Spe 104 1
Spe 104 1
Spe 104 1
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ISBN: 978-021-386-6
Table of Contents
About this course manual............................................................................................................................................. 1
How this course manual is structured .................................................................................................................... 1
Course overview............................................................................................................................................................... 3
Welcome to Introduction to Special Education SPE104 ................................................................................. 3
Introduction to Special Education SPE104—is this course for you? ......................................................... 3
Course outcomes .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Timeframe........................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Assignments ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Study Session 1 7
General Concepts in Special Education .................................................................................................................. 7
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 The Meaning of Special Education ....................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Changes in Terminology ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Categories of Children with Exceptional Needs ............................................................................. 9
Study Session summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Study Session 2 11
Mental Retardation ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 The Meaning and Prevalence of Mental Retardation ................................................................ 11
2.2 Causes of Mental Retardation ............................................................................................................. 12
A. Prenatal Causes (Before birth) ................................................................................................ 12
B. Peri-natal Causes (During birth) ............................................................................................. 13
C. Postnatal Causes (After birth) .................................................................................................. 13
2.3 Characteristics of Persons with Mental Retardation ................................................................ 13
A. Educational/Intellectual characteristics ............................................................................. 13
B. Behavioural / Emotional Characteristics ............................................................................ 13
C. Physical Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 13
2.4 Classifications of Mental Retardation .............................................................................................. 14
2.4.1 Old/Traditional Classification............................................................................................ 14
2.4.2 New/Educational Classification ........................................................................................ 14
2.4.3 British Classification .............................................................................................................. 14
2.4.4 Clinical Classification ............................................................................................................. 14
2.5 Educational Programmes for Persons with Mental Retardation ......................................... 15
2.6 Prevention of Mental Retardation..................................................................................................... 15
Table of Contents ii
Study Session 3 17
Visual Impairment ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 The Meaning of Visual Impairment .................................................................................................. 17
3.2 Causes of Visual Impairment ............................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Signs, Characteristics and Features of Visual Impairment ..................................................... 19
3.4 Educating the Visually Impaired........................................................................................................ 20
3.5 Prevention of Visual Impairment ...................................................................................................... 21
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 21
Study Session 4 22
Learning Disabilities .................................................................................................................................................... 22
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
4.1 Historical Background to Learning Disabilities .......................................................................... 22
4.2 Definition of Learning Disabilities .................................................................................................... 23
Consideration of some Harmonised Definitions ................................................................... 24
4.3 Characteristics of Learning Disabilities .......................................................................................... 25
4.3.1 Hyperactivity ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.3.2 Withdrawal Syndrome .......................................................................................................... 26
4.3.3 Emotional Instability.............................................................................................................. 26
4.3.4 Attention Deficit/Short Attention Problems ............................................................... 26
4.3.5 Clumsiness and Awkwardness .......................................................................................... 27
4.3.6 Low Frustration Tolerance.................................................................................................. 27
4.3.7 Preservation .............................................................................................................................. 27
4.3.8 Acting on Impulse.................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.9 Perceptual Motor Impairments ......................................................................................... 27
4.3.10 Cognitive Information Processing ................................................................................. 28
4.3.11 Poor Academic Achievement ........................................................................................... 28
4.3.12 Differential Intelligence ..................................................................................................... 28
4.4 Types Learning Disabilities.................................................................................................................. 29
4.5 Causes of Learning Disabilities ........................................................................................................... 29
4.5.1 Neurological Causes ............................................................................................................... 29
4.5.2 Maturational Delay ................................................................................................................. 30
4.5.3 Biochemical Imbalances ....................................................................................................... 30
4.5.4 Genetic Causes .......................................................................................................................... 30
