Computer Programming I

Binnur Kurt, PhD

[email protected]

MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
 What is Programming?
►After abstraction, you work only on the model, you leave the problem
►So, you must make sure that the model captures all the required details of the
real problem
►You solve the model, not the problem
Programming Language

Model,
Algorithm

Abstraction/
Modeling Implementation
Real-World
Problem
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMER

Computer Programs
►how to represent/model the problem?
– computers work on numbers
– program about the highways in Turkey
– entities: cities and roads
– representing a city: name, latitude, longitude
– Data Structures Course deals with different modeling tools to represent
the problem in computers
– But we will use simple tools such as single variables, (static/dynamic)
arrays, ADT.
►how to express the solution?
– We will use simple ones: Flowchart, Pseudo Code
 MODELING

Representing the Problem

►Representing a road: line İstanbul

– assume the road is straight

– start and end cities
Ankara
►Very easy
►Very inaccurate
İzmir
 Representing the Problem
►Representing a road: consecutive lines İstanbul

►Very hard
►More accurate  More complicated Ankara

İzmir

Representation: Model
►FIRST STEP: build a correct/accurate (and feasible) model
►what you are solving is the model, not the problem itself
– incorrect model  incorrect solution
– inaccurate model  meaningless solution
– infeasible model  expensive implementation
 Representing the Problem
►Representing highways:
– if you are only interested in total distances, you can use lines
– if you will talk about “the 274th km of the İstanbul-Ankara highway”, you
should use consecutive lines

“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.”

Expressing the Solution

►step-by-step guide to the ►cook until beans are soft
solution: algorithm ►smash the bottom of the green onion
►recipe for Jamaican rice and and add it to the pot along with 2 cups
peas: of rice and 1/4 can of coconut milk,
– put 1 1/2 cans of beans in 4- and two sprigs of thyme
5 cups of water ►remove any access water over 2cm
– add 1/4 can of coconut milk, above the rice
one sprig of thyme, and salt ►bring to a boil for 5 min
and pepper to taste ►continue to cook covered until rice is
tender
 Algorithm
►there must be no room for judgment ►must be finite
– 4-5 cups? Sprig? ►in a finite number of steps:
– salt and pepper to taste? – either find the correct solution
– are beans soft? Is Rice tender? – or report failure to find a
solution
►this cooking recipe is NOT an
algorithm ►must not run forever

Data
►data is represented by variables
►symbolic name for the data
►variables take values
►city variables: name, latitude, longitude
to represent İstanbul:
name: “İstanbul”
latitude: 41
longitude: 29
 Variables
►variables are kept in memory
– variable is the name of the memory cell
– value is the content of the memory cell
name latitude longitude
“İstanbul” 41 29

Assignment
►block structured programs proceed by assigning values to variables
►notation: latitude  41
– “store the value 41 in the memory cell named latitude.”
► left-hand side is a variable
► right-hand side is an expression
– a computation that yields a value
 Expressions
►can be a single value or variable:
– 41
– latitude
►can be combinations of values and variables connected via operators:
– 4 * longitude multiplication operator
– latitude + longitude addition operator

Assignment
►ASSIGNMENT IS NOT EQUALITY!!!
►41  latitude doesn’t make sense
►i  i + 1 means: increment the value of i by 1
– if i was 5 before the operation, it will become 6 after the operation
►Mathematically, it would be incorrect:
0=1
 Swap
►swap the values of two variables:

before the operation after the operation

num1 num2 num1 num2

32 154 154 32

Swap: Incorrect
►num1  num2
►num2  num1
num1  num2
num1 num2
154 154
num1 num2
154 154
num2  num1
num1 num2
32 154
 Swap
►tmp  num1
►num1  num2
►num2  tmp

tmp  num1 num1  num2 num2  tmp

num1 num2 num1 num2 num1 num2

32 154 154 154 154 32

tmp tmp tmp

32 32 32

Data Types
►basic data types:
– integer
– real number
– logical
– character
– string
►composite data types: record
►vector data types: array
 Basic Data Types
►integer
– birthyear, number of letters in the surname, height in cm
►real numbers
– height in m, average of several exam scores, square root of a number
►logical: values can be true or false
– student successful, older than 18 years

Character
►any symbol: letter, digit, punctuation mark, ...
– first letter of surname, the key the user pressed
►mostly written between single quotes:
– ‘Y’, ‘4’, ‘?’
 Encoding
►numbers correspond to symbols
►ASCII, ISO8859-X, Unicode

integer
240 ISO8859-1

‘ð’
ISO8859-9
240
‘ğ’

