes the processing with an inside bolt
⮚ must be far or away from steam pipes and direct source of heat or lock will suffice.
⮚ must be away or far from any source of radiation ⮚ It is appropriate for small x-ray section
wherein few persons only use the room.
⮚ The door must have an inside lock to ⮚ It is a form of fluorescent bulb or small bulb that gives enough
prevent any accidental opening while light that we need to do such activities like cleaning the room,
working on the said film. washing the tanks, mixing a solution, placing film in the dryer
and unloading films in the hanger.
2. LIGHT LOCK / DOUBLE DOOR ⮚ The white light must be placed away from the storage of the
⮚ This type of entrance may be consisting of a small hall with films.
two doors. One opening and the other to the outside.
⮚ There must be a mechanical interlock so that both doors can be 2. SAFE LIGHT
opened of the same time to move supplies into processing room ⮚ Is design to give enough visibility to accomplish all necessary
or in case of emergency duties in the handling and processing x-ray film without harmful
⮚ Darkroom work can go on without interruption. effect to any unprocessed film
⮚ A safe light consist of all filter used in a lamp housing to
3. LABYRINTH OR MAZE provide light such as spectral quality and intensity that it does not
⮚ This is not provided with doors. fog film exposed to it for reasonable handling period.
⮚ It prevents the entrance of white light to the processing room, ⮚ It is a lamp with color filters that provide sufficient
yet provides air circulation. illumination in the darkroom to give enough visibility in the
⮚ It requires, however at least twice as much floor space as a processing room for the handling and processing of x-ray films.
light lock. ⮚ It consists of lamp housing with 15 - watts bulb and a filter
⮚ The passage way must not be narrower than 2 feet; 6 feet in (6Bfilter) to provide light of such spectral quality and intensity
height with an entrance should be limited to 7 feet. that does not fog the film exposed to it for reasonable handling
period.
⮚ The walls and the ceiling should be painted with flat non-
reflected paint and be illuminated by safe light. ⮚ The safelight must be mounted on the top of dry section.
⮚ a zigzag hall way ⮚ It should not be closer than 5 feet from the work surface.
⮚ without source of light which end up to the processing room ⮚ With blue-sensitive film, or film used with calcium-tungstate
screens, an amber filter is used.
4. REVOLVING DOOR ⮚ The amber filter transmits light that has wavelengths longer
⮚ the best type of door which consists of master door and inside that about 550nm.
door ⮚ The use of an amber filter would fog green-sensitive film (used
⮚ master door has two openings, one with rare- earth screens); therefore a red filter, which transmits
coming from the outside and other from the inside of the light above about 600nm, must be used.
darkroom ⮚ Photographic safelight filters are of the absorption gelatin type
⮚ inside door has only one opening and are designed so that darkrooms have as high degree of
illumination as is consistent with the safe handling of
ILLUMINATION photosensitive materials.
✔ Different lights used in a Darkroom ⮚ Manufacturers recommend replacement of the safelight filters
every two years.
✔ Two levels of lighting should be available in the darkroom.
⮚ At the time of replacement, document the date on the filter
✔ A strong white light should be provided by surface-mounted
with a marking pen.
incandescent fixtures.
⮚ The filter should be inserted in such a way that it will be
✔ Fluorescent bulbs tend to emit a long afterglow that may fog
possible to read the writing and easily determine when the next
films if they are switched off just before the films are unloaded or
replacement is due.
loaded. ✔ Safe lighting should be provided, with manufacturer-
recommended filters in ceiling mounted fixtures. 2 Types of Safelight
✔ 15W bulbs are the maximum recommended for direct safe-
