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Chapter 6 Social Groups and Societies

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Explain why groups are so important to individuals and societies.

2. Compare and contrast the basic types of group.
3. Explain group dynamics and indicate how group size affects interaction.
4. Differentiate the two types of leaders in groups and understand their basic styles of
leadership.
5. Comprehend how formal organization is formed and its relation to bureaucracy.

6.1 Definition of Group

- Sociologists define group in many different ways. In a very broad sense, group
mean people who have some sort of relationship so that they are thought of
together.
- Michael Olmsted and Paul Hare pointed out, “an essential feature of a group is
that its members have something in common and that they believe what they
have in common makes a difference”.
- It is also defined as a plurality of persons who have a common identity, at least
some feeling of unity, and certain goals and shared norms.
- A group is further characterized by direct or indirect communication among its
members, standardized patterns of interaction based on a system of inter-related
roles, and some degree of interdependence among members.
- According to this usage, a group is more developed type of collectivity with a
distinct sense of identity and a definite social structure based on direct or indirect
interaction among its members.
- Groups range in size and degree of intimacy from a family to a society. It is
important to emphasize that member of a group share a sense of belongingness.
This characteristic distinguishes groups from mere aggregates of people who
happen to be together in a bus trip or from categories that share in common
feature (such as being imprisoned) but otherwise do not act together.

6.2 Structure of Social Group

- Frederick Bates outlines two conditions which provide a means for distinguishing
a group and delineating one group from another.
- His first condition is the requirement: “there be at least two individuals who
interact with each other as the occupants of the two positions, each of which
contains at least one role reciprocal to a role in the other position”. This condition
makes it simple to determine when and how a group comes into existence.
- The second condition, “a group is composed of all individuals who occupy
positions reciprocal to all other positions in the group structure and includes no
individual who do not meet this condition”. The application of the second
condition enables one to distinguish between BONA FIDE social systems and other
types of human groupings.
6.3a Basic Types of Social Groups

1) PRIMARY VERSUS SECONDARY GROUPS

Charles Horton Cooley, in his book Social Organization, coined the term
primary group to refer to a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face
association and cooperation.
From this definition, one can easily gather that such groups are ones in
which relationships are on personal basis and that members are interested in each
other over and beyond the mere selfish implementation of a goal.

A. PRIMARY GROUPS
- According to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives.
- The primary group is usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who
generally engage face-to-face in long-term emotional ways. This group serves
emotional needs: expressive functions rather than pragmatic ones.
- The primary group is usually made up of significant others, those individuals
who have the most impact on our socialization. The best example of a primary
group is the family.

B. SECONDARY GROUPS
- Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task-
focused and time-limited.
- These groups serve an instrumental function rather than an expressive one,
meaning that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional. A
classroom or office can be an example of a secondary group.
- Neither primary nor secondary groups are bound by strict definitions or set
limits. In fact, people can move from one group to another.
- A graduate seminar, for example, can start as a secondary group focused on
the class at hand, but as the students work together throughout their program,
they may find common interests and strong ties that transform them into a
primary group.

Table 1. Comparison between Primary and Secondary Groups

PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP
Generally small Usually large
Relatively long period of time Short duration/Temporary
Intimate, Face-to-face association Little social intimacy
Some emotional depth in relationship Relationship is superficial
Cooperative, friendly More formal

2) INFORMAL VERSUS FORMAL GROUP

A. INFORMAL GROUP
- An informal group is recognized as one which evolves without explicit design
and which is not specifically organized to attain a given end.

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 - Informal groups are usually small in size, and can exist within the structure of
formal groups, in fact, when a group increases in size, it is likely to become
formal in nature.
- Primary group is sometimes regarded as synonymous with informal group, it
is more permanent and cohesive than are many informal groups.
- An informal group is without formally stated group rules, goals or leaders.
- Children’s play groups and gangs are examples of informal group.
- An informal group does not have standardized and rationalized group goals,
and especially not goals imposed from the outside. Its normative structure is
a product of face-to-face interaction and is sustained by close personal
relation among the members.)

B. FORMAL GROUP
- In contrast, a formal group is one which usually has a definite purpose, explicit
procedures and which is characterized by divisions of labor which is highly
specialized.
- Agreements in formal groups normally would be written and decisions are
handed down from those authority positions through a chain of command, in
other words, the total structure of the group is formal, from the recruitment
of members who have specialized abilities, to the grid status-role structure.
- Most writers consider secondary group as formal group. A formal group is a
social group whose structure and activities have been rationally organized and
standardized with definitely prescribed by group rules, goals, and leaders.

