3

by Monica Jacobs

Key terms
Objectives
Assessment
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Behaviourist theory
• define and explain 'curriculum'
Constructivism
• differentiate between five major curriculum theories
• clarify the meaning of the hidden curriculum as it operates on Context

a micro-, meso- and macro-level Curriculum

• outline the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Curriculum theory

• discuss the South African curriculum Experientialism
• explain the roles of objectives, context, content, method and Liberal theory
assessment in implementing the curriculum Method
• describe the meaning and use of reflective teaching
Objectives
• apply reflective teaching in a classroom.
Pacing

Perennial Curriculum
Model
3.1 Introduction Sequencing
Most of what we do and teach as teachers - and what learners do and learn - is
determined by the curriculum. The curriculum is also a key policy document
within the educational framework as a whole, with other policies supporting the
implementation of the curriculum.

It is important to keep in mind always that a policy document neither functions

nor is implemented in isolation, but operates along with other policy documents
in the same field or within the broader policy context. For example, when the
National Planning Commission brought together stakeholders to formulate the
National Development Plan which charts the overall strategy for South Africa's
future until 2030, the chapter on education covers all aspects of education from
Early Childhood Development to Higher Education. Furthermore, it also shows
how education policy dovetails with economic policy.

In this chapter, we aim to provide a brief introduction to curriculum and /

Curriculum policy
Curriculum Studies, and we look at various curriculum theories. A brief documents
overview of curriculum in post-apartheid South Africa is also provided. This is What other policies support
aimed at facilitating your implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. the implementation of the
curriculum?
74 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

3.2 What is curriculum?

The word 'curriculum' comes from the Latin word currere, which means to complete
a race around a track. So, in essence, a curriculum is a course to be completed.

Curriculum is a complex concept often comprising what could be thought of as

various dimensions, such as political or ideological influences. This political or
ideological dimension often becomes a source of conflict or struggle, precisely
because it is this dimension that gives meaning to education in a particular society.

Curriculum can be defined in a number of ways. For some, it is simply

understood as a ' lesson'. To others a curriculum is a programme of study over
three years, for example, a typical course of study towards a degree in Education.

Yet others see a curriculum as a national programme of learning for all learners
in all schools, and in this instance, they would then normally refer to a national
curriculum (Wallace, 2009). It is in this sense of a national curriculum that the
word 'curriculum' is used within the context of schooling in South Africa.

Curriculum can also be described in a number of ways, for example:

• curriculum as a body of knowledge or content that has to be transmitted
• curriculum as a means to achieve certain ends in learners, that is, seeing
learners as the products of the curriculum
• curriculum as a process through which knowledge is transferred
• curriculum as practise.

The first two descriptions are applicable to curriculum within the South African
context. The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) specify the
knowledge, content or topics that have to be transmitted. The general aims of the
South African Curriculum include specifying an envisioned end product in some
detail. This end product is, namely, citizens who can participate meaningfully in
a democratic society and who are equipped to enter higher education fields of
study or the workplace (see Chapter 4 for more in this regard).

3.2.1 What does the curriculum specify?

For most curriculum theorists and experts, the curriculum specifies the following
key questions:
• Why?
• What?
• When?
• Where?
/
Referring to CAPS • How?
Keep the CAPS for your • With whom to learn?
subject and phase at hand
as you work through this With reference to CAPS, it is clear that all the above-mentioned questions can
section.
'-______________,,_,,, indeed be answered.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 75

The 'Why?' can be found under the heading 'General aims of the South African \
Curriculum Studies
Curriculum'. It is clear that a strong sense of social justice and need to address the Curriculum Studies is an
inequalities of the past form part of the rationale for the curriculum. academic discipline in its
own right.

Another driver was the desire to produce the human capital or human resources
in appropriately skilled people who could then actively take part in the economy.
The desire to build a strong, thriving economy that takes South Africa forward as
a whole is the ultimate goal here.

The 'What' can be found under the heading 'Content (or Topics) and the
Teaching Plan' for each subject and phase in CAPS. Here, the content or topics
are specified in detail. Curriculum theorists also focus on the 'What' by asking,
for example, what knowledge would count as the most important, most critical or
powerful (Young, 2013).

The 'When' is stated explicitly in the CAPS. CAPS is prescriptive in terms of

Pacing and
pacing and sequencing as can be seen in the teaching plan for each subject and sequencing in CAPS
grade. CAPS is prescriptive
in terms of pacing and
Pacing indicates the time that is to be spent on a particular section of content. sequencing, as is evident
from the teaching plans for
each subject and grade.
Sequencing stipulates the order in which the content or topic should be taught. Indeed, this has been one
Often one concept is built on another concept and therefore the concepts have to of the criticisms of CAPS
- that its rigid pacing and
be taught in a specific sequence. sequencing possibly does
not allow the teacher
The 'Where: 'How' and 'With whom to learn' are also specified in the content and adequate time to ensure
that slower learners are
teaching plans.
grasping concepts.

3.2.2 What does this mean for teachers?

At present teachers in South Africa are no longer curriculum developers and
planners as was the case with Curriculum 2005 in particular. Teachers are seen
rather as implementers of the curriculum, thanks to the comprehensive content
and teaching plans provided in CAPS.

There will be times when you will have to adapt your teaching plans when,
for example, learners require revision of content covered in previous grades.
However, you'll have to ensure that they do not deviate from the scheduled
formal assessment tasks per term.

3.3 Curriculum theory

Curriculum theory gained prominence during the 20th century. The various
theories can be grouped into two broad categories, namely, traditional theories
and inquiry theories.

We can also refer to these theories as paradigms, that is, the traditional paradigm
and the inquiry paradigm. A paradigm functions much like a pair of lenses and
determines how we see and interpret a curriculum.
76 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

A brief overview of selected curriculum theories will provide examples of the way
in which each theory is used in the classroom. While these theories do not play
out as clearly in real-life classroom situations as in the examples, the examples
aim to facilitate an understanding of abstract theories.

3.3.1 The traditional paradigm

Theories in the traditional paradigm tend to be prescriptive: they stipulate how
the curriculum should be taught and rolled out. Three of these theories, namely
liberal, experiential and behaviourist theory, are discussed in more detail below.