lighting 1. Direct Type- is mounted on the dry side with the light emitted
✔ 25W bulbs may be used if the safe-lighting is indirect. toward the area.
✔ It is important to check current recommended safelight
wattages with the film provider as some films require much 2. Indirect Type- the light emitted by the lamp from the dry side
lower power ratings than these levels (e.g. Kodak recommends a bouncing toward the area.
7.5 watt bulb with their Min-R2000andEV films). ⮚ In the darkroom there must be an unlighted switch for the
✔ There should be a switched duplex receptacle mounted in the white light (1.6m off floor) and another unlighted switch for the
ceiling for the safelight. safelight (1.4 m off floor).
✔ The switches for the safelight and white light should be ⮚ safelight housing must be provided with a safelight filter made
located at the door, but at different heights above the floor to of glass or hard plate
avoid errors in the dark. ⮚ safelight filter must be tinted with amber or red
⮚ must not fog a pre-exposed film within 45 seconds
⮚ safelight bulb must have a wattage of not more than 15 watts
1. WHITELIGHT
⮚ Use to perform many activities, such as:
a. Mixing chemicals WRATTEN GB FILTER
b. Cleaning tanks ⮚ Is the recommended type of filter that the light produce is not
c. Unloading film hangers in the same spectral range as the film sensitivity
⮚ White light should have a sufficient intensity to afford a
general illumination. TYPES OF SAFELIGHT FILTER
1. Amber Filter - for blue sensitive film (Wratten GB) ⮚ The depth is determined by the distance a person can easily
reach on the surface without undue leaning or stretching, 24
2. Red Filter - for green and blue sensitive film (GBX 2) In inches is recommended.
addition, sodium vapor lamps are also used in darkroom.
b. FILM BIN
⮚ Sodium-vapor lamp - a gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium ⮚ It is customary to deep supply of opened boxes of film
in an excited state to produce light. sufficient for immediate needs, located underneath the loading
bench.
low pressure and high pressure ⮚ The most convenient method is to use a lightproof film bin
Low-pressure sodium lamps - highly efficient electrical light possessing compartment in which opened film boxes can be kept.
sources, but their yellow light restricts applications to outdoor
lighting such c. STORAGE COMPARTMENT
as street lamps; only give monochromatic yellow light (589nm) ⮚ The ideal way to store cassette and film holders is in vertical
and so inhibit color vision at night. compartment, so that they are readily accessible but not encroach
on the working surface of the loading bench.
High-pressure sodium lamps - have a broader spectrum of light
than the low-pressure lamps, but still poorer color rendering than d. STORAGE CABINET
other types of lamps
⮚ A cabinet which you can store, different accessories used in
processing such as:
⮚ 5 Watts, tungsten bulb is recommended which is widely used.
✔ Package chemicals
The particular wattage is enough to provide adequate
✔ Mixing accessories
illumination and not have any adverse effect on film.
✔ Towels and etc.
3. WET FILM ILLUMINATOR
⮚ It is mounted above and rears the washing tank which save for e. STORAGE HANGER
the inspection of radiograph during course of hardening and ⮚ Film hangers are usually stored above or below the loading
washing bench
⮚ This illuminator is being switch-on if it is necessary to check
the film within fixer solution during the course of hardening and f. CASSETTE TRANSFER CABINET
when washing a film. ⮚ The cassette transfer cabinet for cassette film holders should be
⮚ Before turning on the illuminator, be sure that there will be no open in to the loading bench, so that these items can be move to
open box of film on the dry side and no film is under the the bench top without undue lifting or carrying.
developer solution or in stop bath to avoid the exposure of the ⮚ The opening to the exposure room makes film folders readily
film. available to the technologist.

