Chapter 6

Exercise 6a
Through this exercise, I learned how to explore where the coordinate information is
found and to gain some familiarity with the properties of map projections. I used
ArcCatalog and opened the map of United States that is already available in data folder.
The United States map is distorted, because the data is displayed using its geographic
coordinate system rather than a common US map projection like Lambert conformal
conic. I also learned how to view the coordinate system that is used in several layers in
this exercise. For example, the cities layer has a geographic coordinate system called
GCS_WGS_1984 and the latlong layer use GCS_North_American_1983 coordinate
system, like the US states layer. Lastly, I learned about estimating the geographic
coordinate system of a dataset where the geographic coordinate system is not defined.

Exercise 6b
Through this exercise, I learned that one of the key functions of ArcGIS is the ability to
project data onto different coordinate systems or map projections. This is an important
function because different maps, datasets, and analyses may require different coordinate
systems depending on the purpose of the project. In ArcGIS, there are two main types of
projections: Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) and Projected Coordinate System
(PCS). A GCS is a system that uses latitude and longitude to define the location of a point
on the Earth's surface. A PCS, on the other hand, uses a mathematical formula to
transform the GCS coordinates into a 2D map projection. To project data in ArcGIS, I
first need to understand the coordinate system of my data. I can check the coordinate
system of my data by right-clicking on the layer in the table of contents and selecting
"Properties." In the "Source" tab, I can see the coordinate system information. If my data
is in a GCS, I may need to project it to a PCS that is appropriate for my analysis or
mapping purpose. It's important to note that projecting data can sometimes result in
distortions and errors, especially when projecting from one PCS to another. Therefore, it's
important to carefully choose the appropriate coordinate system for the project and to
verify the accuracy of the projected data before using it for analysis or mapping.
Exercise 6c
Through this exercise, I learned that gathering data from various sources can indeed
become a daunting task, especially when dealing with geospatial data that require proper
coordinate system information. It becomes even more challenging when some of the data
sources do not include this information, as it can cause misalignment and inaccuracies
when combining or analyzing the data. To address this issue, I can use the define
projection tool from the ArcToolbox. The Define Projection tool overwrites the
coordinate system information (map projection and datum) stored with a dataset and
should only be used on datasets with an unknown or incorrectly defined coordinate
system. If I run this tool on data that already has a defined coordinate system, I will be
warned that the coordinate system will be changed. I also learned that when mapping
using either the State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) or Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) coordinate system, the choice of map scale will affect the overall distortion and
accuracy of my map. It is important to choose an appropriate map scale and projection
that will best represent the features of interest on the map with minimal distortion and
highest accuracy.

Exercise 6d
In this exercise, I learned about georeferencing a raster. Georeferencing a raster in
ArcGIS involves aligning the raster image to a known coordinate system, so that it can be
accurately displayed and used with other geospatial data. Before using ArcMap
georeferencing tools, I must first check the map for available metadata, such as
coordinate system or projection information and lines of longitude and latitude. Second, I
must locate several usable ground control points on the coordinate grid that can be used
to calculate x,y coordinates based on the map projection. The information I discover will
help to give a geographical dimension to each pixel in the scanned image. The process of
georeferencing typically involves identifying control points in the raster image and
assigning them to corresponding locations on a reference layer that has a known
coordinate system. The Georeferencing toolbar contains several drop-down items and
interactive tools for georeferencing raster datasets. To georeferenced my raster, locate a
series of ground control points—known x,y coordinates—that connect locations on the
raster to locations in the spatially referenced data. Ground control points are locations on
the raster dataset that can be precisely identified in real-world coordinates. Once several
control points have been identified, ArcMap will calculate and shift the raster dataset
from its current location to the spatially correct location using a polynomial
transformation. After selecting a ground control point on the raster image using the "Add
Control Points" tool, the user must then link that point to a known location in the real
world by clicking on the corresponding location in the reference layer. Once the second
click has been made to link the ground control point to the real-world coordinate, the
"Link" window in ArcMap will show that the first link has been created. The "X and Y
Source" values in the Link window will represent the coordinates of the ground control
point on the raster image, while the "X and Y Map" values will represent the
corresponding real-world coordinates on the reference layer. If the X and Y Source
values are very close to the X and Y Map values, it indicates that the georeferencing
process is accurate and the raster image has been aligned correctly with the reference
layer. If the values are significantly different, it may be necessary to adjust the location of
the ground control point or add additional control points to improve the accuracy of the
georeferencing.
 Chapter 7