4.5.5 Environmental Causes........................................................................................................... 30
4.5.6 Unknown Causes...................................................................................................................... 31
4.6 Identification of Learning Disabilities ............................................................................................. 31
4.7 Challenges of Learning Disabilities................................................................................................... 31
4.7.1 Challenges of Learning Disabilities to Educators ...................................................... 31
4.7.2 Challenges of Learning Disabilities to Specialists...................................................... 32
4.7.3 Strategies of overcoming the challenges of learning disabilities ........................ 32
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 33
Study Session 5 35
Communication Disorders ........................................................................................................................................ 35
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Study Session 6 44
Autism Spectrum Disorders ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
6.1 Characteristics of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)................................. 44
6.2 Causes of Autism....................................................................................................................................... 45
6.3 Types of Disorders in Autistic Spectrum........................................................................................ 46
6.4 Challenges and Implications for Autism ......................................................................................... 46
Implications for Treatment ............................................................................................................ 47
Intensive and sustained special programmes ........................................................................ 47
Classroom Strategies for Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders......................... 47
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 47
Study Session 7 48
Physical and Health Impairments .......................................................................................................................... 48
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
7.1 Nature of Physical and Health Impairments................................................................................. 48
7.2 Categories of Physical and Health impairments ......................................................................... 48
7.3 Educational Implications for Children with Physical and Health Impairments ............ 49
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 49
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 50
About this course manual
1
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this course manual; these may
be books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing Introduction to Special Education we would appreciate
it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any
aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
2
Course overview
Course overview
Welcome to Introduction to
Special Education SPE104
This course brings to your awareness the existence of different categories
of disability conditions in your immediate environments and
communities. It attempts to enhance your understanding of these
conditions and their impact on learners. Contemporary issues on helping
people with disabilities get fully integrated into the society without
difficulty will also be discussed.
Introduction to Special
Education SPE104—is this
course for you?
SPE104 is a 3 unit faculty course that is intended for people who
potential teachers of children with disabilities. Children with disabilities
have as much right as those without disabilities. Therefore, they should
not be excluded from education at any level irrespective of their
conditions. Governments at all levels have endorsed Free Universal Basic
Education for all children with disabilities. Thus, all pre-service teachers
need to identify the peculiar educational needs of individuals with
disabilities.
All 100 level students in the faculty of education are required to take this
course.
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Introduction to Special Education SPE104 you will
be able to:
Appraise the definitions of general concepts in special education.
Discuss new issues and trends in special education needs.
Point out different types of impairments.
Outline the causes of some physical and health impairments.
Outcomes
Present effective classroom management strategies that promote
active learning for children with impairments.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Timeframe
This is a 15 weeks course. It requires a formal study time of 45 hours.
The formal study times are scheduled around online
online discussions / chats
with your course facilitator / academic advisor to facilitate your learning.
Kindly see course calendar on your course website for scheduled dates.
You will still require independent/personal study time particularly in
How long? studying your course materials.
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days:
days you will choose what you want to study,
study you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you
you will need to consider performance issues related to
t
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
We recommend that you take time now—before
now before starting your self-
study to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
study—to
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of
of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays forfo
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on”
(“hands on” learning),
learning) memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self--study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar phrases.
4
Course overview
Assignments
There are a total of Seven Study Session Assignments. The assignments
are to be submitted on course website, for evaluation by your course
academic advisor. See course calendar on course website for scheduled
dates of turning in your assignments. It is highly recommended that you
Assignments
to submit your assignments within due dates.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you
to find your way around this
th course manual.
A complete icon set is shown below.
below We suggest that you familiarize
yourself
rself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
6
Study Session 1 General Concepts in Special Education
Study Session 1
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. present the concept of special education;
ii. point out the changes in some special education terminologies; and
Learning Outcomes iii. categorise children with exceptional needs.
Disability
Disability: A condition that curtails to some degree a person’s
Terminology ability to carry on his normal pursuits. A disability
may be partial or total; it may also be temporary or
permanent.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 1 General Concepts in Special Education
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Summary
10
Study Session 2 Mental Retardation
Study Session 2
Mental Retardation
Introduction
In this Study Session, we are going to consider in details one of the
exceptionalities earlier mentioned in Study Session One – mental
retardation. Therefore, the emphasis of the present Study Session will be
retardation.
on the meaning of mental retardation, causes, characteristics,
classifications educational programmes for the mentally retarded and the
prevention of mental retardation.