4. WALL FINISHED ILLUMNATOR g. WASTE RECEPTACLE

⮚ The walls and ceiling of the room must be painted with non- ⮚ The best arrangement for a waste paper receptacle is to
reflective paint so as to prevent any reflected light from any incorporate it in a lower part of the loading bench.
surface.
⮚ If the safelight is not too safe with slightly high spectral h. VENTILATION
quality and intensity as it interact to the walls which causes the ⮚ An ideal darkroom needs a proper air-conditioning which
exposure of the film. protects the film upon storage and prevents the evaporation of the
processing solution used in the processing tank.
DARKROOM SECTIONS ⮚ The humidity must range from 40% to 60%. Since storage
under high humidity which is above 60% will reduce contrast of
1. DRY SECTION image and increase fog.
⮚ Area in a darkroom where loading and unloading of film ⮚ If the relative humidity drops 4%, static artifacts are possible.
hanger and film holder take place. ⮚ An ideal temperature must range from 19.44 0C or 67
0Fahrenheit to200Cor 68 F, since x-ray films are sensitive to a
COMPONENTS high temperature and humidity.
⮚ Heat reduces contrast and increases the fog of a radiograph.
a. LOADING BENCH ⮚ A film could be stored for a long period if the temperature
⮚ The primary components of the dry section of the processing maintained at 10C or 50 0F.
room. ⮚ The air movement should be between 15 to 25 feet per minute.
⮚ It contains an area for loading and unloading film holders.
⮚ Incoming air will pass through filter to remove dust.
⮚ The length of the loading bench depends on the volume of
⮚ If possible, electric fan should be installed to have an
work and the space available.
additional air circulation.
⮚ The maximum length of the working surface should
⮚ There should be at least 10 air changes per hour in the room to
accommodate TWO (2)14 x 17 inch cassette (28 inches long and
ensure removal of chemical fumes from the area.
17 inches width), end to end, to permit unloading and reloading
⮚ Supply air should be between 15°C and 21° C with a humidity
of two cassettes.
level between 40% and 60%.
⮚ The proper height of a loading bench for the average standing
personis3Feet.
2. WET SECTION
⮚ This is the area in a darkroom where processing of x-ray films
take place.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD DARKROOM

⮚ Darkroom should be centrally located with relation to the
radiographic rooms.
⮚ Darkroom should exclude all white light; the doors and outlet
must be light proof and all safelight filters must be in good
condition.
⮚ A method of entrance into the darkroom should be constructed
with either maze or labyrinth type of doors.
⮚ The size of darkroom will vary with the condition of
operations and the size of the department. One must realize that
there should be adequate space to all necessary equipment for
good darkroom operation.
⮚ A good darkroom should be properly illuminated with various
type of lighting, including a proper safelight, a view box by
which used to inspect radiograph and overhead or general
illumination to be used when the darkroom needs to be cleaned.
 • a single emulsion film that is exposed to ultraviolet light
through the existing radiograph to provide a copy
IMAGE RECEPTOR
4. SUBTRACTION FILM
GENERAL TYPES OF FILM USED IN DIAGNOSTIC • single emulsion film
IMAGING • used in cinefluorography( is a special examination
reserved almost exclusively for Cardiac Catheterization
1. DIRECT-EXPOSURE FILM Laboratory)
• used without IS
• often called non-screen film 5. CINE FILMS
• intended to be used in a cardboard holder (instead of a • two sizes of Cine Films
cassette) a. 16mm x 35mm width supplied in 100-500 ft roll- a movie
• it has a single emulsion that is significantly thicker than of the film
screen film and requires more development time. - used in Gastrointestinal Series (GIS) studies
• it requires more exposure and necessitates manual b. Roll film if 7-105 mm width, used in a number of different
processing types if spot filming
• used for intraoral dental radiography, but it is considered
to be an outdated technology 6. DENTAL FILM
These are produced in two principal sizes
2. SCREEN-FILM i. For Intra-Oral exposure
• used with IS, available in a single emulsion or double ii. For panceramic exposure
emulsion film
• the most widely used radiographic film TYPES OF DENTAL FILMS
• more sensitive to light and less sensitive to x-rays a. PERIAPICAL FILM- used in exposure of teeth
• the emulsion layers is thinner than those of direct export including the roots
film and requires less development time b. INTERPROXIMAL(BITEWING) FILM- for locating
• requires less x-ray exposure and can be either manually or cavities between the teeth
automatically processed and can have either a single or double c. OCCLUSAL FILM- used for examining the biting
emulsion coating (duplitized as what they call it) surface of the teeth

