Unit-5 (Receivers

Unit-1 and Pulse Modulation)

(DC Amplifiers) 5.1
1.1

Marketed by:

Unit dc amplifiers

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Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. What are the DC amplifiers?
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(a)

Direct coupled (DC) amplifier is a type of amplifier in which output of first stage is directly given to the base of next
(preceeding) stage.
A DC amplifier can amplify a signal with zero frequency. So, it is used for large amplification of DC.
Q2. Mention the causes of drift in DC amplifier.
Ans:
The following are few causes of drift in the output current of first stage of DC amplifier.
1. Drift (flow of) in supply voltage
2. Due to the changes in parameters of transistor
3. Because of exponential rise of reverse saturation current (ICBO).
Q3. Draw the circuit diagram of darlington pair.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(a)

A Darlington pair contains two BJT’s combined as shown in figure below. The emitter current of Q1 becomes the base
current of Q2. The current gain of the pair is equal to the product of the current gains of the individual transistors.
C

Q1
B

Q2

E E

Figure: Darlington Pair

Q4. List the advantages of darlington connection.
Ans:
The advantages of darlington connection are,
1. It provides high current gain.
2. It provides excellent buffering between a high impedance source and a low impedance load.

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Q5. Give the parameters of darlington emitter follower amplifier.

Ans:

The parameters of darlington emitter follower amplifier are as follows,

(i) Current Gain

The current gain of darlington emitter follower circuit is given by,

(1 + h fe ) 2
Ai = ≈ 500
1 + hoe (1 + h fe ) RE
(ii) Input Impedance

The input impedance of darlington emitter follower is given by,

(1 + h fe ) 2 .RE
Ri = ≈ 1.65 MΩ
1 + hoe (1 + h fe ) RE
(iii) Voltage Gain

The voltage gain of darlington emitter follower is given by,

hie
AV ≈ 1 –
Ri2
(iv) Output Impedance

Output impedance of emitter follower is given by,

hie1 + RS
R01 =
1 + h fe
2
Rs 2hie
R02 = +
(1 + h fe ) 2 (1 + h fe )
Q6. Define cascode amplifier.

Ans:

Cascode amplifier is a two-stage amplifier in which the first stage i.e., common emitter (CE) amplifier is connected in
series with second stage i.e., common base (CB) amplifier.

Since, the CE stage is feeding into a CB stage, it is called cascoding and the circuit is called cascode amplifier circuit.

Q7. List the advantages of cascode amplifier.

Ans:

The advantages of cascode amplifier are,

1. Stabilizes the circuit.

2. Establishes a Q point, so that the transistors are in active region.

3. Increases the output voltage swing i.e., increases the output voltage value.

Q8. What type of signal can a differential amplifier amplify?

Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(a)

A differential amplifier, amplifies only the difference between two signals and does not respond to the similarities between
the signals. Moreover, a differential amplifier can amplify both A.C signals as well as D.C signals.

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.3
Q9. Draw the dc transfer characteristics of a BJT differential amplifier.
Ans:
The dc transfer characteristics of a BJT differential amplifier is as shown in figure below.

I C1 , I C 2

α f IQ
IC2 I C1

–4Vt –3Vt –2Vt –Vt 0 Vt 2Vt 3Vt 4Vt

Vid

Figure
Q10. What type of choppers can be used in dc amplifiers?
Ans:
There are many devices which can be used as a chopper, namely, few are,
1. A vibrating reed
2. Motor driven switch
3. An electronic switch.
Q11. Enumerate any two blocks associated with Op-Amp block schematic.
Ans:
The blocks associated with op-amp are,
1. Input stage – Dual input balanced output differential amplifier
2. Intermediate stage – Dual input unbalanced output differential amplifier
3. Level shifting stage – Emitter follower with constant current source
4. Output stage – Complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier.
Q12. List the ideal characteristics of Op-amp.
Ans:
The following are ideal characteristics of an Op-amp,
1. Infinite input impedance (Ri = ∞)
2. Zero output impedance (Ro = 0)
3. Infinite voltage gain (AOL = ∞)
4. Zero offset voltage (ViOS = 0)
5. Infinite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR = ∞)
6. Infinite slew rate (Slew rate = ∞)
7. Infinite bandwidth (BW = ∞)
8. No effect to temperature.

