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COURSE MANUAL

Introduction to Special Education


SPE104

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre


Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Version 1.0 beta
Copyright
Copyright © 2009, 2013 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN: 978-021-386-6

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

Page layout, Instructional Design & UI Mobile Class Development by EDUTECHportal,


www.edutechportal.org
Vice-Chancellor’s
Chancellor’s Message
The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of service in
the provision of External Studies Programme and now Distance Learning Education in Nigeria
and beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are committed is providing access to
many deserving Nigerians ns in having access to higher education especially those who by the
nature of their engagement do not have the luxury of full time education. Recently, it is
contributing in no small measure to providing places for teeming Nigerian youths who for one
reasonn or the other could not get admission into the conventional universities.
These course materials have been written by writers specially trained in ODL course delivery.
The writers have made great efforts to provide up to date information, knowledge and skills
sk in
the different disciplines and ensure that the materials are user-friendly.
user
In addition to provision of course materials in print and e-format,
e format, a lot of Information
Technology input has also gone into the deployment of course materials. Most of them
the can be
downloaded from the DLC website and are available in audio format which you can also
download into your mobile phones, IPod, MP3 among other devices to allow you listen to the
audio study sessions. Some of the study session materials have been scripted
scr and are being
broadcast on the university’s Diamond Radio FM 101.1, while others have been delivered and
captured in audio-visual
visual format in a classroom environment for use by our students. Detailed
information on availability and access is available on the website. We will continue in our
efforts to provide and review course materials for our courses.
However, for you to take advantage of these formats, you will need to improve on your I.T.
skills and develop requisite distance learning Culture. It is well known that, for efficient and
effective provision of Distance learning education, availability of appropriate and relevant
course materials is a sine qua non.
non. So also, is the availability of multiple plat form for the
convenience of our students. It is in fulfilment of this, that series of course materials are being
written to enable our students study at their own pace and convenience.
It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.

Prof. Isaac Adewole


Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for Nigerians and
the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning Centre has recently
embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which aimed at embracing a holistic and all
encompassing approach to the delivery of its Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes.
Thus we are committed to global best practices in distance learning provision. Apart from
providing an efficient administrative and academic support for our students, we are committed
to providing educational resource materials for the use of our students. We are convinced that,
without an up-to-date, learner-friendly and distance learning compliant course materials, there
cannot be any basis to lay claim to being a provider of distance learning education. Indeed,
availability of appropriate course materials in multiple formats is the hub of any distance
learning provision worldwide.
In view of the above, we are vigorously pursuing as a matter of priority, the provision of
credible, learner-friendly and interactive course materials for all our courses. We commissioned
the authoring of, and review of course materials to teams of experts and their outputs were
subjected to rigorous peer review to ensure standard. The approach not only emphasizes
cognitive knowledge, but also skills and humane values which are at the core of education, even
in an ICT age.
The development of the materials which is on-going also had input from experienced editors
and illustrators who have ensured that they are accurate, current and learner-friendly. They are
specially written with distance learners in mind. This is very important because, distance
learning involves non-residential students who can often feel isolated from the community of
learners.
It is important to note that, for a distance learner to excel there is the need to source and read
relevant materials apart from this course material. Therefore, adequate supplementary reading
materials as well as other information sources are suggested in the course materials.
Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with others, you are also
advised to seek assistance from your course facilitators especially academic advisors during
your study even before the interactive session which is by design for revision. Your academic
advisors will assist you using convenient technology including Google Hang Out, You Tube,
Talk Fusion, etc. but you have to take advantage of these. It is also going to be of immense
advantage if you complete assignments as at when due so as to have necessary feedbacks as a
guide.
The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to develop requisite
distance learning culture which includes diligent and disciplined self-study, seeking available
administrative and academic support and acquisition of basic information technology skills.
This is why you are encouraged to develop your computer skills by availing yourself the
opportunity of training that the Centre’s provide and put these into use.
In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the regular
students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high quality textbooks.
We are therefore, delighted to present these titles to both our distance learning students and the
university’s regular students. We are confident that the materials will be an invaluable resource
to all.
We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high quality of
work.
Best wishes.

Professor Bayo Okunade


Director
Acknowledgements
The University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre wishes to thank this course manual writing team:

. Course Writer J.O. Oyundoyin Ph.D

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade


Production Editor Dr. Gloria O. Adedoja
Learning Design & Technologist Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. Bayo Okunade
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Table of Contents
About this course manual............................................................................................................................................. 1
How this course manual is structured .................................................................................................................... 1
Course overview............................................................................................................................................................... 3
Welcome to Introduction to Special Education SPE104 ................................................................................. 3
Introduction to Special Education SPE104—is this course for you? ......................................................... 3
Course outcomes .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Timeframe........................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Assignments ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Getting around this course manual 6


Margin icons ....................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Study Session 1 7
General Concepts in Special Education .................................................................................................................. 7
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 The Meaning of Special Education ....................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Changes in Terminology ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Categories of Children with Exceptional Needs ............................................................................. 9
Study Session summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10

Study Session 2 11
Mental Retardation ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 The Meaning and Prevalence of Mental Retardation ................................................................ 11
2.2 Causes of Mental Retardation ............................................................................................................. 12
A. Prenatal Causes (Before birth) ................................................................................................ 12
B. Peri-natal Causes (During birth) ............................................................................................. 13
C. Postnatal Causes (After birth) .................................................................................................. 13
2.3 Characteristics of Persons with Mental Retardation ................................................................ 13
A. Educational/Intellectual characteristics ............................................................................. 13
B. Behavioural / Emotional Characteristics ............................................................................ 13
C. Physical Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 13
2.4 Classifications of Mental Retardation .............................................................................................. 14
2.4.1 Old/Traditional Classification............................................................................................ 14
2.4.2 New/Educational Classification ........................................................................................ 14
2.4.3 British Classification .............................................................................................................. 14
2.4.4 Clinical Classification ............................................................................................................. 14
2.5 Educational Programmes for Persons with Mental Retardation ......................................... 15
2.6 Prevention of Mental Retardation..................................................................................................... 15
Table of Contents ii

Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 16


Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Study Session 3 17
Visual Impairment ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 The Meaning of Visual Impairment .................................................................................................. 17
3.2 Causes of Visual Impairment ............................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Signs, Characteristics and Features of Visual Impairment ..................................................... 19
3.4 Educating the Visually Impaired........................................................................................................ 20
3.5 Prevention of Visual Impairment ...................................................................................................... 21
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 21

Study Session 4 22
Learning Disabilities .................................................................................................................................................... 22
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
4.1 Historical Background to Learning Disabilities .......................................................................... 22
4.2 Definition of Learning Disabilities .................................................................................................... 23
Consideration of some Harmonised Definitions ................................................................... 24
4.3 Characteristics of Learning Disabilities .......................................................................................... 25
4.3.1 Hyperactivity ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.3.2 Withdrawal Syndrome .......................................................................................................... 26
4.3.3 Emotional Instability.............................................................................................................. 26
4.3.4 Attention Deficit/Short Attention Problems ............................................................... 26
4.3.5 Clumsiness and Awkwardness .......................................................................................... 27
4.3.6 Low Frustration Tolerance.................................................................................................. 27
4.3.7 Preservation .............................................................................................................................. 27
4.3.8 Acting on Impulse.................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.9 Perceptual Motor Impairments ......................................................................................... 27
4.3.10 Cognitive Information Processing ................................................................................. 28
4.3.11 Poor Academic Achievement ........................................................................................... 28
4.3.12 Differential Intelligence ..................................................................................................... 28
4.4 Types Learning Disabilities.................................................................................................................. 29
4.5 Causes of Learning Disabilities ........................................................................................................... 29
4.5.1 Neurological Causes ............................................................................................................... 29
4.5.2 Maturational Delay ................................................................................................................. 30
4.5.3 Biochemical Imbalances ....................................................................................................... 30
4.5.4 Genetic Causes .......................................................................................................................... 30
4.5.5 Environmental Causes........................................................................................................... 30
4.5.6 Unknown Causes...................................................................................................................... 31
4.6 Identification of Learning Disabilities ............................................................................................. 31
4.7 Challenges of Learning Disabilities................................................................................................... 31
4.7.1 Challenges of Learning Disabilities to Educators ...................................................... 31
4.7.2 Challenges of Learning Disabilities to Specialists...................................................... 32
4.7.3 Strategies of overcoming the challenges of learning disabilities ........................ 32
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 33

Study Session 5 35
Communication Disorders ........................................................................................................................................ 35
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

5.1 What is Communication? ...................................................................................................................... 35


5.1.1 Elements of Communication a unit .................................................................................. 35
5.1.2 Functions of Communication ............................................................................................. 35
5.2 Speech and Language ............................................................................................................................. 36
5.2.1 Five Dimensions of Language............................................................................................. 36
5.2.2 Normal Development of Language................................................................................... 36
5.3 Communication Disorder...................................................................................................................... 36
5.3.1 Types of Communication Impairment............................................................................ 37
Speech Impairment ................................................................................................................ 37
Language Impairments ......................................................................................................... 38
5.3.2 Signs or characteristics of communication disorder................................................ 38
Speech Errors ........................................................................................................................... 38
Language Errors ...................................................................................................................... 38
5.3.3 Identification of Communication Disorders................................................................. 39
Teacher observation .............................................................................................................. 39
Screening .................................................................................................................................... 39
5.4 Educational challenges of Communication Disorder ................................................................ 39
Implications for Teachers .................................................................................................... 40
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 42
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Study Session 6 44
Autism Spectrum Disorders ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
6.1 Characteristics of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)................................. 44
6.2 Causes of Autism....................................................................................................................................... 45
6.3 Types of Disorders in Autistic Spectrum........................................................................................ 46
6.4 Challenges and Implications for Autism ......................................................................................... 46
Implications for Treatment ............................................................................................................ 47
Intensive and sustained special programmes ........................................................................ 47
Classroom Strategies for Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders......................... 47
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 47

Study Session 7 48
Physical and Health Impairments .......................................................................................................................... 48
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
7.1 Nature of Physical and Health Impairments................................................................................. 48
7.2 Categories of Physical and Health impairments ......................................................................... 48
7.3 Educational Implications for Children with Physical and Health Impairments ............ 49
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 49
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 50
About this course manual

About this course manual


Introduction to Special Education SPE104 has been produced by
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All course manuals
produced by University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre are
structured in the same way, as outlined below.