Strings
►name, word, sentence, ISBN number, ...
►mostly written between double quotes:
– “Dennis Ritchie”, “ISBN 0-13-110362-8”
►use numbers if you plan to make arithmetic operations on it:
– student numbers at ITU: 9-digit numbers
– will you add/multiply/... student numbers?
– no sense in using integers, use strings
 Composite Data Types
►grouping types to form a new type

capital
city name
►access:
– capital.name  “Ankara”
latitude
– NOT city.name  “Ankara”

longitude

Composite Data Types

tem
►composite types can be nested
highway code length

►access:
– tem.code  “E-6” start end
name name
– tem.end.name  “Ankara”

latitude latitude

longitude longitude
 Vector Data Types
►grouping elements of the same type
– exam scores for a 50 student class:
• 50 integer variables: score1, score2, ..., score50
• an integer array with 50 elements: score

score4 score13 score1 score22

score
►access:
– score22  95
1 2 50

Strings
►strings are usually arrays of characters

fullname
‘D’ ‘e’ ‘n’ ‘n’ ‘i’ ‘s’ ‘ ‘ ‘R’ ‘i’ ...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 Arrays of Records
►represent the factors of a number:
– an array where each member is a factor
– a factor is a record of a base and a power
factors
base base base ►access:
2 7 11 – factors2.base  7

power power power

3 1 2

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
 Development Stages
► You will study the stages in detail: Software Engineering Course
► We will use a simple version

Development Stages
►design: on “paper” ►testing: does the program work as
– model, algorithm expected?
– which programming language? – scenarios
– software engineering ►debugging: finding and correcting
the errors
►coding: writing the program
– debugger
– source code
– editor
 Phase 1: Define the Problem
►In this phase, create a program specification.
►Specification defines the input data, processing that occurs, and output
data.
►This phase requires cooperative work with the programmer and the
problem owner.
►Other phases are only for the programmer.

Phase 2: Design the Program

►Program design is done from the specification
►Identify the main components of a program and how they work together
– Identify the main goal of a program
– Then, break it down into sub-goals
– Keep refining it until the program is designed
►Algorithms are created during design. An algorithm can be in one of the
following forms:
– Flow Chart
– Pseudo Code
 Phase 3: Coding the Program
►After designing the program, it is coded in the language chosen (C++
language)
►Coding is also known as implementation
►A compiler software must be used to compile the program source code.
►Compiler:
– Compiler checks your source code and finds all syntax errors, such as
mistyping
– It translates the code all at once and produces “object code.”
– Then the Linker uses the “object code” to create the “executable code.”
– Executable code is a binary file which means you can just
Double-click it and it runs

Phase 4: Testing and Debugging the Program

►You should run your program and see how it works
►Testing is the final phase before releasing the program
– Various input data values should be used
– Observed output values should be compared to the expected output
values
►In this phase, you should find any logic errors such as wrong calculation, or
using wrong input data
►Errors are called “bugs” informally. The process of finding bugs is called
“debugging”
 ALGORITHM: EXPRESSING THE SOLUTION

Algorithms
►Algorithms are created for program design.
►An algorithm is a set of steps for carrying out a task.
►It is a step-by-step solution to the given problem.
►An algorithm can be represented with one of the following methods:
►Flow Chart
– Is composed of standard shapes and symbols
– It gives the solution steps to the problem
►Pseudo Code
– Is an alternative to flow chart
– Constrained form of English to produce steps involved in a problem
solution
 Algorithms
Pseudo Code
►Pseudo code
– is not a programming language, so not prepared for compilation
– contains both some structural features of a programming language and a
speaking language such as English
– is easily understandable by non-programmers
– aims at defining a solution to a problem
►Rules for writing a pseudo-code:
– Use clear and proper English (or Turkish)
– Use simple and short sentences (avoid compound sentences)
– Each sentence is to indicate an action

Flow Chart
►A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence
of operations to be performed to get the solution to a problem.
►Flowcharts are drawn in the first stages of program development.
►Flowcharts facilitate communication between programmers and non-
programmer people.
►Flowcharts play a vital role in the programming of a problem and are quite
helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy problems.
►Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program in any
high-level language such as Python.
 Flowcharts
►Describe algorithms
►Elements:
– box: an operation
– arrow: flow direction
– diamond: decision point
– parallelogram: input/output operation

Flow
FlowChart
ChartSymbols
Symbols

Loop
Start/End

Input Function,
(keyboard) Flow lines Procedure,
Subroutine
Process
Connection Output
(Action) (Off-page) (to printer)

Connection
Decision Output
(In-page)
(to Monitor)