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Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions
1.1 need for dc amplifiers, dc amplifiers – drift, causes
Q13. Discuss the DC amplifiers in detail.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q2(a)
Basically, the coupling of amplifiers require reactive elements such as capacitors and inductors. These coupled amplifiers
employed in some devices like analog computers and medical instruments, cannot amplify the signals having zero frequency
because of its zero gain. Hence, direct coupling concept is introduced.
Direct coupling is an easiest way of coupling two amplifier stages without using any reactive elements. Direct coupled
amplifiers has the ability to amplify signals having band of frequencies to zero frequency. It not only amplifies the dc signals,
but also capable of amplifying ac signals.
Need for DC Amplification
DC amplification is required when,
1. The dc components of signal derived from electronic control devices such as thermocouples, photodiodes having smaller
magnitude and varying slowly with time, need to be amplified.
2. The dc components of signal must be retained.
DC Amplifier
DC amplifier is a two-stage CE amplifier with direct coupling. Figure (1) illustrates the basic circuit of a DC amplifier.

Figure (1): Two-stage DC Amplifier

In figure (1), the output of transistor Q1 is directly connected to the input of transistor Q2. The batteries VBB1, VBB2 and VBB3
are employed for biasing, where VBB1 < VBB2 < VBB3. The battery VBB2 is used to maintain the operating conditions at the collector of
Q1 and at the base of Q2. Similarly VBB3. Since, the batteries connected must be in increasing order of their voltages, the cascading
of multiple stages of dc amplifiers is limited to few stages.
Hence, by reducing the number of batteries, and replacing them with resistors the multi-stage dc amplifiers can be designed.
The modified circuit of a two-stage dc amplifier is as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Modified DC Amplifier Circuit

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.5
Q14. What is drift in DC amplifiers? Mention its
causes.
1.2 darlington emitter follower,
cascode amplifier
Ans:
Drift is the undesirable variation in the output without Q16. With a neat diagram, analyze the Darlington
any change in the applied input. emitter follower circuit.
In DC amplifiers, drift occurs in the output current. Due Ans: Model Paper-II, Q2(a)
to the slow variation or negligible change in the dc input signal,
the drift in output current at the collector of transistor Q1 arises, Darlington Pair Transistor
which further reduces the amplification stability. The arrangement in which two emitter followers are
The following are few causes of drift in the output current cascaded to provide large values of input resistance and current
of DC amplifiers. gain is known as Darlington connection. The transistors used
1. Drift in input voltage. for this purpose are known as Darlington pair transistors.
2. Due to the changes in transistor parameters, the current
The Darlington pair emitter follower circuit is as shown
gain (AI) depends on temperature.
in figure (1).
3. Due to exponential rise in reverse saturation current +VCC
(ICBO) of transistor Q1. Ib1
Rs
The drift in DC amplifiers can be reduced by, T1

1. Providing a constant input voltage. Ie1 Ib2

T2
2. Employing highly stable resistors i.e., resistors must
have temperature and humidity resistance. +
vs ~ Vi Ie2
3. Maintaining the dc components at a low temperature or V2 R E1 → ∞ RE
steady temperature before the working of amplifier. Vo