How this course manual is


structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
If the course is suitable for you.
What you will already need to know.
What you can expect from the course.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Course assignments and assessments.
Activity icons.
Study Sessions.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before


starting your study.

The course content


The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
An introduction to the Study Session content.
Study Session outcomes.
New terminology.
Core content of the Study Session with a variety of learning activities.
A Study Session summary.
Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

1
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this course manual; these may
be books, articles or web sites.

Your comments
After completing Introduction to Special Education we would appreciate
it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any
aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.

2
Course overview

Course overview

Welcome to Introduction to
Special Education SPE104
This course brings to your awareness the existence of different categories
of disability conditions in your immediate environments and
communities. It attempts to enhance your understanding of these
conditions and their impact on learners. Contemporary issues on helping
people with disabilities get fully integrated into the society without
difficulty will also be discussed.

Introduction to Special
Education SPE104—is this
course for you?
SPE104 is a 3 unit faculty course that is intended for people who
potential teachers of children with disabilities. Children with disabilities
have as much right as those without disabilities. Therefore, they should
not be excluded from education at any level irrespective of their
conditions. Governments at all levels have endorsed Free Universal Basic
Education for all children with disabilities. Thus, all pre-service teachers
need to identify the peculiar educational needs of individuals with
disabilities.
All 100 level students in the faculty of education are required to take this
course.

Course outcomes
Upon completion of Introduction to Special Education SPE104 you will
be able to:
Appraise the definitions of general concepts in special education.
Discuss new issues and trends in special education needs.
Point out different types of impairments.
Outline the causes of some physical and health impairments.
Outcomes
Present effective classroom management strategies that promote
active learning for children with impairments.

3
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Timeframe
This is a 15 weeks course. It requires a formal study time of 45 hours.
The formal study times are scheduled around online
online discussions / chats
with your course facilitator / academic advisor to facilitate your learning.
Kindly see course calendar on your course website for scheduled dates.
You will still require independent/personal study time particularly in
How long? studying your course materials.

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days:
days you will choose what you want to study,
study you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you
you will need to consider performance issues related to
t
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
We recommend that you take time now—before
now before starting your self-
study to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
study—to
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:

http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of
of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays forfo
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).

http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on”
(“hands on” learning),
learning) memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self--study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar phrases.

4
Course overview

Assignments
There are a total of Seven Study Session Assignments. The assignments
are to be submitted on course website, for evaluation by your course
academic advisor. See course calendar on course website for scheduled
dates of turning in your assignments. It is highly recommended that you
Assignments
to submit your assignments within due dates.

5
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Getting around this course manual

Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you
to find your way around this
th course manual.
A complete icon set is shown below.
below We suggest that you familiarize
yourself
rself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Reflection Reading Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

6
Study Session 1 General Concepts in Special Education

Study Session 1

General Concepts in Special


Education
Introduction
In this Study Session, our intention is to bring to your awareness the
general concepts in special education vis-vis a -vis
vis the definition of special
education, some terms in Special Education, such as handicap,
impairment, disability, exceptionality. This Study Study Session will also
examine the shift in paradigm of some terminologies in Special
Education to Special Needs Education / Special Educational Needs
(SEN); how disability before a person has changed to a person first
before the disability. It will also highlight
highlight various beneficiaries of special
needs education and the new issues and trends in special education needs.

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. present the concept of special education;
ii. point out the changes in some special education terminologies; and
Learning Outcomes iii. categorise children with exceptional needs.

Disability
Disability: A condition that curtails to some degree a person’s
Terminology ability to carry on his normal pursuits. A disability
may be partial or total; it may also be temporary or
permanent.

Impairment: This refers to the loss or reduced functionality of a


particular body part or organ.

Handicap: This refers to a problem or disadvantage that a


person with a disability or impairment encounters
in interacting with the environment.

Exceptionality/ This term includes children who experience


Exceptional difficulties in learning as well as those children
Children
Children: whose performance is so superior that
modifications in curriculum and instruction are
necessary to help them fulfil their potential.

1.1 The Meaning of Special Education


Special education may be thought of as an ideal eal general education in
which individual differences are duly considered and provided for. These
differences are manifest in pupils’ abilities, aptitudes, learning styles and

7
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

motivation to learn. Obani (2004) sees special education as education


specially designed to suit the special needs of children who may
experience learning problems and learning difficulties as a result of
disabilities or handicaps or other forms of special educational needs.
In the past, special education was viewed, considered and practised
almost as a separate system of education. It was seen as education for the
disabled and handicapped people. It was a common thing then to hear
comments such as “education for the blind and the deaf”, “What are they
doing there? “What percentage of the population are they talking about”.
Special education was viewed as education that could only be provided
by some specially trained teachers, using special methods and
approaches, special equipment and materials, and often given in schedule
settings called special schools.
Since the mid-70s, there has been a lot of rethinking and re-orientation in
the conceptualisation and practice of special education. Special education
is no longer regarded as education for the handicapped and disabled
only; it has been widened to include many other disadvantaged learners
and others with different forms and levels of learning requirements. It is
no longer education to be given in special settings (Special schools,
special classrooms, etc) by some special teachers only, using special
methods and approaches and equipment. It is now education to be given
in regular neighbourhood schools by any well–trained regular class
teacher in classes for all children; their physical, sensory, psychological
and other learning differences not withstanding. From this change in
orientation and thinking have come concepts like integration
/mainstreaming, schools for all, whole school approach, and inclusion or
inclusive schoolling.
Special educational needs (SEN) is a British concept which was
introduced in the 1970s and replaced the older concept of special
education. As a concept, it was meant to broaden the notion and practice
of special education to make it more ordinary, more natural, less
negatively perceived, and more acceptable to the general public. Special
education needs, as a concept, is more or less an upgraded version of the
older special education concept.
People with special educational needs are, therefore, those who
experience /manifest more than the usual difficulties and problems in
learning and training as normally offered in regular schools. These are the
people who need closer personal attention, some modification and
adoptions of the school routines and practices, general curriculum and
approaches to teaching and learning in order to attain their optimum
learning levels and development.

1.2 Changes in Terminology


Many years back and until recently, it was a common thing even among
the professionals to hear words like “disabled people”, ‘‘deaf boy”,
“blind girl”, “mentally retarded person”, “learning disabled children”, etc.
These labels are considered derogatory by specialists in the field, because
they portray the condition before the individual. However, to be more
polite and give respect, the individual should come first before the
condition. This new approach therefore, has ushered in terminologies

8
Study Session 1 General Concepts in Special Education

such as “children or persons with mental retardation, “children with


learning difficulties, a child with hearing impairment, etc. It is now
widely acceptable to use these new terms to replace the old ones. You
will be coming across these new terms as we go along in the Study
Sessions.
As part of dynamism in our society, there is always and there will always
be a change in approaches and terminologies as researches keep on
evolving and as societies keep on appreciating and accepting persons
with special needs. As mentioned earlier in this Study Session, there is a
change in orientation and thinking. Since some old concepts have
transformed with modifications to form new and probably a better one.
Among these are terms like integration and mainstreaming which have
transformed with some modification to inclusion or inclusive education.
Although the term, ‘inclusive education’ is very new, it has gained
general recognition and acceptability. It involves bringing together under
the same learning environment or classroom all categories of persons
with exceptional needs and persons without any exceptional needs. This
equally entails provision of gadgets, instructional aids, classrooms and
everything needed to make learning conducive to accommodate all
categories of learners, not withstanding their exceptionality.

1.3 Categories of Children with Exceptional Needs


Categories of children with exceptional needs that benefit from education
for the children with special needs include the following categories of
exceptionality:
1. persons with mental retardation
2. persons with visual impairment
3. persons with learning disabilities
4. persons with speech/language disorder
5. persons with multiple disabilities
6. persons with physical disabilities
7. persons with emotional /behavioural problems
8. person with autism
9. persons with exceptional intellectual endowment / gift and
special talents
10. persons that are restricted – home / hospital bounds.

9
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Study Session summary


In this Study Session you learned the concept of special education; and
discussed about the changes in some special education terminologies.
Finally, we outlined various beneficiaries of Special Educational needs.
needs

Summary

10
Study Session 2 Mental Retardation

Study Session 2

Mental Retardation
Introduction
In this Study Session, we are going to consider in details one of the
exceptionalities earlier mentioned in Study Session One – mental
retardation. Therefore, the emphasis of the present Study Session will be
retardation.
on the meaning of mental retardation, causes, characteristics,
classifications educational programmes for the mentally retarded and the
prevention of mental retardation.
When
en you have studied this session, you should be able to:
to
i. define the term mental retardation;
ii. highlight the causes of mental retardation;
iii. point out the characteristics of persons with mental retardation;
iv. classify mental retardation;
v. discuss some educational programmes available for persons with
Outcomes
mental retardation; and
vi. highlight ways by which mental retardation can be prevented.

2.1 The Meaning and Prevalence of Mental Retardation


Some children are clearly and consistently performing below their age
groups in many areas of endeavour-academic,
endeavour academic, social, language, and self-
self
care skills. This deficiency is obvious to anyone who interacts with them,
and this calls
c for special education and related services to help them
realize their potentials.
These
The se children experience pervasive and substantial limitations in all or
most areas of development and functioning. But, this group is only a
small proportion of the total population of persons with mental
retardation. The largest segment consists of school age children with
retardation.
mild mental retardation.
Many definitions of mental retardation have been adopted and contested
over the years. Among these definitions, we shall consider some for your
understanding.
Edgar Doll defined mental retardation, using six criteria
crit that must be met
before an individual can be classified as having mental retardation. These
are:
1. mental sub normality
2. social incompetence
3. retarded at birth or early in life
4. retarded as a result
esult of constitutional origin
5. retarded at maturity and must be
6. retardation is essentially incurable.

