CHAPTER FOUR

Basic Engineering Variables

Pertinent to Drawing

Contents
4.1. General Quantities 19
4.1.1 Dimensions 19
4.1.2 Force 20
4.1.3 Work and Energy 20
4.1.4 Power 20
4.1.5 Stress 21
4.1.6 Strain 21
4.1.7 Strain rate 22
4.1.8 Relations between stress and strain 22
4.1.9 Temperature 23
4.2. Quantities Describing the Workpiece and Die During Drawing 23
4.2.1 Overview 23
4.2.2 Cross-sectional areas and the reduction 23
4.2.3 Die angle 24
4.2.4 Deformation zone shape and Δ 24
4.2.5 Drawing stress and back stress 26
4.2.6 Die stresses 26
4.2.7 Centerline stress 26
4.3. Questions and Problems 26

4.1. GENERAL QUANTITIES

4.1.1 Dimensions
The most encountered dimension in drawing is the diameter, d, of round
bar, rod, or wire, and the corresponding die size. Such diameters are
regularly given in millimeters (mm) or inches (in.). One inch equals
25.4 mm, and it is important to be facile in both SI (International System)
and UK/US measurement systems. Beyond this, wire diameters are frequently
quoted in gage numbers, and a useful listing of common gage systems
appears in the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, as well as in many

Wire Technology © 2011 Elsevier Inc.

ISBN 978-0-12-382092-1, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-382092-1.00004-X All rights reserved. 19

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20 Wire Technology

industrial handbooks.18 Generally, higher gage numbers are associated with

lower diameter values. For example, the American Wire Gage (AWG) is
widely used with non-ferrous wire. In the AWG system, 12 gage implies a
diameter of 0.0808 in. or 2.052 mm, whereas 24 gage implies a diameter of
0.0201 in. or 0.511 mm.

4.1.2 Force
The concept of force, particularly pulling force, is commonly used in
drawing engineering. Fundamental definitions of force, such as the product
of mass and acceleration, can be abstract and subtle as far as drawing is
concerned, and are outside the scope of this text. Suffice it to say that
drawing analyses generally involve steady-state dynamics where the drawing
force is stable for a given pass and easily related to drawing speed, work, and
power, as defined in the next section.
The SI unit for force is the newton (N) and its UK/US system
counterpart is the pound (lb), with one pound equal to 4.4482 N.
Occasionally force is expressed in kilograms (kg). This should be avoided,
however, since the kilogram is not a unit of force, but of mass. When force
data are expressed in kilograms (implying the force of gravity on a kilogram),
they can be converted to newtons by multiplying by 9.8066 and converted
to pounds by multiplying by 2.2046.

4.1.3 Work and Energy

Work is done, or energy expended, when a force is exerted through a
distance. The SI unit for work and energy commonly used in drawing is the
joule (J), which is equivalent to a force of one newton exerted through a
distance of one meter (m). Work in the UK/US system is often expressed
as foot-pounds (ft-lb), with one foot-pound equal to 1.3558 J. Energy in
the UK/US system is often expressed as British thermal units (Btu), with
one Btu equal to 1.0543
103 J.

4.1.4 Power
Power is the rate of work done, or energy expended, per unit time. The SI
unit for power commonly used in drawing is the watt (W), and a watt is
equivalent to a joule expended in a second, or to a newton exerted through
a meter in a second. This means that power can be viewed as force times
speed, or drawing force times drawing speed, for a given pass.

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Basic Engineering Variables Pertinent to Drawing 21

Power in the UK/US system is often measured in horsepower (hp), with

one horsepower equivalent to 550 ft-lb/s or about 746 W. Power is often
related to energy or work by multiplying the power, or average power, by the
time the power is applied. Hence a watt-second would be a joule, and so on.