a. SINGLE-EMULSION SCREEN FILM 7. PHOTOFLUOROGRAPHIC FILM

- with only one emulsion layer and used with single IS - a film used in photofluorography such as chest survey
- it has many uses- duplication, subtraction, CT, MRI, which are usually supplied in roll sheets
sonography, nuclear medicine, mammography, and laser printing
- it contains an anti curl/antihalation layer- a colored FILM CONSTRUCTION (PIC)
backing on single-emulsion film that prevents the film from 1. BASE
curling and preventing halation - supports the emulsion
- Halation- refers to an image being recorded on the film - 150-300 um thick
by reflected light that exposes the emulsion a second time - semi rigid lucent and made of polyester
- the foundation of the radiographic film
b. DOUBLE-EMULSION FILM - primary purpose is to provide a rigid structure unto which
- it has an emulsion coating on both sides of the base and a the emulsion can be coated
layer of super coat over each coating - it is flexible and fracture-resistant
- also uses two IS - it maintains the film shape and size during use and
processing to limit extortion
OTHER TYPES OF FILMS IN RADIOGRAPHY - dye- is added to tint the film blue reduce eye strain
1. MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM Dimensional Stability- is the property of the base to maintain its
• originally used in industrial radiography this film is used size and shape
in examining the female breast
• a single coated film made of silver halide crystals FOUR TYPES OF BASE
designed to exposed in single IS a. GLASS PLATE- the original film base
b. CELLULOSE NITRATE- becomes a substitute of the
TWO BRAND OF MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM DESIGNED glass plate and highly flammable
TO EXPOSED WITH SINGLE IS c. CELLULOSE TRIACETATE- not flammable and
A. LO DOSE referred to as safety base
- it is made of calcium tungsten (CoWo4) d. POLYESTER- more resistant to warping from age and
- manufactured by E.I Dupoort de Nemourse and Company stronger and thinner than cellulose triacitate
B. MIN-R
- made of rare earth 2. EMULSION
- manufactured by Eastern Kodak and Company - the heart of the x-ray film
- the most important part of the x-ray film
2. VIDEO RECORDING FILM - where x-rays and light photons from IS interacting and
-used in Cathode Ray Tubing (CRT) especially in Computerized transfer information
Tomography, Digital Radiography, MRI - consist of homogenous mixture of gelatin and silver halide
crystals and coated evenly in 3-5 um thick
3. DUPLICATING FILM - the gelatin in the emulsion provides mechanical support
for the silver halide crystals
 - the degree to which the emulsion is sensitive to x-rays or
QUALITIES OF A GOOD EMULSION light
- greater the speed of the film the more sensitive it is
FLEXIBLE QUALITY- the emulsion should have the same - increase in sensitivity results in less exposure necessary to
flexibility as the film is made so as not to crack the layer if the produce a specific density
dried gelatin - when the spectral matching is improper the speed of th IR
is reduced and the patient dose is increase
WETTABILITY- gelatin in its natural state is rigid in water
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
HARDENING QUALITY- the gelatin softens in water and SPEED
especially when immersed in warm water which is susceptible to - the number of silver halide crystals present
surface damage. Adding suitable hardening material prevent - the size of the silver halide crystals
excessive softening of the gelatin Both of the factors deals with the silver halide crystals found in
the emulsion layer of the film
4. COATING OF THE FILM
- before the emulsion can be coated on the film base, the base 2. SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
itself must be coated with a thin layer of adhesive layer to the - it refers to the color of light to which a particular film is
emulsion and film base most sensitive
- the emulsion is coated on both side of the film base - two categories of spectral sensitivity films: Blue-
- the film base is about 0.001 of an inch thick which is then sensitive (monochromatic)
allowed to dry Green-sensitive (orthochromatic)

Adhesive layer- simply adheres one layer of the film to another 3. SPECTRAL EMISSION
Silver Halide Crystals - refers to the color of light produces by a particular IS, blue
- the active ingredient of the emulsion light-emitting—
- the material that is sensitive to radiation and light
- are photosensitive crystal composed primarily of IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS
a. Silver Bromide
b. Silver Chloride A. SILVER HALIDE AND FILM SENSITIVITY
c. Silver Iodide - as the number of silver halide crystals INCREASES, film
sensitivity or speed INCREASES
COMPOSITION OF SILVER HALIDE CRYSTAL - as the size of the silver halide crystals INCREASES, film
a. Silver Bromide sensitivity or speed INCREASES

- most commonly used silver crystal B. FILM SPEED AND FILM SENSITIVITY
- it is a combination of silver nitrate and potassium bromide - the faster the speed of a film, the less radiation exposure
b. Silver Chloride needed to produce a specific density