11
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Tredgold stated that mental retardation is a state of incomplete mental


development of such a kind and degree that an individual is incapable of
adapting him/herself to the normal environment of his/her peers so as to
maintain independence or control or external support.
Grossman (1983) noted that mental retardation refers to significantly sub-
average general intellectual functioning resulting in or associated with
deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental
period.
AAMR (1992) stated that mental retardation refers to substantial
limitations in present functioning. It is characterised by significantly sub
average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related
limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill
areas; communication, self-care, home-living, social skills, community
use self direction, health and safety, functional academics , leisure and
work.
AAMR (2002) also stated that mental retardation is a disability
characterised by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning
and conceptual, social and practical adaptive skills. This disability
originates before age 18.
Prevalence of Mental Retardation
Not much research has been done in Nigeria to substantiate claim; but in
the US, the population of persons with mental retardation was estimated
to be about 3% of the general population. According to U.S. Department
of Education (2002), during the 2000-2001 school year, 611,878 students
ages 6 through 21 received special education under the disability category
of mental retardation. These students, according to USDE, represented
10.6% of all school –age children in special education, or about 1% of the
total school –age population. Mental retardation is the third largest
disability category after learning disabilities and speech or language
impairments.

2.2 Causes of Mental Retardation


Causes of mental retardation can be grouped for easy understanding
under three major sub-headings: prenatal, peri-natal and postnatal.

A. Prenatal Causes (Before birth)


- Chromosomal disorders e.g. Down syndrome, fragile x
syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome
- Malnutrition by mother
- Excessive exposure to x-ray
- Metabolic errors e.g. Phenylketonuria (PKU)
- Infectious diseases
- Anoxia
- Maternal Age
- Rh-factor or blood in compatibility
- Maternal fall/accident

12
Study Session 2 Mental Retardation

B. Peri-natal Causes (During birth)


- Premature delivery
- Umbilical cord accidents
- Multiple gestation
- Misuse of forceps
- Head trauma at birth
- Respiratory disorders
- Intracranial haemorrhage
- Neonatal seizures.

C. Postnatal Causes (After birth)


- Head injury
- Infections
- Toxic metabolic disorders
- Malnutrition
- Poisoning
- Environmental deprivation

2.3 Characteristics of Persons with Mental Retardation


We can outline the characteristics of persons with mental retardation
under the following:

A. Educational/Intellectual characteristics
- Have difficulty in remembering information
- Have short attention span
- Have problem in transferring knowledge
- They cannot generalise
- They learn very slowly
- They lack interest in learning or problem –solving
- Computation ability is very low

B. Behavioural / Emotional Characteristics


- Some are restless/ hyperactive
- Some are loners / hyperactive
- Some exhibit temper tantrum
- Some are easily distracted

C. Physical Characteristics
- Some have big or small heads
- Some have big tongues
- Some have stubby legs and hands
- Some have golden voice

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

- In some, it is difficult to differentiate the chest from the


abdomen
- Some have basal forehead.

2.4 Classifications of Mental Retardation


Mental retardation can be classified under the following, based on some
factors such as degree of retardation, clinical symptoms, educational
objectives and causes.

2.4.1 Old/Traditional Classification


Classification IQ Range

Idiot 0-25

Imbecile 26-50

Moron 51-75

2.4.2 New/Educational Classification


Classification IQ Range

Totally Dependent Mentally Retarded 0-25

Trainable Mentally Retarded 26-50

Educable Mentally Retarded 51-75

2.4.3 British Classification


- Profound mental retardation
- Severe mental retardation
- Moderate mental retardation
- Mild mental retardation

2.4.4 Clinical Classification


- Down Syndrome (Mongols)
- Microcephally
- Hydrocephally
- Cretinism
- Phenylketonuria (PKU)
- Galactosemia
- Fragile –x Syndrome
- Turner’s Syndrome
- Klinefelter Syndrome
- Prader – Will Syndrome

14
Study Session 2 Mental Retardation

2.5 Educational Programmes for Persons with Mental


Retardation
In the time past, many people believed that it is a waste of time trying to
educate persons with mental retardation. Hence, they were neglected and
left to their fate. The history of their education really started when Jean
Itard worked on “Victor the wild boy of Averyon”. From that period,
different experts have emerged with various methods and strategies for
educating persons with mental retardation. Because of the nature of their
intelligence, people have advocated a separate school and environment
for their education. With the time, people started advocating their
integration for social interaction and thus we have the following
programmes among others:
A. Special School: This implies putting children with mental
retardation in a separate school without mixing up with the
regular school system. The school is specially built for them and
them only
B. Special Class:- This implies having a classroom meant for
children with mental retardation in a regular school setting. They
interact with other children in the school compound but not
learning together with them in the same classroom.
C. Resource Room: In this case, a resource room is built or created
in the regular school where the children with mental retardation
will go to be attended to during a particular time of the school
hour by the resource teacher who is a specialist in handling them.
They learn together with other children in the classroom and
interact with them but a special time is created for them to visit
the resource room for special attention.
D. Itinerant teacher – In this case, there is a special teacher who
might not be part of the regular teachers in the school but come at
a scheduled time to attend to the needs of children with mental
retardation. After attending to them, he goes away until the next
appointed time.
E. Regular school with Special Unit – In this case, a special unit is
constructed within the compound of the regular school. This
implies interaction with other children in the same compound but
not learning together in the same classroom.
F. Inclusive education – This is the most current programme of
education recommendation for children with exceptional needs.
In this case, there is no discrimination at all against the children
with exceptional needs. All categories of exceptionality are cared
for together with the regular children in the same setting.

2.6 Prevention of Mental Retardation


Prevention, as people say, is better than cure. The condition of mental
retardation is very serious and it is better prevented in our society than
seeking for the cure. Several measures can be employed to prevent the
incidence of mental retardation and these include:

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

1. Dissemination of information about the nature, causes and


prevention of childhood accidents through mass media,
workshops and seminars is very crucial.
2. Provision of food, primary health care services in our society is
also important.
3. Expectant mothers should be enlightened on the risks of self-
self
medication, exposure to x-ray
ray examination and general carefree
living, which can endanger the life of the foetus.
4. Over and underage women should be advised on the danger of
rearing children.
5. Community based genetic counselling and diagnostic centres
should be provided by government and NGOs and be adequately
patronized.
6. Excessive drug use should be curtailed / controlled as way as the
use of fake drugs outlaw or proscribed by the government.
7. Expectant mother and children should be properly fed with
balanced diet to prevent malnutrition.
8. Would- be couples should be mandated to do blood compatibility
text before marriage.
9. School and home environments should be stimulating enough to
make learning friendly and possible.

Study Session Summary


In this Study Session, we have examined the definitions of mental
retardation as given by different authors. We also noted that the causes of
mental retardation vary from genetic, chromosomal, and environmental
Summary factors to radiation. We as well, stated that observable characteristics of
persons with mental retardation range from physical, emotional to
educational. Children with mental retardation can be educated through
various educational
educational programmes according to their intelligence quotient.
Mental retardation can equally be prevented in our society.

Bibliography
Textbooks Ayoola, E.O. (2006) Mental Retardation in Special Education.
Education J.N.
Onwuckekwa (Ed.). Ibadan, Nigeria. Agbo Areo Publishers.
Publishers.
Dada, O.C. (2006). Mental Retardation: A Conceptual Approach.
Approach Ibadan,
Nigeria. Radiance Publications.
Adima, E.E. (1994). Current Perspectives in Mental Retardation.
Retardation
Department of Special Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria,
Unpublished.

16
Study Session 3 Visual Impairment

Study Session 3

Visual Impairment
Introduction
In this Study Session, you will be introduced to another exceptionality
which is commonly and quickly noticed in our society. Our society
associates this exceptionality with begging and till today, many people
are still showing sympathy by offering them money or other gifts even
when they are not demanded.
demanded. This Study Session will focus on definition,
prevalence, causes, characteristics, educational programme and
prevention of visual impairment.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. point out visual impairment;
ii. outline the causes of visual impairment;
iii. highlight the characteristics of persons with visual impairment;
impairm
iv. present programmes through which persons with visual
Learning Outcomes impairment can be educated; and
v. highlight measures that can prevent visual impairment in our
society.

3.1 The Meaning of Visual Impairment


Vision is an important sense for interpreting the world around us. When
vision is impaired, it can have a detrimental effect on the physical,
neurological, cognitive and emotional development on the person
concerned. The phrase visual impairment is sometimes taken to connote
the following visual impairment, ‘vision losses, and ‘vision problem’
both of which refer to the physical loss of part or all of useful vision. On
the other hand, the phrase may combine those who are totally visually
impaired, short-sighted, long-sighted or astigmatic.
People with total visual impairment are those who cannot read, write or
print after all optical corrective measures have been taken but sill use
Braille as a medium of reading and writing. Conventionally, the
professionals describe people as those who can see an object at only a
distance of 20 feet or closer, when a person with normal vision can see
the same object at a distance
distance of 20 feet. Hence, they are said to have a
visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye even with correction.
People with low vision,, which in time past were categorised as blind
have some vision which could be developed and used effectively
especially
specially in the area of mobility. Some of these people are neither totally
blind nor partially sighted, but they have limitations in distance vision.
They are able to see objects and materials in their immediate
environment, within a few centimeters or at most few metres away from
their position.

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

People who are partially sighted have a visual acuity of 20/70. Being
partially sighted should be taken to mean the mid-point between normal
sight and blindness. People so classified do carry out most of their daily
activities by using their remaining vision to the fullest. Many of them
suffer from myopia (short-sightedness), hypermetropia (long-sightedness)
and astigmatism (blurred vision).
Myopia is a condition in which the eye continues to lengthen during the
growth of a child to complete stature. Distant objects are out of focus.
This is because instead of rays of light or object entering the eye to fall
exactly upon the retina the object or light forms an image in front of the
retina causing distant objects to appear blurred. The eye that has this kind
of problem is unable to achieve focus of the image on the retina. A child
suffering from myopia finds it difficult to read material from the
chalkboard, from the back seat, stoops over reading material, gets tired
easily while using the eye, etc. Myopia can be corrected with concave
optical lenses in spectacles.
Hyperopia / Hypermetropia is simply an error of development of the
eyeball in which distant objects are seen clearly but closer objects appear
blurred. The error causes the eyeball to be oval in shape instead of being
spherical. As a result of the oval shape of the eyeball, the light rays
entering the eye focus behind the retina, causing a blurred vision.
Hypermetropia can be corrected by spectacles with a convex lens.
Astigmatism is caused by an irregularity in the curvature of either the
cornea or the lens. As a result, the light rays are refracted unevenly, such
that those horizontal and vertical rays are focused at different points on
the retina. The result is that the picture or impression that the eye “sees”
is not sharp, clear and exact. In most cases, astigmatism can be corrected.
Presbyopia is a condition in which the lens of the eye loses its ability to
accommodate near objects. Persons suffering from presbyopia usually
have a blurred vision, difficulty with reading, experience “tired” eyes or
aches while doing close work. Most people at the age of 40 and above
develop some degree of presbyopia.