6.3b Other Types of Social Groups

1) IN-GROUPS VERSUS OUT-GROUPS

A group can hold special meaning for members because of its relationship
to other groups. People sometimes feel antagonistic or threatened by another
group, especially if the group is perceived as being different culturally or racially.
Sociologists identify these “WE” and “THEY” feelings by using two terms first
employed by William Graham Summer: In-group and Out-group.
An In-group can be defined as any group or category to which people feel
they belong. Simply put, it comprises anyone who is regarded as “WE” or “US”.
The In-Group maybe as narrow as one’s family or as an entire society. The very
existence of an In-group implies that there is an Out-Group viewed as “THEY” or
“THEM”. More formally, an Out-Group is a group or category to which people feel
they do not belong.

2) REFERENCE GROUP
- Both in-Groups and primary groups can dramatically influence the way
individual thinks and behaves. Sociologist use the term reference group when
speaking of any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating
themselves and their own behavior.
For example: Hupert Manaligod, a senior college student, aspires to join a
social circle of rap-dancers will pattern his behavior after that of the group.
Hupert will begin dressing like those peers, listening to the same record albums

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 and CD’s, dancing to the same tune, and hanging out at the same bars and
disco houses.
- Reference Groups have two basic purposes. They serve a normative function
by setting and enforcing standards of conduct and belief.
For example: Hupert, who wants the approval of rap-dancers crowd, will
have to follow the group’s dictates to at least some extent.
- Reference Groups also perform a comparison function by serving as a
standard against which people can measure himself against a reference group
compose of lawyers, law professors, and judges.

3) UNI-BONDED GROUP VS. MULTI-BONDED GROUP

A. Uni-bonded Group is a group whose members are united by only one common
interest or purpose. Only a small part of each member’s life and personality is
involved in the group and relationship among the members are characterized
by specificity or a limited range of rights and obligations.

B. Multi-bonded Group is a group whose members are united by more than one
tie (interest, needs, and values). The more ties there are binding the group
members together, the more likely it is that their relationship to one another
will be diffuse, that is, involving a wide range of rights and obligations.

4) FUNCTIONAL GROUP
- Functional Group is a group organized to further some special interest or
attain a specific objective, such as a professional or occupational group.
Functional groups are usually uni-bonded groups, that is, they are united by
only one purpose of interest. (N.B. This term is not widely used by sociologists)

5) TERRITORIAL GROUP
Territorial group is a group organized on the basis of residence within a
given geographic area. A society, a city, and a neighborhood group are examples
of territorial groups. Territorial groups are sometimes referred to as locality
groups.

6) SELF-HELP GROUP
- A mutual aid group in which people who face a common concern or condition
come together voluntarily for emotional support and practical assistance.

7) SMALL GROUP
- A group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously, that is, to
talk with one another or at least be acquainted.

8) SOCIAL NETWORKS
- Consists of people linked by various social ties.
- They provide their members with valuable information, for example, a person
needing a job is likely to use social networks such as friends in order to find
that job. They likewise provide socio-emotional support, self-esteem, and

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 even the courage to face the rigors of every day. (N.B. The term networking
refers to the conscious use or even cultivation of contacts people think will be
helpful to them, for instance, by joining and belonging to clubs).

9) VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS
- Voluntary Associations are specialized, formally organized groups, established
on the basis of common interest; in which membership is based on a
deliberated choice or even pay to participate, or may resign.

6.4 Group Dynamics

- Group Dynamics is the study of small groups, of the patterns of interaction

within a group, and of the inter-relationships between a group and its
environment, including other groups.
- Many sociologists prefer to use the phrase “small group analysis” on the
assumption that all aspects of social life are dynamic, and that the study of
small groups is an integral part of sociological analysis.
- Group Dynamics also refers to the study of psychological aspects of behavior
in small groups.
- Some thinkers define group dynamics as an applied discipline dealing with
such concerns as effective leadership, communication, and decision processes
in industry and business.

6.5 Group Size

The size of the group is significant on its dynamics:

A. Small Group is one that is small enough for everyone in it to interact directly
with all of the other members.

B. Sociologist George Simmel noted the significance of group size.

i. Dyad is a social group containing two members in interaction. It is the
smallest and most fragile of all human groupings. Example: Marriages and
love affairs are examples; if one member loses interest, the dyad collapses.
ii. Triad is a group of three persons. Triads basically are stronger than dyads, but
still are extremely unstable. Example: A married couple with a first child.
iii. Coalition is a development as the size of triads become larger. A coalition is a
temporary or permanent alliance toward a common goal. How does coalition
work within a small group?
• Example: Chris, Mark and Rogel are all hoping to become the
president of Philosophy Society in their school. The president of the
society is selected by a majority vote of the 15 outgoing officers. A few
days before the election, it appears that Chris is a strong favorite. He
estimates to have 7 supporters, while Mark has 5 and Rogel only 3.
• Mark and Rogel have the option of forming a coalition to stop Chris.
For instance, Rogel could drop out of the race and urge his supporters
to vote for Mark. In return, Mark might promise to appoint Rogel as
his vice president or to some other prestigious positions. Such a
coalition might be particularly likely if those two candidates (Mark and

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 Rogel) have some personal or ideological bond or some common
reasons for wanting to stop Chris from becoming the president.
• On the other hand, a different type of coalition could be developed.
In order to assure his victory, Chris could try to make a deal with Rogel.
If the (Chris) receives the support of his (Rogel) 3 supporters, his
(Chris) election would be assured.