4.1.5 Stress
Stress is simply force divided by the area to which the force is applied. The
SI unit for stress is the pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to a newton applied to
a square meter of surface area. Since most stresses of interest in drawing are
much larger, it is common to use megapascals (MPa), which are equal to 106
Pa. In the UK/US system, stress is usually expressed in pounds per square
inch (psi) or 103 pounds per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi equals 6.894
MPa.
Drawing or pulling stresses are tensile stresses and are designated with a
positive sign. Pushing stresses are called compressive stresses and are
designated with a negative sign. However, pushing stresses are often called
pressures, such as the die pressure in drawing. The signs of pressure are
positive. Tensile and compressive stresses (or pressures) are called normal
stresses, since the force is perpendicular to the surface. When the force is
parallel to the surface, the stress is called a shear stress. Friction in drawing is
an example of shear stress. Normal stresses will be designated with the Greek
letter s in this text, and shear stresses with the Greek letter τ.
Occasionally it is necessary to consider a change in the area to which the
force is applied. A stress based on a “current” or “instantaneous” area is
called a true stress (st), whereas a stress based on an initial area, disregard-
ing any changes, is called an engineering stress (se).

4.1.6 Strain
When a workpiece is deformed, it is useful to relate the change in dimen-
sion, or the new dimension, to the original dimension. A strain is the ratio
of the change in dimension to the original dimension. Strains are dimen-
sionless, since we are dividing length by length, and so on. Normal strains
(ε) involve changes in dimension that are parallel to the original dimension,
such as occur in tension or compression. Shear strains (γ) involve changes
in dimension that are perpendicular to the original, or reference dimension.
Tensile strains are widely used in drawing analysis. A tensile strain based
on an original dimension (called engineering strain) will be designated by
εe, where:

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22 Wire Technology

εe ¼ ðℓ1 −ℓ0 Þ=ℓ0 ; ð4:1Þ

where ℓ1 is the new length and l0 is the original length. In drawing
analyses, the strains to be considered are often large, and a measure of strain
that recognizes the progressive changes in reference dimension is preferable.
This strain measure is called true strain, and will be designated as εt , where:
εt ¼ lnðℓ1 =ℓ0 Þ; ð4:2Þ
or the natural logarithm of the length ratio.
In drawing it is useful to consider that the volume of the workpiece
remains constant, and that the product of the workpiece length and cross-
sectional area remains constant, even though length increases and cross-
sectional area decreases. Therefore:
A0 ℓ0 ¼ A1 ℓ1 and ℓ1 =ℓ0 ¼ A0 =A1 and εt ¼ lnðA0 =A1 Þ; ð4:3Þ
where A0 is the original cross-sectional area and A1 is the new
cross-sectional area. Of course, the cross-sectional area of a round wire is
just (π/4)d2 and (A0/A1) is (d0/d1)2, where d0 is the original wire diameter
and d1 is the new wire diameter.
It is common practice to calculate drawing strains, as in Equations 4.1–4.3,
in terms of the measured area or diameter change. Such strains assume
uniform flow of the workpiece in drawing. In most cases, however,
there is additional, non-uniform strain involved with passage through the
die. Such strain is called redundant, and is introduced by multiplying the
uniform strain by a redundant strain factor.

4.1.7 Strain rate

In drawing, the rate at which strain occurs in the workpiece can be
important. The units of stain rate are 1/s or s1, and the average strain
rate is simply given by the product of the drawing strain and drawing speed
divided by the length of the deformation zone, Ld (see Section 4.2.4).

4.1.8 Relations between stress and strain

Below certain stress levels, stress and strain are related elastically, with stress
proportional to strain and the elastic strain returning to zero when the stress
is removed. The simplest relation of this kind is Hooke’s Law for simple
tension or compression:
s ¼ Eε ; ð4:4Þ

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Basic Engineering Variables Pertinent to Drawing 23

where E is Young’s modulus. The units of Young’s modulus are the

same as those of stress.
There is a stress level, however, above which strain does not return to zero
when stress is removed. Such remaining strain is called plastic, and the stress
level is called the yield strength (sy). Nearly all of the strain of interest in
drawing is of the plastic type and the stress in the drawing zone is, in effect, at or
above the yield strength of the workpiece. The strength that the bar, rod, and
wire present during drawing will be called the flow stress designated so.