3.2 Causes of Visual Impairment


For a better understanding, visual impairment also can be grouped as we
did in the case of mental retardation, under-pre-natal, peri-natal and post-
natal periods.
1. Pre-natal Causes Birth
- If a pregnant mother is attacked by German measles during
the first three months of gestation.
- Bleeding from the genital tract anytime from 28th week of
pregnancy until the child is born. It is called anter partum
hemorrhage.
- Hereditary factors like albinism.
- Congenital contract which is as a result of malnutrition
during the period of the early life of the foetus when the eye
lenses are still growing rapidly.
- Congenital diseases of the cornea, lens, retina or optic nerve.

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Study Session 3 Visual Impairment

- Heavy smoking during pregnancy


- Veneral diseases
- Drug abuse
2. Peri-natal Causes
- Delayed labour which causes traumatic pain to both mother
and the child.
- Wrong use of forceps during delivery.
- Malpositioning of the child.
- Retrolental fibroplasias- heavy application of oxygen on
tender eyes especially in premature babies.
3. Post-Natal Causes
- Undue/severe pressure on the eye ball- Glaucoma
- Malnutrition
- Accident and injury
- Illness
- Cataract
- Onchocerciasis (River blindness)
- Trachoma disease
- Old age (senility)
- Diabetes
- Keratitis (direct contact with discharges from the eye of an
affected person.

3.3 Signs, Characteristics and Features of Visual


Impairment
1. Failing to complete long reading assignments or other school
tasks involving extensive eye use, especially, when time is
limited.
2. Student remembering and understanding material read to them
better than that which they read themselves.
3. Confusing letters and words, which look some what alike.
4. Covering or scratching one eye while reading
5. Skipping letters, words or lines while reading.
6. Having difficulties of copying from textbooks, workbooks or
blackboard / tempo-board.
7. Getting tired quickly or being distracted while working at the
desk.
8. Being confused by details such as those appearing on maps and
diagrams.
9. Writing unusually small or large characters, or very poorly.
10. Appearing clumsy and reluctant to participate in play.
11. Having poor-eye-hand coordination
12. Rubbing or brushing eyes frequently

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

13. Trusting the head forward or squinting when looking at near or


far objects.
14. Complaining of dizziness and headaches.

3.4 Educating the Visually Impaired


We want you to know that it is the right of every child to go to school, his
/ her disability not withstanding according to the United Nations
declaration and as contained in the National Policy on Education. So, the
visually impaired child has the right to good education in Nigeria. It will
be a great disaster to the child and nation, if education is denied to a child
and more importantly a child with special needs.
In Nigeria today, every child is given access to free education under the
Universal Basic Education (UBE) up to Junior School Level, that is, JSS
3. The visually impaired child should be exposed to education early in
life in order to overcome many emotional problems that are associated
with the disability.
After a child has been diagnosed as having visual problem, it is at best to
place the child on an educational programme that suits him. Such a child
can be placed in a nursery school where meaningful materials are
provided. Those materials provide a variety of experiences, such as size,
texture, weight, moisture, dryness, coolness or hotness, etc. There should
be educational toys that can appeal to their senses of touch hearing, smell
and taste to compensate for their sense of sight that is missing.
In Nigeria, children with visual impairment can get to any level of
education without much difficulty. There are a number of educational
programmes that are available. Some of them are examined below.
1. Special School: In this case, the children with visual impairment are
all together in the same school environment in training and learning
together with experienced teachers e.g. Pacelli School, Surelere
Lagos, Ogbomoso School for the Blind, Ogbomoso and several
others.
2. Integrated School: In this case, both the sighted and the visually
impaired are together in the same compound but may have separate
blocks or classrooms for learning. This promotes social interaction
and integration. Examples are the School for the Deaf and Pacelli
School both sharing same environment but not completely mixed
together.
3. Inclusive Education : This is a new innovation that encourages all
categories of special needs children and their normal counterparts to
learn, interact and socialise together in the same environment with
individual child’s needs taken into consideration.
Basically, in providing education for the persons with visual impairment,
the environment should be conducive for easy accessibility and learning.
Teachers of the visually impaired, according to Heward and Orlansley
(1980), must be able to:
1. instruct the visually impaired pupils directly within the classroom
and individually too;
2. obtain or prepare specialized materials;

20
Study Session 3 Visual Impairment

3. put reading assignments into Braille, large print or tape recorded


form.
4. interpret information on the child’s visual problems and visual
functioning to other educators and parents;
5. suggest classroom and programme notification which may be
advisable;
6. help plan the child’s educational goals and initiate and maintain
contact with various agencies as well as keep records of services
provided; and
7. consult the child’s parents and other teachers.

3.5 Prevention of Visual Impairment


Visual impairment can be prevented in our society if not completely
eradicated, if these steps are followed;
1. The public should be educated on the various sources, causes and
effects of visual impairment.
2. People should report immediately to the various agencies
responsible for eradicating some diseases if noticed in an
environment without delay.
3. Trachoma disease, which is a major cause of eye problem, can be
prevented by keeping the homes and environment clean since the
disease thrives best in a dirty and overcrowded environment.
4. Regular eye examination should be introduction in schools and the
society on the whole.
5. Self medication should be avoided, and any ailment should be
reported to, and treated by, specialists.
6. Spectacles or eye glasses should not be used except if and when
recommended by specialists.

Study Session Summary


In this Study Session you learned that visual
isual impairment being one of the
common exceptionalities is not a hidden case among people with special
needs. The characteristics / features of children with these
Summary exceptionalities have been made clear. These exceptionalities have been
clearly spelt out to assist teachers in helping the children with these
exceptionalities. Different types of visual impairment have been
exceptionalities.
examined as well as the causes of visual impairment in general. We
equally discovered that they can be educated provided all needed
materials are made available in our schools and the society on the whole.
w
And, more importantly, ways of preventing visual problems were
discussed in this Study Session.

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Study Session 4

Learning Disabilities
Introduction
In this Study Session, you will explore the field of learning disabilities
and the peculiar problems associated with children in this disability
category. We shall present to you:
you the nature of problems in learning
lear
disabilities; historical background; definitions; peculiar characteristics;
characteristics
spec
specific types and educational challenges of learning disabilities.
disabilities We
shall also attempt to discuss classroom management strategies for
learning disabilities.
disabilities
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. discuss the historical background to learning disabilities
ii. describe learning disabilities.
iii. point out the characteristics of learning disabilities.
Learning Outcomes iv. distinguish between the different types of learning disabilities.
disabilities
v. outline the causes of learning disabilities.
vi. highlight the procedure for identifying learning disabilities.
disabilitie
vii. present effective management strategies for children with learning
disabilities.

4.1 Historical Background to Learning Disabilities


Learning disabilities is one of the fields in special education that is
historically significant.. The category of children were identified long
after other categories of children with disabilities like mental retardation,
visual impairments, hearing impairments, physical handicaps etc. have
been already organised
organised in schools and receiving functional services.
Historically, the discovery of children with associated symptoms of
learning disabilities started when teachers continuously reported
persistent academic failures of some children in their classrooms. Such
Suc
children were not able to learn what the teachers taught, despite sound
teaching. These children were reported to have normal growth and sound
health. When such cases were brought to hospitals, medical doctors could
not pinpoint any health problems. Later
Later on, scanning of the brain revealed
different kinds of brain abnormalities. They were then described as
children with brain disorders, neurological impairments, and perceptual
handicaps. It was later in 1963 that the term ‘‘learning disabilities was
accepted as the official and professional term for the field. Children with
accepted
learning disabilities have problems generally associated with poor
learning in academic and social skills.

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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities

4.2 Definition of Learning Disabilities


To enable you understand more about stages of conceptualisation of
activities in the field, we shall explore some of the
definitions/descriptions as they were given historically. These various
definitions will be discussed below with reference to the authors. You
will need to take note of the key words in each description or definition.
Kirk 1963 identified learning disabilities as:
“a disorder or delayed development in one or more of the
processes of speech, oral language, reading, spelling, writing and
arithmetic. This disorder may result from a possible cerebral
dysfunction or emotional or behavioural disturbance and not
from other areas of exceptionalities”.
Batman 1965 defined learning disabilities as
“a manifestation of an educationally significant discrepancy
between the estimated intellectual potential and the actual
intellectual performance related to basic disorders in the learning
processes; it may or may not be accompanied by any
demonstrable central nervous system dysfunction that is not
secondary to generalised retardation, educational or cultural
deprivation, serve emotional disturbances or sensory loss”.
Bateman’s description clearly suggests that there is the presence of a
disorder, which brings about a disparity in the performance of children
with learning disabilities and other (normal) children.
Gallagher 1966 posits that:
“learning disabilities as the characteristic traits found in children
that manifest developmental disparity significant enough (about
four (4) years or more) as to require the instructional programme
(special education) appropriate to the nature and level of the
deviation in the development process”.
Johnson and Mykleburst (1967) describe learning disabilities as:
“a neurological dysfunction or brain impairment, an altered
process and not generalised incapacity to learn”.
Invariably, they suggest that children with such learning problems are
considered as having psycho-neurological learning disability. The
implication of this is that behaviour must have been disturbed due to the
dysfunction of the brain. The nature and diversities of learning disabilities
have evoked further comments.
Lerner described children with learning disabilities from a psychological
point of view, attempting to capture the observed confusing nature of this
disorder. He stated that:
“although children with learning disabilities are not blind they do
not ‘see’; they do not ‘hear’ even though they are not deaf; neither
are they able to develop normally or learn in any normal process
though they do not have mental retardation”.