When
en you have studied this session, you should be able to:
to
i. define the term mental retardation;
ii. highlight the causes of mental retardation;
iii. point out the characteristics of persons with mental retardation;
iv. classify mental retardation;
v. discuss some educational programmes available for persons with
Outcomes
mental retardation; and
vi. highlight ways by which mental retardation can be prevented.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 2 Mental Retardation
A. Educational/Intellectual characteristics
- Have difficulty in remembering information
- Have short attention span
- Have problem in transferring knowledge
- They cannot generalise
- They learn very slowly
- They lack interest in learning or problem –solving
- Computation ability is very low
C. Physical Characteristics
- Some have big or small heads
- Some have big tongues
- Some have stubby legs and hands
- Some have golden voice
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Idiot 0-25
Imbecile 26-50
Moron 51-75
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Study Session 2 Mental Retardation
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Bibliography
Textbooks Ayoola, E.O. (2006) Mental Retardation in Special Education.
Education J.N.
Onwuckekwa (Ed.). Ibadan, Nigeria. Agbo Areo Publishers.
Publishers.
Dada, O.C. (2006). Mental Retardation: A Conceptual Approach.
Approach Ibadan,
Nigeria. Radiance Publications.
Adima, E.E. (1994). Current Perspectives in Mental Retardation.
Retardation
Department of Special Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria,
Unpublished.
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Study Session 3 Visual Impairment
Study Session 3
Visual Impairment
Introduction
In this Study Session, you will be introduced to another exceptionality
which is commonly and quickly noticed in our society. Our society
associates this exceptionality with begging and till today, many people
are still showing sympathy by offering them money or other gifts even
when they are not demanded.
demanded. This Study Session will focus on definition,
prevalence, causes, characteristics, educational programme and
prevention of visual impairment.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. point out visual impairment;
ii. outline the causes of visual impairment;
iii. highlight the characteristics of persons with visual impairment;
impairm
iv. present programmes through which persons with visual
Learning Outcomes impairment can be educated; and
v. highlight measures that can prevent visual impairment in our
society.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
People who are partially sighted have a visual acuity of 20/70. Being
partially sighted should be taken to mean the mid-point between normal
sight and blindness. People so classified do carry out most of their daily
activities by using their remaining vision to the fullest. Many of them
suffer from myopia (short-sightedness), hypermetropia (long-sightedness)
and astigmatism (blurred vision).
Myopia is a condition in which the eye continues to lengthen during the
growth of a child to complete stature. Distant objects are out of focus.
This is because instead of rays of light or object entering the eye to fall
exactly upon the retina the object or light forms an image in front of the
retina causing distant objects to appear blurred. The eye that has this kind
of problem is unable to achieve focus of the image on the retina. A child
suffering from myopia finds it difficult to read material from the
chalkboard, from the back seat, stoops over reading material, gets tired
easily while using the eye, etc. Myopia can be corrected with concave
optical lenses in spectacles.
Hyperopia / Hypermetropia is simply an error of development of the
eyeball in which distant objects are seen clearly but closer objects appear
blurred. The error causes the eyeball to be oval in shape instead of being
spherical. As a result of the oval shape of the eyeball, the light rays
entering the eye focus behind the retina, causing a blurred vision.
Hypermetropia can be corrected by spectacles with a convex lens.
Astigmatism is caused by an irregularity in the curvature of either the
cornea or the lens. As a result, the light rays are refracted unevenly, such
that those horizontal and vertical rays are focused at different points on
the retina. The result is that the picture or impression that the eye “sees”
is not sharp, clear and exact. In most cases, astigmatism can be corrected.
Presbyopia is a condition in which the lens of the eye loses its ability to
accommodate near objects. Persons suffering from presbyopia usually
have a blurred vision, difficulty with reading, experience “tired” eyes or
aches while doing close work. Most people at the age of 40 and above
develop some degree of presbyopia.