The liberal theory

In terms of the liberal theory, the main purpose of the curriculum is to develop
learners' minds in such a way that they gain substantial insight into, for example,
truth, beauty, goodness, liberty, equality and justice (Adler, 1981). The curriculum
content includes, for example, great works from the canon of literature, History,
Mathematics, Philosophy and Science. The teacher is also regarded as the primary
policy maker. For this reason, liberalists are opposed to detailed planning as well
as prescriptive content and teaching methods (pedagogy).

Example of a liberal approach

When Mr Nhleko had to teach his class about the Industrial Revolution, he
was free to choose his own content. He chose to focus on:
• the inventions that caused the revolution
• the revolution's influence on art
• the ways in which the revolution changed the lives of working-class
people.

Mr Nhleko used a teacher-centred approach that includes chalk-and-talk

and questioning. He asked many questions and gave the learners written
work. Learners also had to do background reading on the topic.

He assessed the learners by means of essays, tests and exams. Learners

earned marks for remembering facts, good writing skills and presenting a
sound argument.

While Mr Nhleko's teacher-centred approach may have bored and

demotivated his learners, the learners did benefit from his motivation, the
strong link between the content of the lesson and life, and the insight the
lesson provided into human values.

Experiential theory in
The experiential theory
a nutshell John Dewey is an early theorist and the chief proponent of experiential theory.
In short, experiential He believed that learners can only acquire knowledge through personal
theory is the notion that
knowledge is acquired experience. In his view, a curriculum should consist of learning experiences
through experience.
rather than only academic content and behavioural skills (Kridel, 2010). For
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 77

experientialists, the point of departure includes the learners' interests, perceived

needs and concerns in terms of curriculum. Experientialists are opposed to the
notion of curriculum as the source of knowledge.

More recently, proponents of experiential theory include Jonathan Kozol,

Dwayne Huebner, Maxine Greene and William Pinar.

Example of an experiential approach

Mrs Patel had to teach her class about the Industrial Revolution. She asked
her class to choose three topics from a list of 20 topics on the Industrial
Revolution. The class chose the following topics:
• Transport where I live - before and after the revolution
• Medical technology during the revolution
• Factories in our town.

Mrs Patel's approach was to provide learners with real-life experiences which
she then linked to present-day life, and then back to the revolutions. Her
approach included field trips, experiments, debates and visits to the museum.

She assessed the learners' speeches, performance and written work.

Learners earned marks for showing evidence that they were eager to learn
through personal effort and experience.

Although Mrs Patel taught the learners to think for themselves, the learners
chose topics that interested them, but that were not necessarily important
for the world of work or further studies.

Furthermore, she posed difficult questions which compelled the learners

to discuss the matter in great depth. In this way they reached a level of
understanding that would not have been possible through other means.
Her focus on critical thinking, disciplined thinking and the basics of scientific
research, led her learners to be highly motivated, creative and inquisitive.
The learners found the work meaningful.

The behaviourist theory

This theory can probably be regarded as the most popular and influential theory
of the 20th century. In brief, behaviourism as a theory focuses on behaviour that
can be observed objectively. The aim is to get learners to acquire new behaviours
within a particular educational context.

Ralph Tyler is regarded as one of the main proponents of behaviourist curriculum

theory. He built his theory around four questions and these eventually resulted in
the perennial curriculum. The four questions deal with the following:
1. Defining learning objectives
2. Identifying useful learning experiences
3. Organising learning experiences for effective learning and teaching
4. Evaluating the learning experiences in terms of effectiveness.
78 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Throughout the Anglophone or English-speaking world, there was an increase

in the use of behavioural objectives or competencies, particularly in vocational
education, in the last quarter of the 20th century.

Other proponents of behaviourist theory include Bloom and Taha.

Bloom's taxonomy
Bloom's taxonomy is widely
regarded as fundamentally Example of the behaviourist approach
important to education
today. According to
Mr Gettman had to teach his class about the Industrial Revolution. He
this taxonomy, learning
objectives are divided into consulted the curriculum developed by the education department. He had
three kinds: cognitive, to teach the content prescribed in the curriculum. The three sections were:
affective, and psychomotor
- thinking and knowledge­ 1. The Industrial Revolution and the nature of industry
based, feeling-based and 2. The history of iron
what can be physically
3. Machines, power and the Industrial Revolution.
done.
Mr Gettman's approach was based on clear-cut behavioural objectives. His
teaching methods included lecturing, buzz groups, research, written work,
using the Internet and Communications Technology. He planned his lessons
in detail and adhered to his lesson plan.

For assessment, learners had to do assignments as well as write tests and

exams.

Mr Gettman's approach was mechanistic and task-oriented. As a result, the

learners were also task-oriented and productive. Learners were assessed
fairly and according to objective standards. Slow learners, though, were left
behind and creative learners felt out of place.

But, at the end of the day, it was easy to see which learners were the most
talented and hardworking as their marks reflected their performance.

3.3.2 The inquiry paradigm

Theories in the inquiry paradigm focus on how things are actually being done
_ schools. Theorists of this paradigm or framework question current practices,
in
political motives and ideologies impacting on a curriculum and its development.

It can be said that the inquiry paradigm is more eclectic in nature as components
or features are selected from traditional theories and combined to form a new
theory.

The critical inquiry theory and the constructivist theory are the two most
important theories in the inquiry paradigm.

The critical inquiry theory

The critical inquiry theory is based on the crucial need for people to acquire
and develop critical thinking skills. It was developed by Joseph Schwab, Maxine
Greene, Dwayne Huebner, Lev Vygotsky and Michael Young, amongst others.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 79

The critical inquiry theory is based on the following four principles:

1. teachers
2. subject matter
3. learners
4. context or environment.

In terms of this theory, teachers think for themselves and should therefore not
be overly prescribed to. They are enthusiastic and caring, and readily share their
curriculum experiences with other teachers, learners and parents.

The subject matter is interesting and exciting. Enough time should be provided
for teachers and learners to analyse problems, in particular, those caused by,
for example, the inhumane treatment of others and inequalities as a result of
discrimination.