Exercise 7a
This exercise shows me how to design and apply my own unique symbols to represent
geospatial data in maps and visualizations. For this exercise, I try to be a graphic designer
creating a marketing product for the Florida Commission on Tourism. I can use the
various tabs in the Symbol Property Editor to customize the appearance of the symbol,
such as changing the color, size, shape, and style. I also learned how to arrange the
visibility of all the features on my map. Lastly, I learned to set the extent of the map to
the current visible extent, which can be useful when I want to zoom in on a specific area
or when I want to focus on a particular feature in the map.

Exercise 7b
Through this exercise, I learned how to make a feature class's sign more informative by
assigning a different symbol to each unique value in an attribute field or to value ranges.
In this exercise, I learned to symbolize features by categorical attributes. This means that
the features in the layer will be represented using symbols based on non-numeric
categorical data. I also learned about the use of a definition query to limit the number of
features displayed on the map. A definition query is a filter applied to a layer that restricts
the features displayed on the map to those that meet certain criteria. By using a definition
query, the user can limit the number of features displayed on the map without having to
edit the source data. This can be useful for focusing on specific subsets of data or
reducing clutter on the map. Overall, the exercise combines the use of categorical
symbology and definition queries to create an effective and informative map that displays
a subset of the data based on selected criteria. These techniques are important for creating
clear and informative maps that effectively communicate spatial data to users.
Exercise 7c
In this exercise, I learned about using styles and creating layer files in ArcGIS. In
ArcGIS, styles and layer files are tools used to customize the appearance of map layers
and save those settings for future use. A style is a collection of symbols, colors, and other
design elements that can be used to create custom map styles and symbols. The user can
choose from a variety of pre-designed styles or create their own custom styles to apply to
their map layers. I can use symbol that appropriate to the map in the Symbol Selector and
If I want to look for a specific symbol but not sure where to find it, I can search for it in
the search box. If I wanted to reuse the symbolized layer in other map documents—or
send it to a colleague—I could create a layer file. A layer file is a file that contains the
settings for a specific map layer, such as symbology, labeling, and data source. Creating a
layer file allows the user to save the settings for a specific layer and reuse them in other
maps or projects. This can be useful for ensuring consistency across different maps or
updating the symbology of multiple layers at once.

Exercise 7d
In this exercise, I learned about symbolizing rasters. Raster values are typically
represented by color ramps and lie on a continuous scale, such as the scale of integers or
real numbers. Rasters can have a single or multiple data bands. Rasters can represent
many kinds of data and be symbolized using different color ramps. I can display raster
data in ArcGIS Desktop, but to create it, I need one of the ArcGIS extensions for working
with raster data—ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, ArcGIS 3D Analyst, or ArcGIS Geostatistical
Analyst. Raster data is available in many formats, on the internet and from commercial
vendors. Symbolizing a raster involves applying colors, shades, and patterns to visualize
the data. The purpose of symbolizing a raster is to represent the data in a way that is easy
to understand and interpret. There are several ways to symbolize a raster, including
stretched, classified, unique values, and RGB composites. The stretched rendering type
applies a color ramp to the raster data based on the data distribution. The color ramp
represents values in the data and assigns them to different colors. The stretched rendering
type is useful when visualizing continuous data like elevation or temperature. The
classified rendering type categorizes the data into classes based on the data distribution.
The classification method used depends on the data and the purpose of the visualization.
For example, using natural breaks for elevation data can highlight changes in terrain. The
unique values rendering type assigns different colors or symbols to specific values in the
raster data. This is useful when visualizing categorical data, such as land cover or land
use. The RGB composite rendering type combines three different bands of data to create
a color image. This is useful when visualizing satellite or aerial imagery. In addition to
choosing a rendering type, I can also adjust other properties like transparency, contrast,
and brightness. These adjustments help to create a visualization that is easy to interpret
and understand. Overall, symbolizing a raster is an important step in data visualization
and helps to communicate information in a clear and concise manner.
 Chapter 8