You should note that all the above definitions/ descriptions all have

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Note different dimensions of emphasis that made it difficult to bring the


observed difficulties of the children under one umbrella.

Consideration of some Harmonised Definitions


These definitions are more professional in outlook. They were developed
by groups of people who were commissioned by government agencies,
associations made up by parents of children with related problems and
professionals from related disciplines. These definitions, at one point or
the other, tried to look at the common features of problems associated
with learning in order to harmonise them into one plat-form. Harmonised
Definition of Learning Disabilities includes the ones provided by:
• Federal Definition
• National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD)
Federal Definition of learning Disabilities
Education for All Handicapped Act defined learning disabilities as a
specific learning disability. It means a disorder in one or more of the
basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using
languages spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect
ability to listen, think, speak. The term includes such conditions as
perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia,
and developmental aphasia. The term does not include children who have
learning problems, which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or
motor handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of
environment, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
Definition by NJCLD
NJCLD defined learning disability as a general term that refers to a
heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in
the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning
or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual
and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Problems
in self-regulatory behaviours, social perceptions, and social interaction
may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a
learning disability. Even though a learning disability may occur
concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory
impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional disturbance) or
environmental influences (such as cultural differences,
insufficient/inappropriate instructions, psychogenic factors), it is not the
result of those conditions or influences.
An analysis of these definitions shows us that a child has specific
learning disability under the following categories:
1. The student fails to achieve at the proper age the required ability
level in one or more of the several specific areas when provided
with appropriate learning experience.
2. The student has a severe disparity between supposed
achievement and intellectual ability levels in one or more of the
seven areas, oral expression, listening, comprehension, etc.
mentioned above.

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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities

To understand learning disabilities properly, you must relate it to the


following facts:
facts
1. There must be disorder in one or more of the basic
psychological processes i.e. internal prerequisite skills of
Tip learning, such as memory, auditory perception, visual
perception and oral language.
3. There must be an obvious difficulty in learning basic school
schoo
subjects, especially, listening, speaking, reading, spelling and
writing.
4. Different types of children are served under this group, which
means the group is heterogeneous.
5. Learning disabilities are not caused by any other handicapping
conditions, such as deafness, blindness, motor impairments,
mental retardation, emotional imbalance, and economic,
environmental or cultural disadvantages.
6. There must be a wide disparity between achievement and
ability potential. The disability has nothing to do with the
environment
vironment of the child. In other words, the disability is not
extrinsic, but intrinsic.
7. The central nervous system is always connected with the cause
of any learning disability. Any dysfunction in the central
nervous system results in one form of learning disability or the
other.
8. Adults can also suffer from learning disabilities.
9. Learning disabilities can equally occur together with other
handicapping conditions.

You should note that these harmonised definitions of learning


disabilities direct the operational basis of determining who actually is
Note eligible, that is, really qualified to receive attention under learning
disability services.

4.3 Characteristics of Learning Disabilities


Characteristics of We have looked at the definitions of learning disabilities. We shall now
learning disabilities examine some basic characteristics of learning disabilities.
disabilities We like to
Behavioural manifestations draw your
your attention to the fact that the characteristics of learning
that sometimes give us
clues of who might be disabilities are by no means identification criteria for learning disabilities.
suspected of having a We will highlight some common characteristics and give brief
learning disability explanations of each of them. You should note that it may not be possible
or easy to bring out all the characteristics of human behaviour, bearing in
mind that no two individuals are the same. However, there are some
characteristics that are common to children with learning disabilities.
Observable behavioural
behavioural characteristics of children with learning
disabilities include the following:
1. Hyperactivity
2. Withdrawal syndrome
3. Emotional instability

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

4. Attention deficit
5. Clumsiness/awkwardness
6. Low frustration tolerance
7. Perseveration
8. Acting on impulse
9. Perceptual motor impairments
10. Poor cognitive information processing
11. Poor academic achievement
12. Differential intelligence

4.3.1 Hyperactivity
Majority of children with learning disabilities are hyperactive; they seem
restless at all times. Children with learning disabilities find it difficult to
remain at a particular sport or engage in a particular activity for a long
time. Hyperactivity consists in excessive physical movements and
shifting of attention from one thing to the other at very short intervals.
Hyperactive moments prevent such children from learning, and they can
also distract other children in the classroom. Hyperactive children fidget a
lot and there is a general involvement in unconscious active movements
in hyperactive children. In the classroom, they appear to be busier than
their peers and this is at a level that will attract the teacher’s as well as
their peers concern.

4.3.2 Withdrawal Syndrome


Some children with learning disabilities withdraw themselves from others
in the same environment. Withdrawal syndrome is the habit or attitude of
isolating or distancing from others. When this becomes a regular
occurrence, then has assumed a problematic dimension it is a problem.
Children displaying such characteristic may refuse to join others in
carrying out any activity in and outside the classroom. Such a child may
doze off, while teaching and learning is going on in the classroom.

4.3.3 Emotional Instability


Emotional instability refers to an unbalanced emotional status. Some
children with learning disabilities exhibit emotional outburst at
unexpected times. They react negatively even when the situations does
not warrant it. They display temper tantrums – one moment they may
flare up; the next moment, they are sober or cheerful. Somebody meeting
them for the first time would definitely conclude that their behaviour is
unusual.

4.3.4 Attention Deficit/Short Attention Problems


Children with learning disabilities have short attention span. They are not
able to listen or pay attention to a particular task or the teacher for a long
time. They may not focus on the task, or content of instruction for a long
time when a lesson is being presented. Every lesson may look
cumbersome and appear impossible to them. The consequence of this is
that they get easily distracted. Any little noise in or outside the classroom
is enough to shift their focus away from what they are being taught. In
such a case, the teacher is likely to call on the child continuously in order
to re-direct and bring back his or her attention to what is being taught.

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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities

4.3.5 Clumsiness and Awkwardness


This is another characteristic that marks out children with learning
disabilities. Being clumsy is an indication of a poor spatial perception and
orientation. Some children with learning disabilities are usually not
always smart. They can easily break up things around them at home and
at school. There is always an inability to be mindful of objects around
them, they do not know how to handle or take proper care of things, both
at school and home. They always spill things on the floor; knock or hit
their foot against a table or chair consistently etc. Children with learning
disabilities can easily destroy things with ease even though they may
show a remorse when this happens. This makes them to be seen as
destructive individuals.

4.3.6 Low Frustration Tolerance


Abandoning a task half way is always easy for children with learning
disabilities. They are easily frustrated. They lose hope and give up trying
an academic task or other skills related tasks easily. They do not show the
strong will to try more or engage in regular practice in order to master a
skill or task. Getting fed up easily with something occurs all the time that
is why they are not pushing forward in the classroom, and this also occurs
even at home.

4.3.7 Preservation
This is also referred to as attention fixation. That is, focusing attention on
a particular task longer than is necessary. Children with learning
disabilities often fix attention on trying to perform a particular task for a
very long time without trying to let go. They may be doing it wrongly but
still insist on continuing on that task. An example of attention fixation or
preservation is when a child scribbles rough lines on his or her book or
trying to write something, and he or she does this rigorous scribbling over
and over again without wishing to stop. Even when the teacher tries to
step that activity, the child would insist on carrying on.

4.3.8 Acting on Impulse


Children with learning disabilities often act on impulse. Acting on
impulse occurs when one reacts to a stimulus without having any thought
over it. Impulsive movements or reactions may appear too sudden to
people around. At times children react in this is way to their peers
without any reason for such. An example of this is assuming a child
wishes to write the letter ‘A’ in the exercise book. After many trials and
the letter could not be formed successfully, the child can just tear his
exercise book to pieces, throw away the pencil or even break the pencil
into two or more pieces. This child can be without even looking at the
teacher or anyone else.

4.3.9 Perceptual Motor Impairments


Children with learning disabilities have problems of motor in
coordination. They experience poor gross motor and fine motor
coordination. This manifests poor eye-hand and general movement’s
coordination. They may find it difficult to write or to copy things from

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

the chalkboard into the exercise book. Most times, it appears as if their
eyes wise in harmony with the hand. In such cases; there will be an
obvious poor performance of the task assigned. Children with such
problems may not be able to catch balls in the air or actively engage in
sporting activities. Perceptual problems can greatly retard the progress of
children with learning disabilities in the classroom. Where a child is not
able to perceive letters properly as a whole but sees them as separate
entities, it becomes very difficult to pronounce or read.

4.3.10 Cognitive Information Processing


Cognitive information processing relates to the way an individual
acquires, retains and manipulates information. This manifests in various
ways in the processing of visual and auditory information. Children with
learning disabilities have problems of memorisation. They find it difficult
to recall past lessons or skills the teacher taught them. This is why they
are described as having short attention and memory span. They generally
perform poorly on all memory tasks. They lack organisational skills and
they also find it difficult to develop an active learning style and strategies
of directing their own learning, as a result of a lack of meta-cognitive
functions.

4.3.11 Poor Academic Achievement


Children with learning disabilities have problems of low and very poor
achievement in school. Poor academic achievement is one of the reasons
for the creation and development of this field. Anyone would know that
something is definitely wrong somewhere. Not only are they performing
below their peers; they also achieve below their potentials at very
significant levels. This could be in any subject area or in all areas.

4.3.12 Differential Intelligence


Children with learning disabilities generally are described as having
above-average or average intelligence. This is a major differentiating
factor between the mildly retarded children and the learning disabled.

Children with learning disabilities also exhibit secondary behavioural


Note disorders. These behaviours are not specific to any particular level of
intellectual functioning i.e. whether below, average, or above average
intellectual level. There is also an identified variability between areas
of functioning in both intellectual and performance abilities. The
emphasis here is that children with learning disabilities can perform or
carry out various skills at different levels. They can be very good in a
craft and be poor in painting, etc. This is referred to as intra-individual
variability.
You must always remember that these are not to be relied on as the
sole identification process. The characteristics are only a behavioural
manifestation of children who face problems associated with learning
disabilities. Identification of children with learning disabilities cannot
be based only on behavioural characteristics. So, before any conclusion
can be made, a comprehensive assessment of the individual (child or
adult) should be carried out.