- an emulsion containing only silver chloride which has the C. SPECTRAL MATCHING AND DENSITY
advantages of rapid development and fixing its principal - to best use a film-screening system, the radiographer must
disadvantage is its lower photosensitivity match the color sensitivity of the film with the color emission of
- it is a combination of silver nitrate and potassium chloride the IS
- Failure to do so results in suboptimal density
c. Silver Iodide
- this is suspended to increase the speed of the emulsion and D. SPECTRAL EMISSION AND SPECTRAL
to increase the time taken from the film to clear in the fixer SENSITIVITY
- it is a combination of a silver nitrate and potassium iodide - the spectral emission of IS must be matched to the spectral
sensitivity of the film
3. ADHESIVE LAYER - the spectral emission of safelight filters in the darkroom
- a thin coating of material between the emulsion and base must be compatible with the spectral sensitivity of the film
- it ensures the uniform adhesion between the emulsion and - safelight filters are places in safelights to produce a
base particular color of light for illumination that matches the spectral
- allows the emulsion and base to maintain proper contact sensitivity of the film
during use and processing - failure to use the right type of safelight filters would result
in unusually high levels of safelight fogging on the film and it
THE RECIPROCITY LAW would appears as a radiographic image with increases density
- States that exposure of film depends in the intensity of x- and decreased contrast
ray of the exit beam and the time the film is exposed to those x-
ray a. GBX filter- used for both the blue- and green-sensitive
- only applicable on direct-exposure film film (GBX stands for green/blue x-ray)
- states the inverse relationship between exposure and time
- intensity x time= constant OD b. GBX Wratten 1A safelight filter is safe for green-
sensitive only
FILM CHARACTERISTICS c. GBX Wratten 6B safelight filter is safe for blue-
1. FILM SPEED sensitive film only
- defined as the intensity of the screen film combination to
x-rays and light FILM HOLDERS
1. HANGERS AND CLIPS b. PHOSPHORESCENCE- occurs when screen phosphors
2. CARDBOARD continue to emit light after the x-ray exposure has stopped. Other
3. CASSETTE WITH IS name, screen lag and afterglow

CASSETTE SCREEN CONSTRUCTION

-a thin light-tight container, slightly larger than the film where it
is intended to hold A. PROTECTIVE LAYER
- the outermost layer and found closest to the film
1. FRONT COVER - made of plastic and protects the fragile phosphor material
- usually made of Carbon fiber and other plastic materials beneath it
- must be rigid and durable but radiolucent
- made of materials with low atomic number so that it will B. PHOSPHOR LAYER/ ACTIVE LAYER
not attenuate radiation - the most important screen component because it contains
- carbon fiber- material used as front cover due to its the phosphor material that absorbs the transmitted x-rays and
strength and heat resistance converts them to visible light

2. BACK PART C. REFLECTING LAYER OR ABSORBING LAYER

- made of steel of light-weight material such as magnesium - depending on how the IS is being manufactured but it
or lead FELT GASKET never contain both
- added to ensure light-proof edges of the cassette - Reflecting layer- it consists of either magnesium oxide or
- also referred to as compression device titanium dioxide; the purpose is to reflect all the light (emitted by
- maintains low screen film contact when cassette is closed phosphors) toward the film
and latched
- Absorbing layer- it is generally consists of a light-
CASSETTE PROBLEMS absorbing dye, which is use to absorb light directed toward it by
1. BENT OR WARPED the phosphor layer
2. LIGHT LEAKS
3. NON-STANDARDIZATION D. BASE
4. AIR-TRAPPING- takes about 15ms for the air to escape - bottom layer of the IS
the cassette - found farthest from the film
5. POOR SCREEN CONTACT - made of polyester cardboard
- must be flexible and chemically stable and provides
INTENSIFYING SCREEN support and stability for the phosphor layer
- used in radiography to enhance the effects of radiation in
producing film blackening and to increase contrast TYPES OF PHOSPHOR
- part of the radiographic cassette that converts x-rays into
visible light 1. CALCIUM TUNGSTATE PHOSPHOR
- a device found in radiographic cassette that contains
phosphors that contains x-ray energy into light, which then 2. RARE EARTH PHOSPHORS
exposes the radiographic film - rare earth elements, theta relatively difficult and expensive
to extract from the earth
PHOSPHORS- a chemical compound that emits visible light - according to research it absorbs more x-rays, converts the
when struck by radiation x-rays to visible light more efficiently and results improved
- the purpose of IS is to decrease the patient’s radiation dose recorded detail in the radiographic image as compared with
when compared with use of an image receptor that does not use calcium tungstate
IS, such as direct exposure radiography - Increased thickness of phosphor layer= increased speed=
increased density