4.1.9 Temperature
The temperature or temperature variation in the drawing process is of the
utmost importance. An SI unit of temperature is degrees Celsius (°C), and
the basic UK/US unit of temperature is degrees Fahrenheit (°F). As in
the case of dimensions, it is important to be facile in both systems. One can
convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius as follows:
C ¼ ðF  32Þ
ð5=9Þ ð4:5Þ
Some thermal analyses are based on absolute zero, or the lowest possible
temperature (at which point thermal energy ceases). In the Celsius system this
temperature is 273.15, and the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin
(K) is oC + 273.15. In the Fahrenheit system this temperature is 459.67,
and the absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (oR) is oF + 459.67.

4.2. QUANTITIES DESCRIBING THE WORKPIECE AND DIE

DURING DRAWING
4.2.1 Overview
Figure 4.1 is an analytical schematic of the wire drawing operation, with
drawing proceeding left to right. The meanings of the several parameters are
set forth in the next section.

4.2.2 Cross-sectional areas and the reduction

The wire enters the die at the left in Figure 4.1 with a cross-sectional area
designated as A0, and exits to the right with a cross-sectional area designated
as A1. The reduction, r, is
r ¼ ðA0 −A1 Þ=A0 ¼ 1−ðA1 =A0 Þ ð4:6Þ
or, in percent:

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24 Wire Technology

P
α

μP
σb σd
A0 σm A1
μP

A1
r=1– A0

Figure 4.1 An analytical schematic illustration of a drawing pass.

r ¼ ½ðA0 −A1 Þ=A0 
100 ¼ ½1−ðA1 =A0 Þ
100 ð4:7Þ

4.2.3 Die angle

In the case of round wire, the die (in the great majority of die designs) imposes
converging flow upon the wire by way of a straight cone with a die angle, α.
This region of converging flow is called the drawing channel. Note that α is
the angle between the die wall and the drawing centerline, sometimes actually
called the “half-angle” or “semi-angle,” with the “included angle” of
the die as 2α. Die half-angles and included angles are usually given in
degrees. However, in certain analytical expressions, the angles are expressed
in radians (rads), with 1 rad equal to 360/(2π), or 57.30, degrees.
When the drawing of shaped cross sections is undertaken, differing die
angles will present themselves, depending on the orientation of the long-
itudinal section.

4.2.4 Deformation zone shape and Δ

Figure 4.1 reveals a trapezoidal zone bounded by (a) lines perpendicular to
the drawing axis, where the wire first makes contact and last makes contact
with the die wall; and (b) the lines of the die wall. This is the nominal plastic
deformation zone, and the shape of this zone, dependent on r and α, is
fundamental to drawing analysis. The shape of the deformation zone is
characterized by the ratio Δ, where:
Δ ¼ ðaverage height of zone; ⊥ to drawing axisÞ=
ðlength of zone; ==to drawing axisÞ: ð4:8Þ

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Basic Engineering Variables Pertinent to Drawing 25

An approximate numerical value for Δ can be calculated from the

relationships:

Δ ≈ ðα=rÞ ½1 þ ð1  rÞ1=2 2 ≈ 4 tan α=ln½1=ð1  rÞ ð4:9Þ

Table 4.1 displays Δ values for die angles and reductions of common
interest in drawing. In general, low Δ values are associated with low die
angles and high reductions, and high Δ values are associated with high die
angles and low reductions. Figure 4.2 displays three different deformation
zones and the associated values of Δ, α, and r.
The length of the deformation zone (Ld), parallel to the drawing axis
is (d0 – d1)/(2 tanα) and the length of contact along the die wall, or die
contact length (Lc), is (d0 – d1)/(2 sinα).
Sophisticated analyses of drawing make it clear that the shape of the
actual deformation zone, in longitudinal section, is more complicated than a

Table 4.1 Values of Δ as a function of percent reduction and die semi-angle

Die Semi-Angle(°) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
4 5.5 2.7 1.7 1.3 1.0
6 8.2 4.0 2.6 1.9 1.5
8 10.9 5.3 3.5 2.5 2.0
10 13.7 6.7 4.3 3.1 2.4

α = 4°
r = 0.25
Δ = 0.97

α = 10°
r = 0.20
Δ = 3.14

α = 10°
r = 0.10
Δ = 6.65

Figure 4.2 Illustrations of three different deformation zones and associated values of
Δ, die semi-angle, and reduction.