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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities

4.4 Types Learning Disabilities


We have described the behavioural symptoms found among children and
youths with learning disabilities. You should by now be able to mention
those behaviours one after the other. It is important for us to look at some
of the specific types of disorders in learning disabilities.
Specific disorders in learning disabilities, irrespective of behavioural
symptoms can be grouped into specific types of disorders. These various
sub-types of learning disabilities have already been examined earlier
under in the harmonised earlier in this Study Session; they include the
following:
1. Oral language difficulties
2. Reading
3. Writing and spelling
4. Arithmetic

4.5 Causes of Learning Disabilities


It is important to let you know that all the learning disabilities
irrespective of the specific types have been traced to some cluster of
causes. Due to the diversity of these causes, they will be discussed under
the following subheadings:
1. Neurological causes
2. Maturational delay
3. Biochemical imbalances
4. Genetic causes
5. Environmental causes
6. Other unknown causes

4.5.1 Neurological Causes


The history of early research findings related the major cause of learning
disabilities to brain injury or neurological dysfunction. Since the
evolution of this field, majority of the professionals have imputed brain
damage as the main cause of learning disabilities in an individual. This is
visible in definitions of learning disabilities as a neurological dysfunction
or impairment in the brain.
Brain damage can occur during the pre-natal, natal or post-natal stages. It
could happen due to accident or any physical trauma that directly affects
the brain. At the natal stage (during birth), brain damage can occur when
there is a lack of oxygen-anoxia, misuse of forceps, rhesus
incompatibility (R-h factor) and so on. Incidents like shock and disease
can inflict neurological damages in an individual whether young or old.
Learning disabilities can set in as a result of this. Brain damage or
neurological dysfunction is however only a presumed cause of learning
disabilities. The actual cause might remain undetected even after
thorough assessment and examination have been carried out.

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

4.5.2 Maturational Delay


Maturational delay is connected to neurological imbalance. Maturational
delay occurs where a child does not develop some behaviour
characteristics at the time he or she is supposed to do so. An example is
when a child fails to talk until he or one is two years old. Maturational
delay can occur if the brain or the entire neurological system delays in
developing. Some types of learning disabilities faced by some individuals
have been traced to delays in the maturational process. Generally, most
children with learning disabilities have immature behaviours when
compared to other children in the same age group. This is a strong
indication that maturational delay plays a major role in the causes of
learning disabilities whenever they occur.

4.5.3 Biochemical Imbalances


Biochemical imbalances have also been speculated as the causes of
learning disabilities. Research has shown that hyperactivity and learning
problems encountered by children with learning disabilities could be
caused by artificial food colourings and flavouring contained in most
foods children eats. He therefore suggested that such children should be
placed on special diets that contain no artificial substances. Though it has
not been sufficiently substantiated, some research has shown that
withdrawal of artificial food colourings and flavourings have been
reported to have reduced hyperacidity to a significant level.

4.5.4 Genetic Causes


Heredity has been found to be one of the major factors causing learning
disabilities. Some children with learning disabilities inherited the traits
from their parents. This is common where there is the occurrence of one
genetic abnormality or the other. In families where one of the parents or
both have learning disabilities one of their children is likely to inherit the
traits, especially, where the cause of the parents’ learning disabilities is
genetically inclined.

4.5.5 Environmental Causes


The environment generally implants certain behavioural influences on
children. Environmental influences can be measured or detected by the
outward behaviours of individuals both at home and at school. Children
pick up some forums of unwanted behaviour from their environment.
Because of this; some children misbehave and become stubborn, lazy,
dirty, play truancy, become very disruptive and so on. This could be a
direct influence of the environment. Lack of proper teaching techniques
and methods can also include learning disabilities in children. Lovett
listed emotional disturbance, lack of motivation and poor instruction as
direct consequences of environmental influences. Most children with
learning disabilities exhibit behaviour disorder and some are not easily
motivated.
Other environmental influences include lead poisoning, fluorescent
lighting, food additives, radiation stress, and unshielded television tubes,
smoking, drinking, drug consumption, ill health, parental abuse and

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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities

neglect, cultural differences,


differences, poor funding of education, poor nutrition,
and so on.

4.5.6 Unknown Causes


Some children’s learning difficulties may not be traced to any known
cause. In such cases, the children may have normal development and
maturation but may still experience poor cognitive
cognitive achievement. Usually
in such groups, no deficiencies will be found except in one or two areas
of basic academic or social skills.
Note The causes of learning disabilities have no direct relationship with
their intervention. Thus it is only a minute
minute part of identification
procedures.

4.6 Identification of Learning Disabilities


Procedural identification of learning disabilities must be carried out
before effective intervention can start. We highlight the steps involved in
identification of learning disabilities in Fig 4.1
Fig 4.1

Placeme
Evaluati nt
on
Clinical
observat
ion
Diagnosti
c
assessm
ent
Screeni
ng

4.7 Challenges of Learning Disabilities


4.7.1 Challenges of Learning Disabilities to
Educators
There is need for you to understand that the diverse characteristics of the
population with learning disabilities induce diverse problems for children
and youths in a regular classroom. They generally have poor academic
achievement and present a lot socio-emotional
socio emotional problems that are quite
difficult to handle in the regular classroom. Thus the different
characteristics of learners and their learning styles should be taken into
consideration by the teachers.

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

4.7.2 Challenges of Learning Disabilities to


Specialists
Apart from academic qualification, a learning disabilities specialist
should have a clear understanding of the following:
1. There is need to cater for the diverse needs of all the students in a
class. Teachers should carry out a general class assessment
before teaching each child.
2. The different characteristics of the learners and their learning
styles should be taken into consideration, in order to ensure that
every student reaches his or her maximum potential.
3. There is need for the teacher to see that the learning style and
communication style of each student is taken into consideration
when evaluating or teaching him or her.

4.7.3 Strategies of overcoming the challenges of


learning disabilities
Teachers of children with learning disabilities must be able to carry out
the following duties.
1. Assessment of the behaviour and academic difficulties of learners
in this group before teaching.
2. Planning appropriate task specific lessons for different types of
sub-categories of learners.
3. Conduct explicit teaching that is effectively targeted at reducing
the impact of the difficulties on individual learners.
4. Manage different kinds of behaviour problems associated with
learning disabilities.
Advice for Learning Disabilities Teachers
To be able to work effectively with individuals with learning disabilities,
the following issues are necessary for effective teaching.
1. Make up your mind to work successfully with individuals with
learning disabilities.
2. See every case/individual as teachable and hope for success.
3. Be ready to devote time to study your clients; be a good listener
and watcher.
4. Encourage the learners to put in efforts in their study; do not
insult or discourage them; rather, be friendly and supportive.
5. Teach students how to understand different learning processes
and strategies.
6. Encourage group decision-making and consequences.
7. Provide opportunities for the students to be involved in the
development of personal learning outcomes.
8. Build students’ self-esteem through the establishment of positive
classroom management.
9. Use a range of teaching techniques and incorporate the use of a
range of appropriate technologies.

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Study Session 4 Learning Disabilities

10. Build your teaching upon the students’ experiences and skills and
leave gaps.
11. Use varying assessment procedures in recognition of individual
differences.
12. Teach elementary organization skills and processes.
13. Use simple assignment techniques to promote students’
organisational skills.
14. The period of lesson should be shortened to accommodate the
short attention span of the individuals with learning disabilities.
15. Learning tasks of whatever nature should be within the interest of
the individuals.

Study Session Summary


In this Study
Study Session, we have examined learning disability. We thus
gave a good background to learning disabilities, definitions of learning
disabilities and also examined some basic characteristics of children with
Summary learning disability. We also touched on the fundamental
funda causes of
learning disability, how they can be prevented as well as the strategies for
countering the challenges of learning disabilities.

33
Study Session 5 Communication Disorders

Study Session 5

Communication Disorders
Introduction
Majority of school children have various types of communication and
language problems, which usually disturb the learning and adjustment in
school if they are not checked.
checked In this Study Session therefore, you will
be exposed to the concept of communication disorders and its properties.
properti
We shall present to you descriptions of normal communication process as
well as speech and language components of communication. We shall
also discuss normal development of speech and language, the nature of
communication disorders characteristics types
types causes, identification and
instructional strategies involved in communication disorders. All these
and more shall be our focus.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. discuss the functions of communication to man;
ii. contrast speech and language components of communication;
iii. point out communication disorders;
Learning Outcomes iv. outline at least two treatments and instructional strategies
stra for
managing communication disorders in children.

5.1 What is Communication?


Communication
Communication is the transmission of information between two people
who usually act as a sender and a receiver.receiver Communication is an
interactive exchange of information, ideas, feelings, needs and desires.
Communication involves encoding, transmitting and decoding messages.
It enables us to relate with one another, understand the needs and feelings
of one another.

5.1.1
1.1 Elements of Communication a unit
For any communication to be meaningful there must be a process, which
contains three structures. These three structures are:
1. The message
2. The sender who expresses or encodes the message
3. The receiver who responds to decodes des the message.
Communication can be between people or within a person (self talk).

5.1.2 Functions of Communication


It helps us to relate to one another and control our social environment.
There are also other functions of communication. These are:
1. Expressing ourselves
2. Controlling our social environment

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

3. Information
4. Narrating
5. Making explanations
6. Making requests
5.2 Speech and Language
Human beings use speech and language systems to communicate. Speech
is vocal; it uses words, it can be spoken or written. Speech is the oral
production of language. Speech differentiates human beings from other
animals because only human beings make speech sounds. It is the fastest
and most efficient method of communication.
The processes of speech are:
Respiration (breathing)
Phonation: production of speech
Resonation: sounding out of the spoken word
Articulation: formation of specific recognizable speech sounds
Language is an acceptable tool used by a group of people to communicate
with one another. Language is made up of a set of abstract symbols made
up of sounds, letters, members, signs and gestures. Their abstract symbols
are governed rules. Research has discovered that there are more than 600
languages spoken in the world.