Q15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of

DC amplifiers? Mention few applications.
Ri1 Ro
Ans: R2

Advantages of DC Amplifiers Figure (1): Darlington Emitter Follower Circuit

1. Direct coupling provides good frequency response. A.C Equivalent Circuit
2. It is simple to implement.
The h-parameter (approximate) A.C equivalent circuit
3. It provides very good D.C amplification with minimum
for CE configuration is as shown in figure (2),
offset errors.
IC
Ib
Disadvantages of DC Amplifiers
B C
1. Direct coupling requires large amount of power.
2. Temperature variations causes a drift in output voltage RE
h ie
even at constant input voltage.
3. At high frequencies, gain decreases.
E
4. Noise present at the input is not reduced and it is further
amplified due to high gain. Figure (2)
Applications of DC Amplifiers
In order to perform the analysis of second stage using
1. D.C. amplifier is used in linear ICs such as in differential
approximate analysis method, the value of RL must be assumed
amplifier.
such that RL hoe < 0.1.
2. They are used in low frequency applications such as
audio amplifier. The equivalent circuit configuration of CE in figure
3. They are used in computers and regulated dc power (2) can be converted into common collector configuration by
supply. making the collector as common.
4. In industries, DC amplifier is used in the control device. Thus, the h-parameter equivalent circuit for common
5. They are used in testing and measuring instruments. collector configuration is as shown in figure (3).
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Ib2 Ie B1
h ie I b1 I e1 Ib2
E
C1
h ie Ib
IC RE +
h re Vce1 h fe I b1 h oe Vce1 R L1 = (1 + h fe ) R E

V2
h feIb E1

Figure (4)
Ri2
The h-parameter equivalent circuit for analysing first
Figure (3) stage of CC amplifier is as shown in figure (5).
Analysis of Second Stage B1
Ib1 h ie h re Vce1 I e1 Ib2
E1
+ –

1. Current gain ( A i 2 )
–
Io
Ai 2 =
h fe I b1 h oe
Vce1 V R L1 = (1 + h fe ) R E
V1 ce1
Ib +

− Ie I c1
=
Ib C

I b + h fe I b Figure (5)
=
Ib 1. Current gain ( A i1 )
I b (1 + h fe ) I b2
= Ai1 =
Ib I b1

∴ Ai 2 = 1 + h fe Ai1 = I e1
I b2
2. Input Resistance ( R i ) ⇒ I e1 = −( I b1 + I c1 )
2

From figure (3), we get, ⇒ I e1 = h fe I b1 + hoeVce1

V2 = h fe I b1 + hoe (− I b 2 RL1 )
Ri 2 =
I b2
= h fe I b1 + hoe I e1 RL1   [ I b 2 = − I e1 ]
Applying KVL to outer loop of figure (3), we get,
∴ I e1 = (− I b1 + h fe I b1 + hoe I e1 RL1 )
V2 − I b 2 hie − I o RE = 0
= −( I b1 (1 + h fe ) + hoe I e1 RL1 )
⇒ V2 = I b 2 hie + I o RE
I e1 + hoe I e1 RL1 = − I (1 + h )
V2 I b1 fe
⇒ = hie + o RE
I b2 I b2 ⇒ I e1 (1 + hoe .RL1 ) = − I b1 (1 + h fe )
∴ Ri 2 = hieAi2RE
I e1 −(1 + h fe )
⇒ =
Ri 2 = hie + (1 + h fe ) RE ( hie << (1 + hfe)RE) I b1 1 + hoe .RL1
∴ Ri 2 = (1 + h fe ) RE But,

RL1 = (1 + h fe ) RE
Analysis of First Stage
I e1
∴ Ai1 = −
From figure (2), it can be observed that the load I b1
resistance of the first stage represents the input resistance of 1 + h fe
the second stage i.e., Ri 2 . As Ri 2 is high, it does not meet the =
1 + hoe (1 + h fe ) RE
requirement hoe Ri 2 < 0.1. For analysis of first stage, the exact
1 + h fe
analysis method is used. Then corresponding h-parameter ∴ Ai1 = ( h fe >> 1 )
equivalent circuit is shown in figure (4) as, 1 + hoeh fe RE

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.7
2. Input Resistance (Ri) Ri − Ai RL
∴ 1 – Av =
V Ri
Ri1 = i
I b1
hie + hrc Ai Ri − Ai RL
=
Applying KVL to output loop of figure (5), we get, Ri
hie
Vi − I b1hie − hreVce1 + Vce1 = 0 = ( hic = hie, hrc = 1 – hre 1)
Ri
∴ Vi = I b1hie + hreVce1 − Vce1
hie
∴ Av = 1 −
Neglecting ‘ hreVce1 ’, Vi can be written as, Ri
∴ Vi = I b1hie − Vce1 Then, the overall voltage gain is,