Data Storage Output

(Hard Disk) (to Monitor)
Data Storage
(Hard Disk)
 Flowchart Example
►This flowchart finds the sum of the first 50 natural numbers.
►Example: 1+2+3+4++50

Flowchart
FlowchartExample
Example
►This flowchart calculates the factorial of a given number n.
►(n! = 1*2*3*4*.....*n)
START

fact = 1
count = 1

while fact = fact * count

count
≤n count = count +1
N Y

fact

END
 Flowcharts
►find the maximum score in an exam 1. choose the first score as maximum
with 50 students 2. if there are more students, go to
– represent exam scores by a 50- step 3, else go to step 5
element integer array (variable: 3. if the next score is higher than the
score) maximum, choose it as maximum
– represent maximum score by an 4. proceed to the next student
integer (variable: max) 5. print the maximum

Flowcharts
►representation problem: 1. max  score1, i  2
– more students? Next score? 2. if i  50 go to step 3 else go to step 5
– counter variable: i 3. if scorei > max
then max  scorei
4. i  i + 1 and go to step 2
5. print max
 Flowcharts
start

max  score1
Y
i2 scorei > max

N max  scorei
Y
i  50

N ii+1

print max

stop

Flowcharts
start
74>43
58<74
74<82
65<74
37<82
max  43
Y
i2 scorei > max

3<6
4<6
5<6
6=6
7>6
2<6 N max  scorei
Y
i6
74 82
N ii+1

print max 3 4 5 6 7
82

1 2 3 4 5 6
stop
43 74 65 58 82 37
 Flowcharts
►using tables to represent flow:

max i i6 scorei > max

43 2 T (2 < 6) T (74 > 43)
74 3 T (3 < 6) F (65 < 74)
4 T (4 < 6) F (58 < 74)
5 T (5 < 6) T (82 > 74)
82 6 T (6 = 6) F (37 < 82)
7 F (7 > 6)

Flowcharts
►number guessing game:
– one player picks a number (target) between lower and upper bounds
– the other player makes a guess:
• if the guess is bigger than the target, the picker says “smaller.”
• if the guess is smaller than the target, the picker says “bigger.”
• game ends when guess = target
 Flowcharts
►Algorithm I: ►Algorithm II:
– start with lower, increment by 1 until – try the number in the middle
found – if “smaller,” narrow the
1. guess  lower search to the bottom half
2. if guess = target stop – if “bigger,” narrow the search
to the top half
3. guess  guess + 1 and go to step 2

Flowcharts
1. bottom  lower, top  upper
2. guess  (top + bottom) /2
3. if guess = target stop
4. if guess > target then top  guess - 1
otherwise bottom  guess + 1
and go to step 2
 Flowcharts
start

bottom  lower
top  upper Y
guess = target

N print guess
guess  (bottom + top) / 2

stop
guess > target

N Y

bottom  guess + 1 top  guess - 1

Flowcharts
start
32=19
20=19
24=19
16=19
18=19
19=19
bottom  1
top  63 Y
guess = target
19

N print guess
32>19
24>19
20>19
16<19
18<19
guess  (bottom + top) / 2

stop
32 16 24 20 18 19 guess > target

N Y

bottom  guess + 1 top  guess - 1

17 19 31 23 19
 Flowcharts

bottom top guess guess=target

1 63 32
31 16 F (32 > 19)
17 24 F (16 < 19)
23 20 F (24 > 19)
19 18 F (20 > 19)
19 19 F (18 < 19)
T (19 = 19)

Comparing Algorithms
►number guessing: which algorithm is better?
►speed:
– worst case: first one 63, second one 6
– average case: first one 32, second one ~5
►size: the second one requires two more variables
 Block Structures
► sequence ► repetition ► selection

block1

condition
condition
block2

block1 block2

block

Abstraction
►divide the main task to sub-tasks
►consider each sub-task as the main task and divide it into sub-sub-tasks, ...
– divide-and-conquer
►top-down design
►each task is implemented by a procedure (in a Python function)
 Abstraction

main task

sub-task-1 sub-task-2 sub-task-3

sub-task-1a sub-task-3a sub-task-3b

Abstraction
►procedures are only interested in WHAT sub-procedures are doing, not
HOW they are doing it
►smaller units are easier to manage
►maintaining is easier
– if the HOW of the sub-procedure changes, the super-procedure is not
affected
 Abstraction
►procedures should be general:
– instead of “find the maximum score in the final exam of AIN1001”
– do “find the maximum of any array.”
– you can use this to find the “maximum score in the final exam of
AIN1001”
– and also to find the “maximum shoe size of the LA Lakers players.”