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Study Session 3 Visual Impairment
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 3 Visual Impairment
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Study Session 4
Learning Disabilities
Introduction
In this Study Session, you will explore the field of learning disabilities
and the peculiar problems associated with children in this disability
category. We shall present to you:
you the nature of problems in learning
lear
disabilities; historical background; definitions; peculiar characteristics;
characteristics
spec
specific types and educational challenges of learning disabilities.
disabilities We
shall also attempt to discuss classroom management strategies for
learning disabilities.
disabilities
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. discuss the historical background to learning disabilities
ii. describe learning disabilities.
iii. point out the characteristics of learning disabilities.
Learning Outcomes iv. distinguish between the different types of learning disabilities.
disabilities
v. outline the causes of learning disabilities.
vi. highlight the procedure for identifying learning disabilities.
disabilitie
vii. present effective management strategies for children with learning
disabilities.
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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities
You should note that all the above definitions/ descriptions all have
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
4. Attention deficit
5. Clumsiness/awkwardness
6. Low frustration tolerance
7. Perseveration
8. Acting on impulse
9. Perceptual motor impairments
10. Poor cognitive information processing
11. Poor academic achievement
12. Differential intelligence
4.3.1 Hyperactivity
Majority of children with learning disabilities are hyperactive; they seem
restless at all times. Children with learning disabilities find it difficult to
remain at a particular sport or engage in a particular activity for a long
time. Hyperactivity consists in excessive physical movements and
shifting of attention from one thing to the other at very short intervals.
Hyperactive moments prevent such children from learning, and they can
also distract other children in the classroom. Hyperactive children fidget a
lot and there is a general involvement in unconscious active movements
in hyperactive children. In the classroom, they appear to be busier than
their peers and this is at a level that will attract the teacher’s as well as
their peers concern.
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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities
4.3.7 Preservation
This is also referred to as attention fixation. That is, focusing attention on
a particular task longer than is necessary. Children with learning
disabilities often fix attention on trying to perform a particular task for a
very long time without trying to let go. They may be doing it wrongly but
still insist on continuing on that task. An example of attention fixation or
preservation is when a child scribbles rough lines on his or her book or
trying to write something, and he or she does this rigorous scribbling over
and over again without wishing to stop. Even when the teacher tries to
step that activity, the child would insist on carrying on.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
the chalkboard into the exercise book. Most times, it appears as if their
eyes wise in harmony with the hand. In such cases; there will be an
obvious poor performance of the task assigned. Children with such
problems may not be able to catch balls in the air or actively engage in
sporting activities. Perceptual problems can greatly retard the progress of
children with learning disabilities in the classroom. Where a child is not
able to perceive letters properly as a whole but sees them as separate
entities, it becomes very difficult to pronounce or read.
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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities
Placeme
Evaluati nt
on
Clinical
observat
ion
Diagnosti
c
assessm
ent
Screeni
ng
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities
10. Build your teaching upon the students’ experiences and skills and
leave gaps.
11. Use varying assessment procedures in recognition of individual
differences.
12. Teach elementary organization skills and processes.
13. Use simple assignment techniques to promote students’
organisational skills.
14. The period of lesson should be shortened to accommodate the
short attention span of the individuals with learning disabilities.
15. Learning tasks of whatever nature should be within the interest of
the individuals.
33
Study Session 5 Communication Disorders
Study Session 5
Communication Disorders
Introduction
Majority of school children have various types of communication and
language problems, which usually disturb the learning and adjustment in
school if they are not checked.
checked In this Study Session therefore, you will
be exposed to the concept of communication disorders and its properties.
properti
We shall present to you descriptions of normal communication process as
well as speech and language components of communication. We shall
also discuss normal development of speech and language, the nature of
communication disorders characteristics types
types causes, identification and
instructional strategies involved in communication disorders. All these
and more shall be our focus.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. discuss the functions of communication to man;
ii. contrast speech and language components of communication;
iii. point out communication disorders;
Learning Outcomes iv. outline at least two treatments and instructional strategies
stra for
managing communication disorders in children.
