Rolling Mills

Various rolling mill configurations are available to deal with the variety of
applications and technical problems in the rolling process.

FIGURE 8 Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high, (b) 3-high, (c) 4-
high, (d) cluster mill, and (e) tandem rolling mill.
Shape Rolling In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured cross
section. Products made by shape rolling include construction shapes such as I-
beams, L-beams, and U-channels; rails for railroad tracks; and round and square
bars and rods

Ring Rolling: Ring rolling is a deformation process in which a thick-walled

ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter

FIGURE 9 Shape Rolling and Ring Rolling

Thread Rolling: Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical parts

by rolling them between two dies. It is the most important commercial process for
mass producing external threaded components (e.g., bolts and screws).

FIGURE 10 Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle and (2) end of cycle
Forging
Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between two
dies, using either impact (forging hammer) or gradual pressure (forging press ) to
form the part, forging used to make a variety of high-strength components for
automotive, aerospace, and other applications. These components include engine
crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, and jet
engine turbine parts
forging can be classified according to the degree of flow of the work metal is
constrained by the dies, shown in Figure 11:
(a) open-die forging,
(b) impression-die forging
(c) flash less forging.

FIGURE 11 Three types of forging operation illustrated by cross-sectional sketches: (a) open-die forging,
(b) impression-die forging, and (c) flash less forging.
Open-Die Forging
The simplest case of open-die forging involves compression of a work part of
cylindrical cross section between two flat dies. If open-die forging is carried out
under ideal conditions of no friction between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, and the radial flow of the material is uniform
throughout its height, as pictured in Figure 12

The force required to continue the compression at any given height h during the
process can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding cross-sectional area by
the flow stress:

where F=force, lb (N);A=cross-sectional area of the part,mm2 (in2); andYf=flow

stress corresponding to the strain , MPa (lb/in2).

FIGURE 12 Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal conditions in an open-die

forging operation: (1) start of process with workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final size.
An actual upsetting operation does not occur quite as shown in Figure 12 because
friction opposes the flow of work metal at the die surfaces. This creates the
barreling effect shown in Figure 13.

FIGURE 13 Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging,

showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.

As an approximation, we can apply a shape factor to Eq to account for effects of

the D/h ratio and friction:

where F, Yf, and A have the same definitions as in the previous equation; and Kf is
the forging shape factor, defined as

where µ =coefficient of friction; D = workpart diameter or other dimension

representing contact length with die surface, mm (in); and h = workpart height, mm
(in).
Impression-Die Forging
Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-die forging, is performed with
dies that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the part. The process is
illustrated in a three-step sequence in Figure14.
Estimation of the maximum force F can be approximately done by

where F=maximum force in the operation, N(lb); A=projected area of the part
including flash, mm2 (in2); Yf = flow stress of the material, MPa (lb/in2); and Kf
=forging shape factor.

FIGURE 14 Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

Figure 15 presents stages in the formation of a crankshaft by hot impression-die

forging

FIGURE 15 Sequence in impression-die forging of crankshaft by hot impression-die forging

Flashless Forging
The work material is completely surrounded by the die cavity during compression
and no flash is formed
Most important requirement in flashless forging is that the work volume must
equal the space in the die cavity to a very close tolerance. For force estimation, the
same equation as in impression-die forging is applied.

FIGURE 16 Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3)
final punch and die closure. Symbols v and F indicate motion (v = velocity) and applied force, respectively.

Forging Hammers: Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading

against the work
Forging Presses: Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to
accomplish the forging operation. Forging presses include mechanical presses,
hydraulic presses, and screw presses

FIGURE 17 Drop forging hammer

Extrusion
Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape
Extrusion is carried out in various ways. One important distinction is between
direct extrusion and indirect extrusion. Another classification is by working
temperature: cold, warm, or hot extrusion.

There are several advantages of the modern process:

(1) a variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion;
(2) grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion;
(3) fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion; and
(4) in some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created.
However, a limitation is that the cross section of the extruded part must be uniform
throughout its length.

FIGURE 18 Direct extrusion.

FIGURE 19 Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b

Defects in Extruded Products
The defects can be classified into the following categories, illustrated in Figure 20:

(a) Centerburst. This defect is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile
stresses along the centerline of the workpart during extrusion. The significant
material movement in these outer regions stretches the material along the center of
the work. If stresses are great enough, bursting occurs.

(b) Piping. Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion. It is the formation of
a sink hole in the end of the billet.

(c) Surface cracking. This defect results from high workpart temperatures that
cause cracks to develop at the surface. They often occur when extrusion speed is
too high.

FIGURE 20 Some common defects in extrusion: (a) centerburst, (b) piping, and (c) surface cracking.
Sheet Metalworking
Sheet metalworking includes cutting and forming operations performed on
relatively thin sheets of metal. Typical sheet-metal thicknesses are between 0.4 mm
(1/64 in) and 6 mm(1/4 in). The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal
is high; thus, this ratio is a useful means to distinguish bulk deformation from sheet
metal processes.
Sheet metal operations are usually performed as cold working processes (The
exceptions are when the stock is thick, the metal is brittle, or the deformation is
significant) and are usually accomplished using a set of tools called a punch and
die.

The basic sheet metal operations are sketched in Figure 21 and are defined as
follows:

FIGURE 21 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending, (b) drawing, and (c) shearing: (1) as punch
first contacts sheet, and (2) after cutting. Force and relative motion in these operations are indicated by F and
v.