Learners acquire knowledge that meets their needs. They examine moral values
and ideologies through discussion, reading and writing.

Lastly, the context or environment of each school is entrenched in the curriculum

of that school. It is supported by ongoing situational analyses, needs assessments
and curriculum deliberations by all in the school community.

Example of the critical enquiry approach

Mrs Mopane had to teach her class about the Industrial Revolution. She
chose interesting, profound issues:
• Are people healthier now?
• How did workers organise themselves?
• Slavery from 1700 until 1850.

Mrs Mopane's favourite approach was to start with a class discussion

on a controversial issue. She also used other methods such as role-play,
experimentation, research, team work, group work and guest speakers.

Assessment was based on appraising each learner's performance in critical

thinking exercises and other class activities. Mrs Mopane chose not to
use tests and exams for assessment purposes as she believed that they
were undesirable as assessment methods. However, Mrs Mopane was
so accepting of her learners that her assessment of them was not alway s
reliable.

While the learners in Mrs Mopane's class were enthusiastic and motivated
about the topics they studied - mostly as a result of her enthusiasm
some of them might have lacked general knowledge and basic skills such
as reading and writing. Many of her learners developed excellent critical
thinking skills though. They also showed empathy with those less fortunate
than them.
80 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

The constructivist theory

The constructivist theory is also referred to as socio-constructivism. It is an
eclectic theory and stems from two older theories, namely, experiential theory
and��haviourist theory. While Dewey 's ideas were fundamental to the inception
of constructivism, Piaget and Freire further developed these ideas. Many aspects
of behaviourism were also included in constructivism.

Constructivism is based on the belief that�gs should be assisted to const�ct

knowledge that is meaningful to them and useful in their own lives. The
- emphasis is not so much on what learners learn, but rather on how they learn. In
other words, the skills they acquire is more important than the knowledge they
acquire. For example, when learners learn to multiply two-digit numbers with
three-digit numbers, it does not matter what numbers they use. What matters is
that they acquire the skill to multiply any two-digit number with any three-digit
number.

Other learning skills, for example research and group work, enable learners
to learn whatever they wish to learn. Constructivists also believe that learners
should be assessed on a continuous basis, and that results should not necessarily
be expressed in the form of percentages but rather in codes which reflect a
broader range of attainment of skill, for example, a learner's progress could be
classified as 'average' or 'above average' or 'excellent:

Modern proponents of constructivism include Martin Brooks, Jaqueline Brooks

and Basil Bernstein.

Example of the constructivist approach

Mr Knapp and two other teachers had to prepare a module on the Industrial
Revolution. They decided to focus on the following content:
• a definition and description of the Industrial Revolution
• the hidden cost of electricity
• the shrinking world from 1700 to 2000.

Together the three teachers produced a workbook with 100 worksheets on

the Industrial Revolution.

Mr Knapp's learners had to complete all the worksheets as well as the other
assignments in the workbook. These assignments included, for example,
projects, presentations and examples. The learners also worked at their
own pace. Each learner's marks consisted of marks for the worksheets,
assignments and exams.

The curriculum specified that skills are emphasised over content. As a result,
many of Mr Knapp's learners underachieved in tests and exams. Mr Knapp
was aware that the learners actually needed to learn more content, but he
had to comply with the curriculum.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 81

On a more positive note, Mr Knapp's learners developed useful skills, such

as being task-oriented, which stood them in good stead, both at school and
in life beyond school.

3.4 The hidden curriculum

In curriculum studies the concept 'hidden curriculum' has been used in two
different ways:
1. Certain learning material is taught even though it is not stipulated in the
curriculum.
2. A curriculum which has a hidden agenda, resulting in intentional and
detrimental outcomes. An example of such an agenda is that the hidden
curriculum is used by dominant groups to maintain their position of
privilege (Kridel, 2010).

The focus of this book is on the first interpretation of the term 'hidden
The hidden
curriculum'. Consequently, it can be said that the hidden curriculum includes a curriculum - an
wide variety of planned and unplanned experiences; however, these experiences example
do not form part of the explicit aims of instruction. An example of the hidden
curriculum today is
learning how to behave in
The hidden curriculum experiences can further be classified into three categories: a classroom and/or good
1. the hidden micro-curriculum practice when engaging
socially with other learners.
2. the hidden meso-curriculum While 'good behaviour
3. the hidden macro-curriculum. in the classroom' is not
an explicit outcome, it
is implied by activities
3.4.1 The hidden micro-curriculum which, for example, require
group work or structured
The hidden curriculum manifests itself on the micro- or classroom level in every debates. If learners do not
individually and collectively
lesson and influences teaching-learning dynamics (Kruger & Muller, 1988). Of practise skills such as
particular interest are the relationships between teachers and learners, as well as listening or turn-taking, it
is unlikely that they could
those between the learners themselves.
do well in group work or
debating tasks.
\
Examples of the hidden micro-curriculum
• When learners want to ask a question or make a comment, they have to
put up their hand and wait for the teacher to give them a turn to speak.
• At the beginning of a lesson, the learners remain standing until the
teacher has greeted them and they have greeted the teacher. Only then
may learners be seated.

3.4.2 The hidden meso-curriculum

The hidden meso-curriculum manifests itself in a particular school and its
immediate environment. Included are, for example, the relationships between
teachers, the influence of parents and community leaders, and extracurricular
activities.
82 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Examples of the hidden mesa-curriculum

• A boys' high school prides itself on its discipline and the manners it
inculcates in the boys. Visitors and parents are greeted politely by the
boys and are asked whether they need assistance.
• The headmaster and teachers at a school were usually late for classes.
Consequently the learners also developed the habit of being late for
class and extramural activities.

3.4.3 The hidden macro-curriculum

The hidden macro-curriculum operates at a national level and is usually the
result of policy.

Example of the hidden macro-curriculum

• The results of the Annual National Assessments (ANAs) are made
available for each school. The schools are then in competition with
each other to attract the best learners, and parents want to enroll their
children in schools with the best results.