5.2.1 Five Dimensions of Language


Phonology Rules governing the sound system of language

Morphology Combination of basic units to make meaning

Syntax Arrangement of words in sentences

Semantics Meaning of words and combination of words

Pragmatics How spoken language is used to communicate

5.2.2 Normal Development of Language


Every child learns to speak without any formal process of teaching. All
human beings are equipped with the ability to acquire language. Even
though the rate of language acquisition may differ from child to child,
most children follow a relatively predictable sequence in their acquisition
of speech and language. There are some children who do not follow the
typical patterns, due to developmental lag, ill-health or other factors.
Hence their speech and language use is disordered.

5.3 Communication Disorder


Some people (children, youths and adults) however have difficulties
communicating with other people. They face a lot of frustrations and
encounter a lot of problems as they try to relate to other people day by
day. Such people are known to have communication disorders. Children
Communication with communication disorders may not be able to express their desires,
disorders Impairment in thought and feelings in spoken words coupled with poor listening habits

36
Study Session 5 Communication Disorders

the ability to receive, send, are likely to face difficult situations in school. Communication disorders
process and comprehend
concepts of verbal,
can be a limiting factor to total academic and social development of
nonverbal and graphic individuals.
symbols system. This may
be evident in the processes When a child’s communication abilities differ significantly from that of
of hearing language and/ or others, such a child is considered as being impaired in speech.
speech.
The general indications of communication impairment include:
1. Faulty transmission and /or perception of messages
2. Possible economic disadvantage
3. Learning disadvantage
4. Social disadvantage
5. Negative impact of a person’s self esteem or emotional growth
6. Physical damage or endangered health

5.3.1 Types of Communication Impairment


There are 2 major types of communication impairment.
i. Speech impairment and
ii. Language impairment.
Speech Impairment
Speech is impaired when
1. It deviates so much from speech of others that it calls attention to
itself.
2. It interferes with communication.
3. It Provokes distress in the listener or speaker.
4. There are errors in the production of speech sound e.g. poor
production of speech sound. This is known as articulation
disorders.
5. Difficulties with the flow or rhythm of speech exist e.g. stuttering
and cluttering. This is referred to as fluency disorders.
2. There are Voice disorders, that is, problems with the quality or
use of one’s voice: e.g. husky, hoarse, breathy or strained; hypo-
nasality or hypo-nasality.
Basic speech sound errors include:
Distortions: /s/ sleep for “schlep”, “zleep” or “thleep”
Substitutions: substituting one sound for another e.g. p, b t, d,
Omissions: cool for school; air for hair etc
Additions: Adding extra sounds
Causes of Speech Impairments
1. Cleft palate: Paralysis of the speech muscles, absence of teeth,
craniofacial abnormalities, enlarged adenoids, etc.
2. Dysarthria: Neuromuscular impairments in respiration,
phonation, resonation and articulation. e.g. Phonological
disorder (multiple sound errors, final consonant deletion as
omission, and language delays).

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Language Impairments
This occurs when there are problems
p in any of the five dimensions
d of
language.
The problems could be either receptive or expressive.
expressive Receptive
language impairment means inability to comprehend spoken sentences
or follow a sequence of verbal directions; while expressive
e language
impairment refers to poor oor production of language due to limited
vocabulary use of incorrect words & phrases or lack of speaking ability.
Causes of language impairment
1. Cognitive limitations, mental retardation, hearing impairment,
behaviour disorder, structural abnormalities of speech mechanism
and environmental deprivation.
2. Injury to the brain e.g. Aphasia which is a loss of the ability to
process and use language. Thiss results often in adults due to (a)
‘stroke’ (b) head injury in children
3. Hereditary – genetic
4. Environmental influences

Children with communication disorders have problems, which can


disrupt their normal
nor social, academic participation in the
t society. These
problems are visible and draw unpleasant attention to the speaker.
Speech distortions, omissions, substitutions are caused by disruptions
in the flow of breath within the speech organs, while language
reception and interpretation may be wrongly wrongly perceived. Most
Reflection importantly, identified children can be helped by early intervention in
speech therapy and one-to-one
one instruction.
Identification, assessment and treatment are by tackling specific
problems by speech pathologists.
pathologists

5.3.2 Signs or characteristics of communication


disorder
We have made you to understand in earlier discussion that
communication involves two aspects – speech and language. The
characteristics of these sub-categories
sub categories of communication disorder shall be
highlighted.
Spee Errors
Speech
1. Articulation errors like substitution errors, omissions, additions
omission errors.
2. Non-fluent
fluent speaking (dysfluencies), swallowing some words
when speaking.
3. Stammering; stuttering or cluttering.
4. Poor voice quality-high or low pitch
5. Unusual voice level/sound (loud or soft sound)
Language Errors
1. Difficulty in expressing oneself.
2. Difficulty in following oral direction

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Study Session 5 Communication Disorders

3. Difficulty in explaining oneself correctly


4. Production of wrong sentences
5. Inability to match letters with sounds.
6. Inability to break words into syllables
7. Poor word knowledge (vocabulary acquisition)
8. Demonstrate poor concept formation (Does not understand how
to connect ideas.

5.3.3 Identification of Communication Disorders


We have so far discussed characteristics and types of communication
disorders. It is important to look at various identification processes that
can be adopted in the classroom. The procedure for identification of
communication disorders include teacher observation, screening and
diagnostic evaluation.
Teacher observation
A child with communication disorders may experience difficulties in
learning, if the teacher is not aware of his or her problem. Teachers have
the privilege to detect these difficulties among the children they are
teaching. As the teacher engages the children in daily interactions during
teaching, the nature of the verbal responses they give will clearly display
any communication difficulties.
Upon such discovery, the teacher should pass such information to the
parents and the speech and language pathologist attached to the school for
further screening and diagnosis.
Screening
Screening is the first stage of establishing the presence of communication
disorder. Speech and language pathologist would conduct general
screening.

5.4 Educational challenges of Communication Disorder


Communication disorders occur at two levels (speech and language).
You should note that children with speech and language problems face
challenges that may hinder them from benefiting from school
programmes. Some of these challenges include:
1. Social and emotional problems such as embarrassment, guilt,
frustration and anger created for them when they cannot
communicate well; and also for those who cannot understand them
very well.
2. Confusion and self-pity, and inferiority complex
3. Poor self concept
4. Aggression
5. Poor academic achievement
6. School drop out

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Implications for Teachers


1. It is important that teachers identify early, children with
communication disorders in the classroom.
2. Teachers should be skilful in arranging classroom activities in a
way these children will interact freely with their peers, and
benefit maximally.
3. Teachers should be able to create language sensitive classrooms.
Bearing in mind the nature of characteristics of children with
communication disorders and the educational challenges these pose, we
shall next consider some instructional strategies that can be helpful in the
classroom.
Instructional Strategies for Children with Communication Disorder
Generally, it has been suggested that slight modification in teaching
styles and classroom management is the key to making the classroom
comfortable for children with communication difficulties (Smith, 2007;
Salend 2005 and McCormick, 2005). Two key strategies here are: general
instructional accommodation and language sensitive environment.
General instructional accommodation includes the building of language-
sensitive environment.
Language sensitive environment is a classroom environment where the
teacher is aware of the existing communication difficulties of some
children in the classroom, and he makes a deliberate effort to provide
opportunities for such children to use speech and language to express
themselves and receive messages from others. According to Smith, 2007,
language sensitive environments are classrooms that encourage, foster,
and support language development. These children are assisted to mix
freely with other children. The benefits of such an environment are:
1. It given students reason to talk
2. It encourages students to use new vocabulary words learned in
class in other situations
3. It provides a model for the correct speech or language when any
students make mistakes.
Practical Tips for creating language-sensitive classroom
Fig 5.1 highlighted some practical approaches for creating language
sensitive classroom.

Fig 5.1A Receptive language

Replace directions and instructions when students appear


confused.
Repeat instructions always.
Start with one-step instruction and gradually build up to

40
Study Session 5 Communication Disorders

multiple.
Provide and use physical cues and prompts when giving
instructions.
Pair them up with other children
Avoid ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ questions; rather ask the children to:
- repeat the instruction to you
- paraphrase contents in their own words
- tell you what they understand about the activity or topic of
discussion.

Fig 5.1B
Expressive language

Ask for clarifications when the child uses non-specific


vocabulary. Point out to them that their verbalisation was not
clear.
Create opportunity for students to use new vocabulary and talk
about concepts.

Fig 5.1C
Pragmatics

Teach and practice how to interpret facial expressions and body


language.
Teach scripted responses for certain social conventions.
Teach the importance of different registers and when and how to
use them.

Fig 5.1D
Content Enhancement

Teachers should be aware that such children have a special need.


Teachers should be able to use simple methods of instruction
that will enable those children benefit maximally.
Use graphic organisers and charts to help children organize and
remember important concepts.

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Study Session Summary


In this Study Session you learned the functions of communication to man.
man
You were also exposed to components of speech and language of
communication Finally we pointed out communication disorders;
communication. disorders and
outline at least two treatments and instructional strategies for managing
outlined
Summary communication disorders in children.
children

Bibliography
Textbooks McCornick, L. (2008). Language intervention and support. In L.
Web Resources McCornick, D.R. Loeb, & R.I. Schiefel Busch (Eds), support children
with communication difficulties in inclusive settings: School-based
School
language intervention.
intervention Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Salend, S.J. (2005). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and
reflective practices for all students (5th edition). Columbus, OH:
Merrill/p
Merrill/prentice Hall.
Smith, D.D. (2007). Introduction to special education: Making a
difference (6th Ed.) Boston; MA: Pearson Education Inc.

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Study Session 6

Autism Spectrum Disorders


Introduction
Some children are clearly and consistently performing below their age
groups in many areas of endeavour-academic,
endeavour academic, social, language, and self-
self
care skills. This deficiency is obvious to anyone who interacts with them,
and this calls
c for special education and related services
servi to help them
realize their potentials.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
i. point out the characteristics of children with autism spectrum
disorders (ASD);
ii. outline causes of ASD
iii. differentiate the types of ASD; and
Learning Outcomes iv. highlight classroom management strategies for children with ASD.