In what way does the IS reduce patient dose? IS PHOSPHOR MATERIALS AND THEIR SPECTRAL
- the film is placed inside a light-tight cardboard holder then EMISSION
used as image receptor (direct exposure) Phosphors- Spectral Emission Calcium Tungstate (CaWO4)-
- the additions of IS allows the radiographer to use Blue Rare earth elements:
significantly less mAs compared with not using screens (direct
exposure) Lanthanum Oxybromide (LaOBr)- Blue Yttrium Tantalate
- less mAs decreases the patient dose and allows shorter (YTaO4)- Ultraviolet Blue Gadolinium Oxysulfide (Gd2O2s)-
exposure time to be used Green Others:
Barium Lead Sulfite (BaPbSO4)- Blue
LUMINESCENCE Barium Strontium Sulfate (BaSrSO4)- Blue
- the IS operates by a process known as luminescence- the
emission of light from the screen when stimulated by radiation SCREEN SPEED
- the capability of a screen to produce visible light with a
faster screen producing more light than a slower screen (given
- two ways that an IS may luminesce: the same exposure)
a. FLUORESCENCE- refers to the ability of phosphors to
emit visible light only while exposed to x-rays
INTENSIFICATION FACTOR
- it accurately represents the degree to which exposure
factors (and patient dose) are reduced when IS are used.

FORMULA: IF= EXPOSURE REQUIRED W/O SCREENS/

EXPOSURE REQUIRED WITH SCREENS

LIGHT EMISSIONS AND PATIENT DOSE

- the faster the IS, the more light emitted for the same
intensity of exposure
- as screen speed increases, less radiation is necessary and
radiation dose to patient decreases
- as screen speed decreases, more radiation is necessary and
radiation dose to the patient increases
- for the same exposure, as screen exposure increases,
density increases; as screen speed decreases, density decreases
- screen speed and density are directly proportional
- the mAs conversion formula for screens- a formula used
by the radiographer to determined how to adjust or compensate
mAs when changing IS speeds
FORMULA: mAs is inversely proportional to screen speed
mAs1= relative speed2
— = mAs2= relative speed1

QUANTUM MOTTLE/ IMAGE NOISE

- defined as the statistical fluctuation in the image quantity
of x-ray photons that contribute to image formation per square
millimeter
- it occurs when a very low number of photons are needed
by the IS to produce appropriate image density, the image
appears mottled or spiotchy or can be described as ‘salt and
pepper lock’ versus a consistent homogeneous density
- often a direct result of using very fast speed-screen film
systems which require very small amounts of exposure
- the only strategy for reducing quantum mottle is the use of
more mAs (more photons), by using a slower speed system
(requiring more mAs) or increasing mAs while decreasing the
kVp

SCREEN CHARACTERISTICS
1. x-ray absorption
2. Screen conversion efficiency
3. image noise
4. quantum mottle
5. spatial resolution or image blue
6. line- pair test pattern
7. intensification factor
Automatic processing Diffusion- process by which washing works on the film
-paco ang ga develop
Drying- 10 to 15%
roller type - mutuyok ra diretso isman codac in 1956 (developed)

1965 developed a 95 sec rapid processing by isman codac

AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR
first step processing sequence: old days - invented because of rapid movement in radiology department.
- faster work
wetting - before e process ang film basaon sa to prepare the film, - 1942 invented by PACO
para sayon ra musulod ang chemical - Use of tank system (tank to tank)
- Isman codac in 1956 (replaced by)
developing- converting latent image into manifest image - Roller type automatic processor
- With 3 tanks (developer, fixer, and washer)
stop bath- e stop ang buhaton para dili masunog ang film - Has different system