3.5 Curriculum develoRment in South Africa

since 1994 - a brief history
Before 1994, the education system was a differentiated system based on race.
There were 19 education departments, each with its own separate curriculum,
which then determined the knowledge the different race groups had access to.
For example, the white education departments produced a curriculum which
was then adapted and diluted for other racial groupings (Hoadley, 2011).
Consequently, black people were largely educated to become unskilled or semi­
skilled labourers in the economy. White people, however, received an education
geared towards helping them take up highly skilled or professional occupations.

Under apartheid, teacher education too was an 'own affairs' issue and was
segregated along racial lines. This meant that teacher education was differentiated
and hierarchisised, with whites having access to the best teacher education and
the other race groups having access to the worst teacher education (WITS EPU,
2005).

In order to equal out the enormous difference in knowledge and skills among
the various race groups, there was a drive to establish a National Qualifications
Framework (NQF), which provided a matrix for all qualifications from basic
education up to and including doctoral studies. The educational sector and
its curriculum was expected to dovetail with its underpinning principle of
outcomes-based education (OBE) and this framework on the basis of its adoption
of competence acquisition. For more on the NQF, see section 3.6.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 83

Needless to say, radical educational reform was needed if the needs of the new
democracy were to be met. Curriculum 2005 (C2005) was the first post-apartheid
curriculum to be implemented after the advent of democracy in 1994, and its aim
was to bring about radical educational reform and to redress the inequalities of the
past.

3.5.1 Curriculum 2005

In broad terms, the aims of this curriculum were social transformation and
social justice, based Q..11.Jhe values of the new_Constitution. In order to ensure
that
-----all learners --·had
- access
- to the same education, the design principles of the
�urriculum focused on the following:
• learner-centred education
• integration of knowledge - an approach that embraces cross-subject
acquisition of knowledge
• bringing local knowledge and context to the fore to promote equity.

Consequently, outcomes-based education (OBE) was embraced as the basis for

the new curriculum in order to bring about the aims mentioned above (Fiske &
Ladd, 2003). Qther elements embraced were progressive teaching methods, such
as the focus on learner-centredness, having 'facilitators' instead of teachers, and
co-operative or group learning.

C2005 was a radical break with apartheid curricula. It was everything the
previous curricula had not been. It also had a very strong and specific social
justice agenda in order to try to redress the inequalities of the past.

C2005 was characterised by a lack of or avoidance of content and then also site,
i.e. content was not specified. The idea was that teachers would select content
according to their specific contexts and needs, and would also develop their
own learning and teaching support material (LTSM). The majority of teachers
neither had the knowledge nor the resources to produce their own material.
Unfortunately, teachers were also encouraged not to use learner books, and this
added to the already numerous implementation challenges surrounding C2005
(Taylor, 2009).

Integration was a core principle of the curriculum. Instead of subjects, C2005

had learning areas with broad areas or fields of study, and boundaries betwee!l­
subjects were broken down or blurred. Progression was also not stated explicitly,
and neither was sequencing. This proved to be more problematic for some
learning areas than others.

It must also be said that teachers did not necessarily understand the curriculum,
nor its principles and pedagogy. In general, many teachers had a shallow
understanding of C2005 and factors such as a lack of resources undermined their
efforts to implement C2005 (Fiske & Ladd, 2003; Nykiel-Herbert, 2004).
84 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Teachers also conflated C2005 with OBE, and used the terms interchangeably
(Harley & Wedekind, 2004). For many, group work embodied OBE. So, if
learners were seated in groups, whatever happened in the classroom was
regarded as OBE, even though the teaching itself was not learner-centred (Harley
& Wedekind, 2004; Nykiel-Herbert, 2004).

C2005 was written and subsequently implemented according to very tight

timeframes in 1997. Soon thereafter, issues regarding the implementation and the
nature of the curriculum began to surface. These reports nised several pressing
issues, for example, the weak conceptual coherence and lack of content in the
curriculum, poor quality of teacher training, and so on. The then Minister of
Education, Kader Asmal, subsequently commissioned a review of C2005.

3.5.2 The National Curriculum Statement

The National Curriculum Statement (NCS) is the result of the review of C2005. In
many ways, the NCS was a curriculum based on compromise, and one which led
to conceptual discomfort (Hoadley, 2011). For example, integration was retained
with the learning areas into which traditional subjects were grouped together.
The curriculum was still underspecified in terms of content and progression. In
essence, the pedagogical project or focus of C2005 - OBE - was retained.

The clarification of the curriculum involved adding and specifying specific

content as well as sequencing and pacing requirements. The revision also
introduced assessment standards and content frameworks to provide teachers
with the content they had to teach. However, there was no consistency in this
regard across the various learning areas, PET subjects and grades as the specific
content requirements, sequencing and pacing remained uneven: teachers could
determine sequencing and pacing.

Outcomes-based education was increasingly criticised in the media. In a sense,

this criticism was fuelled by South Africa's shocking underperformance in
international, regional and national standardised tests. The Minister of Educati01
consequently called for a review of the NCS.

CAPS in a nutshell 3.5.3 Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

CAPS is a single document (CAPS)
that replaces the many
C2005 and NCS documents. CAPS is the result of the NCS review.
It has specifically been
designed to help ease the With regard to curriculum, the overarching recommendation was to develop a
policy confusion and policy
overload that prevailed coherent, clear and simple plan (DBE, 2009:64). A main driver of the plan is the
prior to this. Consequently, Curriculum and Assessment Policy (CAPS).
CAPS contains one set
of clear curriculum and
assessment standards.
There is a return to subject disciplines for both the General Education and
,, Training (GET ) and Further Education and Training (PET ) bands. This clearly
indicates that the curriculum has moved from the underspecified, integrated
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 85

curricula of C2005 and the NCS, to a more traditional subject-bound curriculum.

CAPS includes the knowledge (that is, content-, concepts- and skills) approaches
to pedagogy and assessment requirements. Recommended texts are also included
(DBE, 2009).

The number of subjects in the Intermediate Phase is reduced to six, while the
number of subjects in the Foundation Phase is increased to four in order to
accommodate either English or Afrikaans as First Additional Language. These
changes in the number of subjects are intended, among other things, to:
• improve alignment between the different phases
• allocate more teaching time to languages and Mathematics.