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26 Wire Technology

simple trapezoid. However, the trapezoidal deformation zone geometry is

the basis of process design and practical analysis.

4.2.5 Drawing stress and back stress

The symbol sd at the right of Figure 4.1 represents the drawing stress or
the drawing or pulling force divided by A1. In many cases there is a back
stress in the opposite direction, where the wire enters the die, which is
represented by sb at the left in Figure 4.1 and equal to the back force
divided by A0.

4.2.6 Die stresses

Figure 4.1 indicates the average die pressure, P, acting upon the wire in
the deformation zone. This pressure represents the total normal force acting
between the wire and the die divided by the area of contact between the
wire and the die. While most analyses incorporate the average die pressure
as though it were constant or uniform, sophisticated drawing analyses
indicate that the pressure is not uniform, but higher near the drawing
channel entrance and exit and lower in between.
Figure 4.1 indicates an average frictional stress, µP, where µ is the
average coefficient of friction. The frictional stress is in the opposite
direction of wire motion at the die wall, and is equal to the frictional
force divided by the area of contact between the wire and the die. It is
understood that frictional stresses will vary within the drawing channel, but
this is rarely taken into consideration in practical analysis.

4.2.7 Centerline stress

Figure 4.1 indicates a value of stress, sm , near the center of the deformation
zone. This is the average or mean normal stress at the centerline,
particularly at the point where sm has the most tensile, or least compressive,
value. Tensile values of sm are of great concern in drawing because they can
lead to fracture at the wire center.

4.3. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

4.3.1 Wire is drawn through a certain die with a drawing force of 500 N, at
a speed of 1000 m/min. How much power is consumed in watts and in
horsepower?

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Basic Engineering Variables Pertinent to Drawing 27

Answer: Power is equal to force multiplied by speed, or (500 N)

(1000 m/min)
(1 min/60 s), which equals 8333 Nm/s, 8333 W, or 11.2 hp.
4.3.2 Consider the strain in a 1 AWG reduction based on diameter change.
Calculate its value as true strain and as engineering strain.
Answer: As noted in Section 1.2.2, a 1 AWG pass involves an area
reduction of about 20.7%. Therefore the ratio (A0/A1) is 1/(0.793) or
1.261, and this is also the ratio (ℓ1/ℓ0). From Equation 4.2, true strain is
the natural logarithm of (ℓ1/ℓ0) or 0.232. Equation 4.1 can be rewritten so
that engineering strain is [(ℓ1/ℓ0) – 1] or 0.261.
4.3.3 A rod is drawn from a diameter of 6 to 5.5 mm with a die semi-angle
of 6 degrees at a speed of 200 m/min. What is the strain rate based on
diameter change?
Answer: Strain rate is the product of strain and speed divided by the length
of the deformation zone. The true strain in this case is the natural logarithm
of [6/(5.5)]2 or 0.174. From Section 4.2.4, the deformation zone length can
be calculated as (d0 – d1)/(2 tanα), or 2.38 mm. Therefore, the strain rate is
(0.174)
(200 m/min)
(1 min/60 s) ÷ (0.00238 m), or 244 s1.
4.3.4 A 20% reduction is taken with a die semi-angle of 6 degrees. A 15%
reduction with no change in Δ is taken. What should the new die semi-
angle be?
Answer: Using Equation 4.9, Δ can be calculated as 1.88 (compare to 1.9
in Table 4.1). Since Δ does not change in this case, Equation 4.9 can be
rearranged as α  Δ r [1 + (1 – r)½]2. On this basis α is 0.0765 or 4.38°.

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