5.1.1
1.1 Elements of Communication a unit
For any communication to be meaningful there must be a process, which
contains three structures. These three structures are:
1. The message
2. The sender who expresses or encodes the message
3. The receiver who responds to decodes des the message.
Communication can be between people or within a person (self talk).
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
3. Information
4. Narrating
5. Making explanations
6. Making requests
5.2 Speech and Language
Human beings use speech and language systems to communicate. Speech
is vocal; it uses words, it can be spoken or written. Speech is the oral
production of language. Speech differentiates human beings from other
animals because only human beings make speech sounds. It is the fastest
and most efficient method of communication.
The processes of speech are:
Respiration (breathing)
Phonation: production of speech
Resonation: sounding out of the spoken word
Articulation: formation of specific recognizable speech sounds
Language is an acceptable tool used by a group of people to communicate
with one another. Language is made up of a set of abstract symbols made
up of sounds, letters, members, signs and gestures. Their abstract symbols
are governed rules. Research has discovered that there are more than 600
languages spoken in the world.
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Study Session 5 Communication Disorders
the ability to receive, send, are likely to face difficult situations in school. Communication disorders
process and comprehend
concepts of verbal,
can be a limiting factor to total academic and social development of
nonverbal and graphic individuals.
symbols system. This may
be evident in the processes When a child’s communication abilities differ significantly from that of
of hearing language and/ or others, such a child is considered as being impaired in speech.
speech.
The general indications of communication impairment include:
1. Faulty transmission and /or perception of messages
2. Possible economic disadvantage
3. Learning disadvantage
4. Social disadvantage
5. Negative impact of a person’s self esteem or emotional growth
6. Physical damage or endangered health
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Language Impairments
This occurs when there are problems
p in any of the five dimensions
d of
language.
The problems could be either receptive or expressive.
expressive Receptive
language impairment means inability to comprehend spoken sentences
or follow a sequence of verbal directions; while expressive
e language
impairment refers to poor oor production of language due to limited
vocabulary use of incorrect words & phrases or lack of speaking ability.
Causes of language impairment
1. Cognitive limitations, mental retardation, hearing impairment,
behaviour disorder, structural abnormalities of speech mechanism
and environmental deprivation.
2. Injury to the brain e.g. Aphasia which is a loss of the ability to
process and use language. Thiss results often in adults due to (a)
‘stroke’ (b) head injury in children
3. Hereditary – genetic
4. Environmental influences
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Study Session 5 Communication Disorders
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 5 Communication Disorders
multiple.
Provide and use physical cues and prompts when giving
instructions.
Pair them up with other children
Avoid ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ questions; rather ask the children to:
- repeat the instruction to you
- paraphrase contents in their own words
- tell you what they understand about the activity or topic of
discussion.
Fig 5.1B
Expressive language
Fig 5.1C
Pragmatics
Fig 5.1D
Content Enhancement
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Bibliography
Textbooks McCornick, L. (2008). Language intervention and support. In L.
Web Resources McCornick, D.R. Loeb, & R.I. Schiefel Busch (Eds), support children
with communication difficulties in inclusive settings: School-based
School
language intervention.
intervention Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Salend, S.J. (2005). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and
reflective practices for all students (5th edition). Columbus, OH:
Merrill/p
Merrill/prentice Hall.
Smith, D.D. (2007). Introduction to special education: Making a
difference (6th Ed.) Boston; MA: Pearson Education Inc.
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Study Session 6
44
Study Session 6 Autism Spectrum Disorders
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
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Study Session 6 Autism Spectrum Disorders
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Study Session 7
48
Study Session 7 Physical and Health Impairments
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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education
Bibliography
Textbooks IDEA (1997). Individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA): PL
Web Resources 105-17 (1997). Note to the regulations for eligibility for children with
attention deficit disorder.
Lerner, J.W. (2000). Learning Disabilities: Theories, Diagnosis and
teaching Strategies. Boston: Houghton.
National joint committee on learning disabilities (1997). Operationalising
the NJCLD definition of learning disabilities for ongoing assessment in
schools perspectives: The International dyslexia Association, 23 (4), 29-
33.
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Physical and Health Impairments
51