The pacing in CAPS is very specific. It does not leave teachers with much
leeway to decrease the pace to, for example, do remedial work with some
children. Although CAPS has been well received by teachers, there are still some
challenges. As 2015 National Teacher's Union spokesman Allen Thompson and
others have pointed out, CAPS assumes that all learners and teachers are the
same and that teachers, if they are to adhere to the pace in CAPS, do not have
much time to help struggling learners (Mlambo, 2014).

At certain schools, and for some teachers and learners, the pacing is realistic and
http://quickto.mobi/
feasible. However, this is potentially not the case at under-resourced schools. At
PEA-NATIONAL­
under-resourced schools, it would likely be a challenge to cover the curriculum QUALIFICATIONS­
within the time and manner specified in the CAPS document. In this regard, FRAMEWORK
Muller points out that pacing is one of the main factors that threatens coverage of
the curriculum (2006). --
[!] �[!]
3.6 The National Qualifications Framework �
(NQF)
In order to equalise the enormous differences in knowledge and skills amongst �

the various race groups, a National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was

established. It provided a matrix or set of requirements for all qualifications, from YouTube: The National

basic education up to and including doctoral studies. Qualifications

Framework
The NQF was intended to state what the pre-requisites and requirements were
for obtaining the qualifications available in all the different spheres of education,
whether this be at school, vocational or tertiary level. The NQF did so through a I'
SAQA
'
framework based on skills and competencies acquired. The South African
Qualifications Authority
The labour sector was an important driver of the NQF process as it sought (SAGA) was the board or

to provide many South Africans with formal recognition of their skills and body set up to oversee the
NQF. It updates the NQF
knowledge acquired, whether these skills and competency levels had been from time to time. As the
formally or informally acquired in the workplace. The education sector and its labour sector was a key
driver of the NQF, SAGA as
curriculum were then expected to dovetail or slot in with this framework, given an official body is appointed

that it had adopted OBE, which had rested primarily on skills acquisition. by the Ministers of Labour
and Education.
86 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Table 3.1 The National Qualifications Framework

School NOF
Types of qualifications
grades level
I I I
10 HED Doctoral Degrees
Band
9 Master's Degrees
(at least 50% research)

8 Postgraduate Diplomas

Bachelor Honours Degrees

Bachelor's Degrees

7\ Bachelor's Degrees

Advanced Diplomas

6 Diplomas

Advanced Certificates

5 Higher Certificates

12 4 FET National Senior Certificate School/FET College/ Private providers

Band
11 3 National Certificates, vocational level 3 National Certificates, level 3
FET Colleges/Private providers

10 2 National Certificates, vocational level 2 National Certificates, level 2

FET Colleges/Private providers

9 1 GET General Education and Training Certificate Adult Basic

Band Education and
8 School/Private providers
Training (ABET )
7 ABET 4
ABET 3
6
ABET 2
5 ABET 1

Source: SAOA 2014

 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 87

Table 3.1 illustrates the structure of the NQF. There are three bands:
1. The General Education and Training band for grades R to 9 ( the Foundation
Phase, Intermediate Phase and Senior Phase), or Adult Basic Education
levels 1 to 4. At present only adult learners who have completed Adult Basic
Education levels 1 to 4 receive a General Education and Training certificate
( See Table 3.1). The idea of national examinations at the end of Grade 9 for
school learners has been mooted, which would then provide learners with a
GET certificate.
2. The Further Education and Training band for schools includes Grades
10, 11 and 12. At the end of Grade 12, learners write the National Senior
Certificate (NCS) examinations and, if successful, obtain a National Senior
Certificate. Four types of passes are indicated on the NSC:
2.1 a bachelor pass, which grants admission to study a bachelor's degree at
a university
2.2 a pass which grants admission to study a diploma course
2.3 a pass which grants admission to study a higher certificate course
2.4 a pass which does not grant admission to further studies.
3. The Further Education and Training band for Vocational Education grants
National Certificates (Vocational) at levels 2, 3 and 4 on the NQF. These
studies typically take place at FET Colleges.
4. The Higher Education and Training band includes qualifications from
higher certificates to doctoral degrees.

3. 7 Components of a curriculum
Curriculum design is generally based on a curriculum model. A curriculum
model highlights important features and principles of a particular curriculum
theory by means of a diagram.

Curriculum theorists who have made contributions with regard to models of

curriculum development and design include Tyler (1949), Taha (1962), Gagne
(1977), Ornstein and Hinkins (2004), Pinar et al (2004), Kruger and Muller
(1988) and Bernstein (2000).

Most of these theories are based on four important concepts, namely:

Perennial Curriculum
'
1. aims and objectives 3. methods Model
2. content 4. evaluation. Together, these concepts
have become known as
Ralph Tyler (1949), whose model is referred to in literature as the Tyler Rationale the Perennial Curriculum
Model. 'Perennial' means
or the Objectives Model (Lemmer & Badenhorst, 1997), is regarded as the chief evergreen, unchanging,
initiator of the Perennial Curriculum Model. Tyler based his curriculum plan recurrent, timeless and
long-lasting. Not only
on four fundamental questions, which he believed curriculum planners should curriculum planners use
consider when they design a curriculum. these four concepts.
Teachers also use these
concepts when they design
a lesson or a teaching plan.
'--
 --
- --

88 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Development
Tyler's question 1
Schools of thought developed on:
What educational
purposes should ➔ Why do we teach?
Teachers are expected to state aims and ➔ Aims and
objectives
the school seek to
objectives for each programme and lesson
attain?
they teach.

Tyler's question 2 Development

What educational Schools of thought developed on:
experiences can be
provided that are ➔ What should we teach?
Teachers are expected to state the precise
likely to attain these content for each programme and lesson they
purposes? teach.

Tyler's question 3 Development

How can these Schools of thought developed on:
educational
experiences be ➔ How should we teach?
Teachers are expected to state methods they
effectively use for each programme and lesson they
organised? teach.

Development
Tyler's question 4
Schools of thought developed on:
How can we
determine whether ➔ How successful was our teaching?
Teachers are expected to assess each student, ➔ Assessment
these purposes are
programme and lesson at the end of each
being attained?
activity.