Exercise 8a
Through this exercise, I learned about classifying features by standard methods. ArcGIS
has seven classification methods, they are:
• Manual: This classification method allows you to define your own classes and set
the class breaks manually.
• Natural Breaks (Jenks): This classification method identifies "natural"
groupings in the data by minimizing the variance within each group and
maximizing the variance between groups. This method is useful for data with
distinct breaks or gaps in its distribution.
• Quantile: This classification method divides the data into equal groups based on
the number of features, with each group containing an equal number of features.
This method is useful when you want to create classes with an equal number of
features.
• Equal Interval: This classification method divides the range of data values into
equal intervals, creating classes of the same size. This method is useful when the
data is evenly distributed across its range.
• Defined Interval: This classification method divides the range of data values into
equal intervals based on the arithmetic progression. This method is like the equal
interval classification method.
• Geometric Interval: This classification method divides the range of data values
into equal intervals based on the geometric progression. This method is useful
when the data values vary over several orders of magnitude.
• Standard Deviation: This classification method divides the data into classes
based on standard deviation from the mean value. This method is useful when the
data follows a normal distribution.
In this exercise, I created thematic maps for a crime-mapping project. I applied several
classification methods, including Natural Breaks (Jenks), Quantile, and Equal Interval.
For each classification method, I experimented with different numbers of classes to see
which one best represents the data. I can adjust the number of classes in the Classification
pane and choose a color scheme for each class. As I created each thematic map, I would
be able to see how the data is distributed spatially and how the different classification
methods affect the representation of that data. Overall, this exercise helps me to
understand how to create effective thematic maps for crime-mapping projects by
applying different classification methods and different numbers of classes. By
experimenting with different classification methods and class breaks, I may be able to
create maps that accurately represent the data and are easy to interpret.

Exercise 8b
Through this exercise, I learned about mapping density. In this exercise I also created
thematic maps for a crime mapping project and calculated crime density per capita. I
divided crime attributes by population. Dividing one attribute by another to find the ratio
is called normalization. The purpose of this exercise is to learn how to create a map that
effectively communicates the relationship between population density and crime
incidents. The distribution of data can create variations in the pattern of a dot density
map. The random distribution of dots can often be misleading. No exact method exists for
choosing the most appropriate dot value and size, so I will need to experiment until I
produce a good result.

Exercise 8c
In this exercise, I learned about using graduated and chart symbols in ArcGIS. Using
graduated and chart symbols in ArcGIS is a powerful technique for visualizing data that
varies in magnitude or type. Graduated symbols are used to represent data that varies in
magnitude, such as population density or crime rates. Chart symbols are used to represent
data that varies in type, such as the proportion of land use or the distribution of different
types of crimes. Both graduated and chart symbols can be customized to better represent
the data. I can adjust the size and color of graduated symbols, as well as the type and size
of chart symbols. I can also add labels to the symbols to provide additional context for
the data. Overall, using graduated and chart symbols in ArcGIS is a powerful technique
for visualizing data that varies in magnitude or type. By creating graduated symbol maps
and chart symbol maps, I can effectively communicate patterns and trends in the data,
which can help to inform decision-making processes in a variety of fields.