6.1 Characteristics of Children with Autism Spectrum


Disorders (ASD)
We shall discuss a range of behaviour that can be easily observed in a
group of children with autism
autism spectrum disorders in any setting. These
are:
A. Poor eye-contact: Children with autism do not naturally look at
people’s faces. They make effort to avoid lifting up their heads or
look upwards into other people’s faces. Even when they try to look
at faces, their eyeballs move across or above the head, not directly
resting on the other person’s eyeballs.
B. Absence of speech: Majority of children with autism always seem
to be deaf and dumb. They hardly respond to spoken words or
communicate fluently with spoken words. Speech seems to be
delayed in a larger population of children
ildren with ASD.
C. Poor social interaction: Children with ASD are generally
withdrawn from other children. They usually like to stay away
from other children instead of playing with their peers or siblings.
D. Abnormal play pattern: Children with ASD do not get excited by
the same toys the same way other children do. They usually get
attached to a part of the toy or object rather than the whole toy. For
example, the hair on a doll or the wheels of a toy car, etc may be
the only thing that interests them out off the whole toy.
E. Repetitive behaviour: Children with ASD engage in unusual
repetition of actions and activities that are not relevant to the
context at any particular time. They shake hands or rock their
bodies unnecessary in a strange pattern. This is also
a referred to as
stereotypes; which stand for purposeless movements such as hand
flapping, head rolling, or body rocking, etc.

44
Study Session 6 Autism Spectrum Disorders

F. Compulsive behaviour: They demonstrate high ability to follow


specific routines of their own, such as arranging objects in a
particular style all the time.
G. Resist changes: Children with ASD resist changes in their
activities. Once they have been used to a particular pattern, they
find it difficult to let go.
H. Restricted behaviour: Such children clearly seem to have very
limited interest and choice of activities. They are also limited in
focus and interest. They may prefer to watch a particular video,
music track every day, etc.
I. Self injurious behaviour: Children with autism do not feel pain.
So they often engage in activities that can injure them, and inflict
pain on them. They bite themselves, slap and bend their heads
against hard surfaces. They can even put their fingers inside fire if
unguarded.
J. Unusual response to sensory stimuli: They seem to over react to
sound and slight internal stimulation. Some may just take off
jumping, shouting.
K. Selecting: Children with ASD select what they eat and also refuse
food. This behaviour is strange because despite their loss of
appetite they do not experience malnutrition.
We have highlighted numerous characteristics. You may still come across
many more as you search the Internet. You must understand that these are
not exhaustive but these characteristics are generally found and easily
noticeable among children with ASD.

6.2 Causes of Autism


The specific cause of ASD is not known. Autism has been related to
biological disorder rooted in abnormal brain development. Some of the
research findings that confirmed such include:
1. Improper development of the brain: Some of the cells and
connection in the brain of a kid with autism especially those that
affect communication, emotions, and senses – do not develop
properly or get damaged.
2. Presence of gray matter in parietal lopes of the brain that control
social processing and sight-based learning (Dowstoen, 2008).
3. Enlarged gray matter in the parietal lobes of the brain linked to the
mirror neuron system of cells associated with empathy, emotional
experience and learning through sight (Reuter, 2007).
4. Genetic and environmental factors can also be responsible
(National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
2008 Wikipedia, 2008).
5. Abnormal levels of hormone in the brain (serotonin and
neurotransmitters).
6. Chromosomal abnormalities such as depletion, duplication and
inversion
7. Teratogens agents: All other factors

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SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

6.3 Types of Disorders in Autistic Spectrum


The autistic spectrum connects conditions with some similar
characteristics that vary so much at the same time in the actual
behavioural patterns. They exhibit five different groups that have been
identified. These include
Autism
Sperger syndrome
Rett syndrome
Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD)
Pervasive developmental disorder – not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)
Autistic Spectrum Disorders and Related Conditions
We want you to know that children with ASD usually have other
accompanying problems. This problem complicates their ways of living
and makes management more challenging. We will make brief comments
about these related conditions.
• Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): This
combine inattention and restlessness. Majority of the ASD
population present this problem.
• Motor problems: This includes poor muscle tone, toe walking
gaits and general problems with large and fine motor coordination.
• Eating disorders: Eating disorders are very prominent in the
majority of children with ASD. They stick to only one type of food,
or observe abnormal eating habits, and /or refuse food totally and
still manage to remain.
• Gastrointestinal problems: Many children with autism also have
stomach disturbances especially in connection to some classes of
food.
• Sleeping disorders: children with ASD experience different kinds
of sleep problems. These problems such as intestinal dysbiosis
abnormal intestinal permeability and nutritional derangement
include difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings,
early morning awakenings, absence of sleep at night, etc.
• Mental retardation: Majority of children with autism also have
mental retardation as an additional disorder. This accounts for the
overall low cognitive development in most of them.
• Learning difficulties: This is a close association of learning
difficulties in some children with autism. This manifests in the
uneven display of skills. They show high ability in one skill and
perform very poorly in the other. This can be referred to as
differential intelligence.

6.4 Challenges and Implications for Autism


There is no cure for autism. Most children with autism lack social
support, meaningful relationship, and self- determination. All these
problems are induced by the deficiencies in the three crucial aspects of
life that is, social interaction, communication and response to one’s

46
Study Session 6 Autism Spectrum Disorders

environment. Thus, educational programmes must be directed to focus on


environment
the following:
1. Improving social interaction
2. Enhancing communication and language use
3. Reducing abnormal behaviour by training them on appropriate
approp
behaviours
4. Training in self-management
management and vocational skills to enhance life
in adulthood.

Implications for Treatment


1. Treatment of autism should be focused on reducing associated
deficiencies and family distress.
2. General Educational Guidelines for Managing
anaging Children with ASD

Intensive and sustained special programmes


1. Clearly diagnose/differentiate the symptoms.
2. Give one-to-one instruction
3. Train on eye contact
4. Give one-step direction at a time
5. Work around the child’s interest
6. Introduce peer directed activities

Classroom Strategies for Children with Autistic


Spectrum Disorders
Fig 6.1 Pattern for teaching sessions

1. Brief historical background


2. Definitions
3. Characteristics
4. Categories/types/classification
5. Identification

Study Session Summary


In this Study Session we discussed the characteristics of children with
autism spectrum disorders;
disorders; and its causes. We identified the types of ASD
and related conditions. Finally, we explored classroomassroom management
strategies for children with ASD.
Summary

47
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Study Session 7

Physical and Health


Impairments
Introduction
Children, youths and adults with physical and health impairments are
found even in our immediate environments. In this Study Session, we
shall introduce to you conditions that are found under this type of
disability group. We shall present to you the definitions, characteristics
and types as well as causes of these disorders. We shall also introduce to
you the educational challenges and implications and finally practical
strategies for managing his population in the school setting.
When you have studied this
this session, you should be able to:
i. describe the nature of physical and health impairments;
ii. point out different type of physical and health impairments;
iii. present guidelines for providing education that is effective for
persons with physical and health impairments
Learning Outcomes

7.1 Nature of Physical and Health Impairments


Physical and health We want you to note the following important points about physical and
impairments A general health impairments.
term used to describe
children with various • Physical and health impairments are not diseases.
problems that are related to
incomplete possession of • Cannot be cured, but can only be managed medically.
limbs, and skeletal • Their symptoms usually get reduced as children grow older
features, as well as those
with different health or • Many of them are neither contagious nor fatal.
disease conditions.
• Many of them are not inherited
• They could be mild, moderate or severe.

7.2 Categories of Physical and Health impairments


Heward 2003 grouped physical and health impairments under two
categories:
1. orthopedic and neuromotor
2. other health impairments
Orthopedic impairments are impairmentss caused by congenital
anomaly. Congenital anomaly describes malformation that a child is born
with. They can also be described as primary malformations that are
sustained present at birth. Examples of orthopedic impairments are:

48
Study Session 7 Physical and Health Impairments

a. club foot (toes fused together or absence of toes), which


resulted from congenital anomaly.
b. Diseases like poliomyelitis bone tuberculosis.
c. Cerebral palsy, amputations, fractures and contractures
(malformations from burns).
Children with physical disabilities can have a combination of orthopedic
and neuromotor impairments.
impairments Neuromotor impairments involve the
central nervous system dysfunction. Neuromotor impairments can restrict
the ability to move, use, feel or control certain parts of the body Smith
Smi
2007, Heward 2003. It can induce general paralysis of the limbs or body.
Orthopedic impairment relates to the body skeleton (such as bones, joints,
limbs and muscles) neuromotor relates to the central nervous system.
Physical impairments have elements of both orthopedic and neuromotor
impairments.

7.3 Educational Implications for Children with Physical and


Health Impairments
We made you to understand that physical and health impairments are
made up of various types of conditions. Each of them has different
dif
management approaches. While some need constant medical care due to
frequent reoccurring symptoms, some need continued assistance and
enhanced accessibility to programmes and services.
The implication of this is that the school should always provide
provid
appropriate education that will suit their various needs (Hewad 2003).
However some general guidelines can be followed.
1. Modifications of classroom setting
2. Provision and use of adapted technological equipments.
3. The use of assistive technologies for mobility and
communication.
4. Reduction in both duration in school activities services.
5. Provision of necessary health services.
6. Planning for adequate social integration with peers.
7. Provision educational, therapeutic and recreational activities.

Study Session Summary


In this Study Session we examined the nature of physical and health
impairments; and we also explained different type of physical and health
impairments. In conclusion we presented ways for providing education
that is effective for persons with physical and health impairments
Summary

49
SPE104 Introduction to Special Education

Bibliography
Textbooks IDEA (1997). Individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA): PL
Web Resources 105-17 (1997). Note to the regulations for eligibility for children with
attention deficit disorder.
Lerner, J.W. (2000). Learning Disabilities: Theories, Diagnosis and
teaching Strategies. Boston: Houghton.
National joint committee on learning disabilities (1997). Operationalising
the NJCLD definition of learning disabilities for ongoing assessment in
schools perspectives: The International dyslexia Association, 23 (4), 29-
33.

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Physical and Health Impairments

51

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