Figure 3.1 Pernnial Curriculum Model

In other words, based on Tyler's model, curriculum design includes objectives,

content, methods and evaluation. Context can also be added to the model. A
curriculum model therefore includes objectives, context, content, method and
assessment.

These components have an enormous influence not only on curriculum design

but also on learning and teaching. Teachers use or can use the five components to
compile lesson or teaching plans. Each of these components are covered in detail
in the remaining chapters of this book. Below we take a brief look at each of the
five components.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 89

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Figure 3.2 Model of curriculum design

In terms of CAPS, objectives - called general aims in CAPS documents - include

3.7.1 Objectives

the purposes, principles and aims of the curriculum. These purposes, principles
and aims describe the ideal learner that is envisaged.

Examples of purposes, principles and aims

• 'Equipping all learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background,
race, gender, physical ability or intellectual ability, with the knowledge,
skills and values necessary for self-fulfilment, and meaningful
participation in society as citizens of a free country' (DBE, 2011 :4)
• 'Social transformation: ensuring that the educational imbalances of
the past are redressed, and that equal educational opportunities are
provided for all sections of the population' (DBE, 2011 :4)
• 'Identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and
creative thinking' (DBE, 2011 :5)

The above-mentioned purposes, principles and aims are then applied to

the specific content or topics for each subject in each grade.
90 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

3.7.2 Context
Context is the second component of curriculum design. Context is a crucial
component of the model. All learners, irrespective of their particular context,
have to achieve the same objectives.

However, context becomes a complex and perhaps even a contentious issue

within the background of the South African educational history. As a result of the
legacy of apartheid, we have:
• schools across a wide spectrum, ranging from well-resourced urban schools, to
historically disadvantaged rural schools with virtually no resources or amenities
• teachers ranging from well-trained, highly educated, competent teachers to
poorly trained, marginalised teachers.

As Spaull (2014) and others have pointed out, we have a de facto dual education
system but one curriculum. Evidence has shown that historically disadvantaged
schools have indeed struggled to implement policy and have struggled to
improve the quality of schooling they provide.

It is therefore clear that context is not a straightforward matter at all.

Consequently it is crucial for teachers to tailor their methods or pedagogy
according to the context in which they teach.

3.7.3 Content
Content is the third component of curriculum design, as shown in Figure 3.2.
CAPS is much more prescriptive and rigid in terms of content, pacing and
sequencing than the previous curricula in post-apartheid South Africa. This is
because CAPS aims to help teachers guage what they should be teaching when.

It is important to note that there are variations in the way the content or teaching
plan is presented in each of the different curricula. However, all the curricula
share the following key features:
• content, i.e. what is to be taught in each grade, as well as skills where relevant
• pacing, i.e. when the content has to be taught and how much time should be
allocated to the content. For example, in the English Home Language FET
curriculum, a teaching plan is provided in two-week cycles. In the Social
Sciences Senior Phase curriculum, there are separate term teaching plans for
Geography and History. The Life Sciences FET curriculum provides teaching
plans for each term.
• sequencing, i.e. the sequence or order in which the content has to be taught, is
specified and in this way progression is ensured.
• formal assessment tasks are specified for each of the four terms in the
programme of assessment.

For these reasons, CAPS requires what some think of as a technicist approach to
implementation.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 91

3.7.4 Method
Method is the fourth component of curriculum design (see Figure 3.2). Method
can also be described as an activity, procedure or strategy for teaching and for
supporting learning (Wallace, 2009).

Common teaching methods include group discussions, lecturing, debating,

case studies, role-play, and so on - this is not an exhaustive list of methods. The
various teaching methods can, in turn, be described as being teacher-directed or
learner-centred.

A teacher's choice of method is based on a number of factors, for example:

• the subject
• the content or topic
• the learners' ability and, where applicable, their prior knowledge of the
content or topic
• the time available
• the media to be used (where applicable)
• the activities
• the teacher's own preferred teaching style.

Teachers may elect to use one method for an entire lesson or a combination of
different methods.

In terms of CAPS, for example, method is prescribed in some instances. A good

example is the teaching of writing in the English Home Language curriculum
where the process method is prescribed, i.e. planning, drafting, revising, editing,
proofreading and presenting (DBE: 2011).

Experienced, skilled teachers use a number or repertoire of methods. This means

that they have a flexible approach and can adapt their method during the course
of a lesson, for example, when they see that a particular method is not working.

In this sense we can say that a lesson is made up of dynamic components and can
never be repeated in exactly the same way.

3.7.5 Assessment
Assessment is the fifth component of curriculum design. CAPS is very clear
about the assessment requirements for each subject and grade.

The programmes of assessment also explain the different types of assessment to

be used. These types of assessment may differ from subject to subject. Below is an
example of the formal assessment tasks for Grade 10 and 11 Geography:
92 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Table 3.2 The formal assessment tasks for Grade 10 and 11 Geography as prescribed by CAPS

Term I Assessment I Description of assessment I Marks

1 Data-handling task 20
1
2 Test 10

3 Mapwork task 20
2
4 Mid-year examination (Paper 1 and Paper 2) 20

5 Research/Essay writing task 20

3
6 Test 10

Year Mark 100

4 7 End-of-year examination (Paper 1 and Paper 2) 300

Total assessment 400

Percentage 100%

The cognitive demand must be appropriate for the learners' age and
developmental level. The curriculum documents further specify the weighting
of cognitive demands when assessing the content of a subject in a specific grade.
(See more on the different levels of cognitive demand in Chapter 4).

3.8 Reflective teaching

Reflective teaching or reflective practice is an important tool which helps
teachers to learn from their own teaching experiences. In this way, teachers can,
for example, develop and/or improve their methodology or pedagogic skills.

Reflective practice is also crucial for teachers' professional development as it

enables them to develop self-evaluation skills and to take responsibility for their
own professional development (Wallace, 2009).

Reflective teaching is explained and discussed in some detail now below. An

exemplar checklist has also been included for reflecting on lessons.