Parameters
►which data will the procedure work on?
– input parameter:
• the scores in the final exam of BIL105E
• the shoe sizes of the LA Lakers players
►what value will the procedure produce?
– output parameter:
• maximum score
• maximum shoe size
 Abstraction
►find the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two numbers:
1. decompose the first number to its prime factors
2. decompose the second number to its prime factors
3. find the common factors of both numbers
4. compute the gcd from the common factors

Abstraction
►sample numbers: 9702 and 945
1. 9702 = 2 * 32 * 72 * 11
2. 945 = 33 * 5 * 7
3. 32 * 7
4. 63
 Abstraction

9702
compute gcd

945

find common
factorize
factors

Euclid's Algorithm
►finding the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two numbers: Euclides
algorithm
– let a be the bigger number and b the smaller number
– the gcd of a and b is the same as the gcd of b and a % b
 Euclid's Algorithm

Y N
num1 > num2
N
b>0
a  num1 a  num2
b  num2 b  num1 Y
print a
ra%b
ab
br

Euclid's Algorithm

a b r
9702 945 252
945 252 189
252 189 63
189 63 0
 Comparing Algorithms
►Algorithm I:
– hard to factorize numbers
– easier to compute the gcd/lcm of more than two numbers?
►Algorithm II (Euclides):
– very fast
– very easy to implement

Input
►most programs read the data from outside:
– ask the user: get from the keyboard
– read from a file
– read from the environment: get the temperature of the room via a sensor
►input commands transfer the value read from outside to a variable
 Output
►what to do with the produced results?
– tell the user: print it on the screen
– write it to a file or printer
– send to the environment: control the valve of a gas pipe
►output commands send results to output units
►error messages to error unit

Program Types
►console / command line / text mode ►graphical programs are event-
programs: driven:
– read inputs – prepare the environment
– process data and produce results (windows, buttons, ...)
– show outputs – wait for events (mouse click,
key press, ...)
– respond to events
 Errors
►syntax errors
– not conforming to the rules of the language
►logical errors
– division by zero

Evaluating Programs
►efficiency ►understandability
– speed – can others (or you)
– hardware requirements understand your code?
►portability ►ease of maintenance
– can it run on another platform – can new features be
without much change? added?
– source code portability ►robustness
– can it tolerate user
errors?
 Computer Hardware

What is an Operating System?

►An elephant is a mouse with an operating system.
 What is an Operating System?
►A piece of software that provides a convenient, efficient environment for
the execution of user programs.

Users

Applications software
Kernel
Operating systems
Hardware

APPLICATION LAYER

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

MACHINE LEVEL
SOFTWARE

HARDWARE
DATABASE

CPU
MEMORY
DISK
KEYBOARD
MONITOR
etc.
 Machine Code
►executable files have to have a ►programmers cannot write directly
computer-understandable format in machine code
►executable format differs between ►write source code in a high-level
– hardware language
– operating systems ►use tools to convert source code to
machine code

Conversion
►interpreted ► compiled

– read a command from source code – read the whole source code
– convert – convert and build an
executable file
– execute
– if an error report (all errors)
– repeat for next command
and no executable
– if error report (only first error) and abort
– conversion is done once 
much faster
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
CALCULATE THE GRADE OF A STUDENT

Phase 1: Define the Problem

►PURPOSE: A student’s passing grade will be calculated and printed on the
screen.
► Grade should be calculated with the following weights:
– %30 of the first midterm exam
– %30 of the second midterm exam
– %40 of the final exam.
►INPUTS: Inputs are the numeric values of the first midterm exam, second
midterm exam, and final exam.
►OUTPUT: Output is the numeric value of Grade.
 Phase 2: Design the Program
►(Pseudo Code)
1. Get values of Midterm1, Midterm2, and Final from the user
2. Grade  Midterm1 * 0.3 + Midterm2 * 0.3 + Final * 0.4
3. Print value of Grade on screen
4. End

Phase 2: Design the Program

►(Flow Chart) Start

Get values of
Midterm1,Midterm2,
and Final

Grade = Midterm1 * 0.3 + Midterm2 * 0.3 + Final * 0.4

Print value of
Grade

End
 Program Listing
midterm1 = float(input("first midterm:"))
midterm2 = float(input("second midterm:"))
final = float(input("final:"))
grade = 0.3 * (midterm1 + midterm2) + 0.4 * final
print(f"Grade is {grade}.")

Phase 4: Testing the Program

 Summary

Problem Model

Solution Algorithm

Summary

Problem Analysis Model

Design

Coding
Solution & Algorithm
Testing
 Summary

Problem Analysis Model

Software Design

Coding
Solution & Algorithm
Testing