fixing (hypo)- make the image permanent making it available for 4 stages of automatic processing
a very long period of time (archival quality), to remove an - Developing, fixing, washing, drying
exposed silver halide crystals (main purpose) -archival quality
Transform system
washing- terminate the action of fixing, remove fixing chemical - We have the ruler
in order to prevent the film to turn into yellow or coloration - Transport ruler (transport the film, convey the film along its
(hypo rentention) 20secs path with the diameter of 1 in), master ruler (longest ruler and
can be seen at the bottom), planetary ruler (can be seen around
dying - leave at least 10% to 15% moisture in order to avoid the master ruler)
crack, 36 seconds remkve water substances
- Guide shoe (will guide the film as it turn around the master
Processing chemistry: walay explanation ruler and curve metal lip w smooth curves that guides the film
around the bend)
how can a certain image converted into manifest image?
- silver ion (ionic silver) (ang nagtapok sa center) (mga charged - Transport rack assembly (rulers that can be detached, a rack,
particles, positive charge) -(how is it produce?) because ang ang nagpa tuyok, provide for convenient maintenance such as
silber halide crystal na ionized, na detach sa latice paingon sa cleaning and has a guide shoe)
sensitivity center - Cross over rack (rollers found between two tanks that
- pag develop naa tay gitawag na europe (electron use in facilitates the film from one tank to another)
reduction oxidation produces electron) - Drive subsystem (provide power that turn rollers

developer chemicals: Temperature system

hydroquinone, phenedone- reducing agents - monitors and adjust the temperature of the developer
- to reduce a certain chemical - Developer is 35C and 95F
- mugamit ug electrons or produced electrons. - Water is 32 celcius 85 F
phenedone- producing shades of gray
- metol (other term) Circulation System
elon-metol > kung manual processing - Agitate with the chemicals to develop
- Continuously mix the chemicals
- Aid exposure to the chemicals

synergism Replenishment System

- working together, same processes but the result is different - Meters the proper quantities of chemicals into each tank to
maintain volume and chemical activity.
PRODUCING RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITIES - Replenishment rate is 12L per minute

Buffering agent maintain akalinity -sodium carbonate Developer is 60 to 70 ml for every 40 inc thickness of film
develop
Potassium bromide- anti fogging Fixer is 100 to 110 ml for every 35 cm of film

Sodium sulfite - Dryer system

- We have blower, ventilation ducts, exhaust system
Sequestering agent -Produces other trace chemicals Dump film - film na sige rang basa because of depletion of
gluaraldehyde (hardener)
Fixer- remove the unexposed silver halide crystals to make the Electrical system
image permanent - A composition of fuse box
-tangtangon si silver ion mabilin si metalic silver
-stop developers function Film tray - placed the film that is not developed
-ammonium thiosulfate -removes undeveloped silver halide Entrance roller - (rubber type roller) the first roller that gripped
crystals from emulsion the film to begin the processing
Micro switch - controls the replenishment rate of the chemicals,
can be seen at the entrance

ARTIFACT
- Any optical density of the radiograph sophor position that can
cause or of the anatomy
- Any undesirable optical density of the radiograph that can
interfere in the diagnosis/image
- A mark which is foreign

3 reasons why there is an artifact:

Exposure artifact
- Because of exposure/during the xposure that happen inside the
xray room

Processing artifact
- Developed during film processing

Handling and storage artifact

- Developed during handling or pagtago sa film

Guide shoe mark

- Occur when the guide shoe spring are improperly positioned

P.I lines
- Cause by dirt and stain in the roller

Wet pressure sensitization

- Produce in the developer tank, irregular or dirty roller will
cause pressure during development and produce small circular
pattern of increased density.

Gelatin build up
- Dirty roller can cause emulsion pick of and gelatin build up

(Grid is use to improve image contrast)

If high ang kvp, high ang scatter rad
If high ang scatter, high ang fogging
If high ang ang fogging, high a g shades of gray
If there is high shades f gray, there is low contrast

Static marks
- It causes build up electrons in the emulsion and is most
noticeable during the winder low humiditys
- Happens during low humidity

Crescent marks
- Half moon shape densities resukt to being subjected to pressure

Halo marks
- Brought by air bubbles tp the surface of thd film processing

Bleb
- Are drying marks, characterized by whitish on the film causes
by in a adequate film drainage and an increase temperature or
drying

Kiss marks
- Are greenish white smudge at the film surface brought about the
film touching each other in the area of smudge during processing

Streaks
- Either black or white on the radiograph