3.8.1 What is reflective teaching?

Reflective teaching is an approach in teacher education in which teachers or
student teachers critically examine their own actions and attitudes, and then think
carefully about how they can improve these actions and attitudes. Richards and
Lockhart (1994) define reflective teaching as an approach to teaching in which:
• teachers and student teachers gather data and information about the
pedagogy they use,
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 93

• take a careful look at their points of view, approach, values, ways of teaching
and assumed knowledge, and
• use these insights to reflect critically on teaching.

To gain insight into reflective teaching, the crucial concept to understand is

'reflection'. Reflection means to think deeply; to ponder or meditate about
something that has happened, with the purpose of casting more light on it.

When you reflect on something, it is like staring into a mirror to 'look again' at a
previous action that took place while you are making a detailed mental analysis
regarding that action or your own behaviour, with the purpose of gaining deeper
insight.

The notion of reflection, therefore, implies engaging in two related mental

activities, namely thoughtful consideration and mirroring (Pennington, 1992).

Examples of problems that .might be addressed in reflective

teaching sessions
Latecoming: When Ms Xaba reflected upon an early morning lesson during which
the learners had difficulty in concentrating, she realised that she should devise a
better procedure to handle the problem of latecomers who constantly disrupt the
lesson.

Changing deadline: Ms Mia's Grade 10 History class became angry and

argumentative when Ms Mia agreed to postpone the deadline for an assignment
after one learner requested a postponement. Some learners objected to the
postponement because they had worked hard to meet the deadline, and felt that
they had wasted their energy for nothing. Ms Mia decided to change her normal
lesson into a reflective exercise . In other words, the period was devoted to an
analysis and discussion by the learners of the teacher's behaviour before and
during the conflict. Eventually, Ms Mia decided to retain the original deadline. She
also gained much insight into her own teaching and her learners' views of her.

Spoon-feeding: In a reflective dialogue with a colleague, Mrs Stewart discovered

that the reason why her learners became bored and sleepy during her History
lessons was that she had relayed historical events to them too often, instead of
making them do their own research.

Bias against girls: After Mr Futhwa had invited his Head of Department to observe
one of his lessons, he was surprised to discover in their post-lesson reflective
session that he was paying far less attention to the girls in his class than to the
boys.

Waiting time: During a reflective exercise Mr Geswind was watching a video

recording of one of his own lessons when he noticed that the waiting time he
gave to fast learners was much longer than that which he gave to slow learners.
('Waiting time' is the time between a teacher's question to a learner and the
learner's answer.) He realised he was impatient and insensitive towards slow
learners.
94 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Deficient explanation: A student teacher, Mr Nyasulu, gave a demonstration

Mathematics lesson in front of six other student teachers. In the reflective
session that followed, Steven's fellow students made detailed suggestions
on how he could have explained the calculations more clearly.

The idea of reflective teaching was originally developed by John Dewey in his
book How We Think (1933). What he proposed was a balance between reflection
and routine, and between thought and action. Reflective teaching has become a
powerful movement in teacher education.

There are people who maintain that reflective teaching is nothing new. They
claim that reflective teaching is something that effective teachers have always
done. In other words, they assert that good teachers automatically learn from
their mistakes and continuously improve themselves, and that is what reflective
teaching is all about. Yet, this is a false argument (Bailey, 1997). Reflective
teaching involves much more than learning from one's mistakes or solving specific
problems. Reflective teaching is about examining your actions even when you
are quite satisfied with your own performance and you do not experience any
problems. It is a process in which you, usually with the help of colleagues or tutors:
• take a hard look at your own teaching
• identify specific new or hidden weaknesses in your teaching
• think up improved behaviours, attitudes or beliefs
• put the new ideas into practice.

Reflective teaching is an ongoing cycle of self-evaluation by a teacher of his or her

own teaching through open discussion with colleagues or written analysis. It goes
far beyond what good teachers have always done.

3.8.2 Using checklists in reflective teaching

Table 3.3 is an example of a checklist that can be used in reflective teaching. It
deals with four aspects of a lesson:
1. lesson structure
2. communication
3. interaction with learners
4. personality of the teacher.

Observers can use the checklist in a particular lesson of a teacher or student

teacher, especially when the observers are not experienced in assessing teachers.
This checklist is in the form of a simple rubric. In other words, it is a chart
composed of criteria for evaluation and levels of fulfilment of those criteria. It
helps the observer to assess the teacher's performance in a more objective way
than he or she would otherwise do, since evaluating a lesson tends to be very
subjective.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 95

Table 3.3 Example of a checklist in reflective teaching

Reflective teaching checklist

Name of teacher: Class:
Name of observer: Date:
Excellent Good Average Weak Very weak Marks
5 4 3 2 1
Lesson structure
1 Lesson preparation
2 Shares structure of lesson with class in
advance
3 Starts lesson in attention-grabbing way
4 Provides meaningful student activity
5 Allows enough time for student activity
6 Time management during lesson
7 Concludes lesson meaningfully
Communication
8 General quality of communication
9 Uses voice effectively to create interest
10 Non-verbal, e.g. eye contact, gestures,
movements, and so on
11 Correctness of content in the teaching
and learning process
12 Use of resources and media
13 Clarity of instructions to class
Interaction with learners
14 Calls learners by name, thus boosting
self-esteem
15 Monitors learners' concentration and
activities
16 Handles misbehaviour well; gives rule
reminders
17 Rapport with class; element of fun in
lesson
Personality
18 Level of self-confidence, being in
control
19 Empathy with class: warmth and
understanding
20 Enthusiasm about topic
Total:
Remarks:
96 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Teachers who observe each other's lessons need not use this specific checklist. On
the contrary, it is a good idea for observers to design their own checklists using
different criteria than those in the example. However, this checklist has proved to
be useful for inexperienced teachers and learners to assess lessons.

Using a checklist on its own is not enough when assessing a lesson using the
reflective approach. There are often other areas not mentioned in the checklist
that need to be discussed, for example:
• What did not work well?
• What did not feel right?
• Why did it not feel right?
• What actually happened?
• How did the teacher respond?
• What would have made a difference?

When reflective teaching is applied there should be a strong focus on teacher

emotion. Areas of lessons that did work well should also be analysed. In reflective
teaching, participants should be willing to grapple, to wonder, to feel a sense of
unease, and to identify ways in which the teacher's lessons can be improved.