A leader may be defined as someone who influences the behavior of others. There
are two types of group leaders:

a) Instrumental (task-oriented) leaders are those who try to keep the groups moving
toward its goals, reminding the members of what they are trying to accomplish.
b) Expressive (socio-emotional) leaders are those who are less likely to be
recognized as a leader but help with the group’s morale. These leaders may have
to minimize the function that instrumental leaders necessarily create.

These leaders, whether instrumental or expressive, employ certain

leadership styles:
i. Authoritarian leaders are those who give orders and frequently do not
explain why they praise or condemn a person’s work.
ii. Democratic leaders are those who try to gain a consensus by explaining
proposed actions, suggesting alternative approaches, and giving “facts” as
the basis for their evaluation of the member’s work.
iii. Laissez-faire leaders are those who are very passive and give the group
almost total freedom to do as it wishes.

6.6 Structure of Multigroup System

Multi-groups are of several types, the two types commonly identified are:
1. Organizations or complex organizations and
2. Communities and societies.

6.7 Human Associations Which Are Not Social Systems

There are at least three types of sociologically significant groupings which are
not social systems:

A. Statistical Aggregates
Statistical aggregates are the product of sociologists and other social study
purposes. Statistical groups may be sociologically significant, but they fulfill
none of the conditions for a social system. They are not other aspect of social
organization.

B. Societal Classes
Societal classes are made up of individuals who are similar in some way.
These similarities may be biological, such as age, sex, or ethnic group; they
may be adherents of a particular school of thought, fashion or creed; or they
may be members of an occupational group such as teachers or philosophers.

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 As long as these similar persons do not manifest the characteristics of social
organization, although they do recognize one another by some kind of symbol
or interest.

C. Congregations or Assemblies
A third type of human grouping is called congregation or assembly because
its members congregate or assemble together at one time or another. Such
groups have many forms. They include crowds, audiences, casual play groups,
church congregations, spectators at a sporting event, passengers on a ship or
airplane, and other similar groups. The interaction between members of
congregate groups is generally casual, such as a vague mutual awareness of
one another. However, there is no reciprocity of roles, such as is found in a
bona fide social system.

6.8 Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies

A formal organization is a highly organized group having explicit objectives,

formally stated rules and regulations, and a system of specifically defined rules, each with
clearly designated rights and duties. Formal organizations include schools, hospitals,
voluntary associations, corporations, government agencies, etc.
Bureaucracy is a large scale, formal organization that is highly differentiated and
efficiently organized by means of formal rules and departments or bureaus of highly
trained experts whose activities are coordinated by a hierarchical chain of command. This
type of organization is characterized by a centralization of authority, and emphasis on
discipline, rationality, technical knowledge, and impersonal procedures. Max Weber
introduced the concept of bureaucracy but tended to emphasize its positive aspects.

6.9 Transformation of Societies

In the age of modernity, society changes, the nature and type of their groups are
likewise transformed. The ways in which groups determine our basic orientations to life
will become apparent as we examine societies of the past and see how our own society
emerged.

1. Hunting and Gathering Societies

- It is called the simplest form of societies. As the name implies, these groups
depend much on hunting animals and gathering plants depend much on
hunting animals and gathering plants for their survival.
- Since an area could only support a limited number of people who obtained
food this way, the groups were small in size and nomadic, moving elsewhere
when the supply of food ran out.
- This form of society had few social divisions, being based primarily on the
family, which distributed food, educated the children, nurse the sick, etc.

2. Pastoral and Horticultural Societies

- Pastoral societies are based on the pasturing of animals like goats, sheep,
cattle, and camels. Group that took this turn remained monadic, for they

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 followed their animals to fresh pasture. Horticultural societies are based on
the cultivation of plants by the use of hand tools.

3. Agricultural Societies
- Agricultural society is also known as the dawn of civilization, this period also
produced the wheel, writing, and numbers. Cities developed, and groups
began to be distinguished by their greater or lesser possessions. An Elite
gained control of the surplus resources.

4. Industrial Societies
- The third social revolution (industrial revolution) began in 1765, (particularly
in Britain), when the steam engine first was used to run machinery.
- This new source of energy led to the development of what is called industrial
society, one that harnesses machines powered by fuels to do its work, this
result into a dramatic shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the major
sources of power, wealth and prestige.

5. Post-industrial Societies
- The term post-industrial society refers to the new type of society based on
interaction, services and high technology, rather than on raw materials and
manufacturing.
- The basic component of post-industrial society is information. The computer
chip is the primary technological change involved in this information
revolution.
- Bio-medicine is an example of the changes this revolution had brought about
– surgeons can operate on babies before they are born, and gene splicing is
becoming reality.

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