3.8.3 Attitude in reflective teaching

The success of all techniques in reflective teaching is dependent on attitude.
To apply reflective teaching properly, teachers need to be open-minded and
whole-heartedly committed so that they are able to question their own and other
teachers' beliefs and practices (Dewey, 1933).

3.8.4 Tools in reflective teaching

The first goal in reflective teaching is to create awareness. The person being
analysed must become aware of weak spots in his or her teaching. Most teachers
cannot confront their own shortcomings objectively. They need training as well
as other individuals to help them identify defects in their teaching. Below is a list
of tools and techniques that reflective teachers and students use to become aware
of their own flaws and to analyse their own teaching:
• Form a reflective partnership with another teacher or student so you can
observe each other teach and discuss it afterwards (Posner & Vivian, 2009).
• Participate in collegial coaching as a group of teachers which regularly helps
each person in the group reflect on his or her own teaching (Pollard et al., 2008).
• View a video recording of your own teaching.
• Keep a journal or diary in which you reflect on your own teaching (Smyth,
1989).
• Invite one or two other teachers to do an observation of your classroom
teaching methods.
• Use self-assessment forms provided by an institution.
• Give learners' questionnaires in which they assess you at the end of a term.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 97

• Become a teacher-as-researcher and conduct action research in your class

(Bailey, 1997).
• Critically examine the content of the courses you teach, i.e. a list of the topics
and themes you covered or intend to cover in a particular course. Can this list
be improved? How?
• Critically analyse your assessment of learners' work. Are your assessment
methods sound, meaningful and fair? Which learners should be given more
help, and how?
• Share stories about your teaching during reflective sessions with colleagues
(Bailey, 1997).

3.8.5 Steps in reflective teaching

Reflective teaching is usually a step-by-step process. Here is a sequence that is
widely used by reflective practitioners:
Step 1: Teach!
Step 2: Think back, i.e. choose one aspect of your lesson that you want to
investigate.
Step 3: Describe, i.e. describe the chosen aspect in great detail - either verbally to
colleagues or in writing.
Step 4: Investigate reasons, i.e. ask yourself why the chosen event happened;
question your attitude and beliefs.
Step 5: Reframe events in light of several theoretical frameworks, i.e. try to see the
chosen event from different perspectives; obtain another point of view.
Step 6: Generate multiple understandings: Ask yourself what you could have done
differently.

-
Step 7: Think back and plan what needs to be done next in the light of your analysis.
Step 8: Start the reflective process all over again (Henke, 2002).

••
1. Teach
2. Think back
7. Decide

_/

lLU
,�
3. Describe

REFLECTIVE CYCLE

multiple
4. Investigate � understanding
I� / �
�
_,/; al bl el'
n_
�

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Figure 3.3 Steps in reflective teaching

98 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

Summary
• A curriculum is an interrelated set of plans and experiences that
a learner completes under the guidance of the school or learning
institution.
• The five main curriculum theories are the following:
1. liberal theory
2. experiential theory
3. behaviourist theory
4. critical inquiry theory
5. constructivist theory.
• Liberal, experiential and behaviourist theories are from the traditional
schools of thinking and tend to be prescriptive.
• Critical inquiry theory and the constructivist theory are less rigid with
regard to the schools of thought that inform them and what they
advocate.
• The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) shows which
qualifications in South Africa are officially recognised, and are classified
according to levels of difficulty.
• The hidden curriculum comprises all the planned and unplanned
experiences that learners and teachers have at schools that are not
stipulated in official rules and regulations, or expressly found in a
document such as CAPS. Examples are extramural activities.
• Five key curriculum concepts are the following:
1. Objectives- observable demonstrations of learning that occur at the
end of a set of learning experiences. Chapter 4 deals with objectives
in greater detail.
2. Context- context and objectives are interdependent. The way s in
which learners are taught the knowledge, skills and values set out
in CAPS differ from school to school because the conditions vary.
Context is explained in Chapter 5.
3. Content- the content that is taught as per CAPS
4. Method- together with content, this forms a single whole. Methods
are teaching-learning actions designed by teachers to help
learners achieve a set learning outcome. A lesson includes content,
methods, learner activities and media. Chapter 5 deals with content.
Chapters 7 and 8 focus exclusively on teaching methods.
5. Assessment - consists of a task or tasks set to gauge learner
competence. The assessment process is explained more in Chapter
10. During assessment the teacher seeks to find evidence of
whether a learner has made desirable progress towards prescribed
aims and objectives, and to what extent this has been done.
• Reflective teaching involves teachers or student teachers critically
examining each other's actions and attitudes. This is then used to
inform how a teacher can improve his or her methods and approaches.
 Chapter 3 • Curriculum 99

• Reflective teaching is essential - and not incidental - to teacher

development. It should be mastered in the attainment of professional
qualifications.

Discuss, review and practise

1. Name three important components of curriculum that are specified in
CAPS.
2. Create a table such as the one in the example below. Select the number of
columns and rows required for your table. Add the appropriate headings
as per the example below. Now complete the table for each of the five
curriculum theories discussed in this chapter to show how a particular
theory deals with the teacher's approach, the learners and the assessment.

Liberal Experiential Behaviourist Critical Constructivist

theory theory theory enquiry theory
theory

Teacher's
approach

Learners

Assessment

3. Describe how each of the post-apartheid curricula treats content, pacing

and sequencing.
4. 'It is important to include questions covering a range of cognitive demands
in a test or examination: In a short paragraph of no more than 100 words,
discuss whether you agree or disagree with this statement. Provide reasons
for your opinion.
5. Why do you think context plays an important role in teaching in South
Africa? In your answer, include content or a topic as stipulated in CAPS for
one of your method subjects. Explain how you would teach the content in:
a) an advantaged school
b) a historically disadvantaged school.
Be sure to include information on methods and media in your answer.
6. How would you adapt the exemplar checklist for reflective teaching for
learners to complete (Table 3.3)? Explain why you have chosen to include
or omit some points on the checklist. You can also add other points to the
checklist.
100 Teaching-Learning Dynamics

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