= I b1hie − (− I b 2 RL1 ) AV = AV × AV
1 2

= I b1hie + I b 2 RL1  hie  h 

= 1 − 1 − ie 
 
Vi I  Ri1  Ri 2 
 Ri1 = = hie + b 2 RL1
I b1 I b1
hie
AV ≈ 1 − ... (3)
∴ Ri1 = hie + Ai1 (1 + h fe ) RE Ri 2

By substituting the value of Ai1 , we get, Output Impedance (Ro)
2
(1 + h fe ) RE 1
Ri1 = hie + Ro =
1 + hoeh fe RE Yo

(1 + h fe ) 2 RE 1
 hie << =
1 + hoeh fe RE Output admittance

Yo of the transistor is given as,

(1 + h fe ) 2 RE
∴ Ri1 ≈ h fc − hrc
1 + hoeh fe RE Yo = hoc –
hic + Rs
Overall Input Resistance
− (1 + h fe )
Overall input resistance is given as, = hoe –
hie + Rs
2
(1 + h fe ) RE hoc = hoe , hfc = – (1 + hfe), hic = hie
∴ Ri1 ≈ ... (1)
1 + hoeh fe RE
And,
Overall Current Gain
(1 + h fe )
Ai = Ai1 × Ai 2 Y01 = hoe +
hie + Rs
1 + h fe
= × (1 + h fe ) 1 + h fe
1 + hoe (1 + h fe ) RE Y01 =
hie + Rs
2
(1 + h fe ) hie + Rs
∴ Ai = ... (2) ∴ Ro1 =
1 + hoe (1 + h fe ) RE 1 + h fe
Overall Voltage Gain Then,

AR Rs2 + hie2
Av = i L Ro2 =
Ri 1 + h fe

By subtracting ‘1’ on both sides,
Rs2 = Ro1
Ai RL
1 – Av = 1 –
Ri [ R01 of the first stage is the source resistance of second stage]

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hie1 + Rs hie 2
∴ Ro2 = +
(1 + h fe ) 2
1 + h fe

(1 + h fe )hie 2 + Rs hie 2
Ro2 = +
(1 + h fe ) 2
1 + h fe

hie 2 Rs h
= + + ie 2
1 + h fe (1 + h fe ) 2 1 + h fe

Rs 2hie 2
∴ Ro 2 = + ... (4)
(1 + h fe ) 2
(1 + h fe )

From the above analysis, it can be concluded that the Darlington connection increases the current gain and input resistance
by considering each stage as a single unit and performing multiplication of two gains obtained by two stages.
Q17. Draw the circuit diagram of Darlington pair circuit deriving its important characteristics.
(or)
Write a short note on bootstrapped Darlington circuit.
Ans:
The circuit diagram of Bootstrapped darlington circuit is as shown in figure (1).
The input resistance of darlington pair decreases by the biasing circuit i.e., even by neglecting the effects of resistors
R1, R2 and R3 and assuming infinite resistance.
1
The maximum input resistance is limited to ≈ 2M Ω
hob
1
Since, is between base and collector, the input resistance may be increased by bootstrapping the darlington circuit
hob
through the addition of C0 between the first collector and second emitter.
+VCC

RC1
1
h ob
C1

B1
C
Q1 C2

Q2
Vo E1 B2
E2

RC2 V0 = A v Vi

Figure (1): Bootstrapped Darlington Circuit

The collector resistor Rc is essential because without it, Rc2 is shorted to GND.
1

If the input signal changes by Vi then E2 changes by AVVi and the collector changes by the same amount.

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.9
Hence, the resistance is effectively increased to,
1
Reff =
hob (1 − AV )
≈ 400 MΩ [For 0.99 voltage gain]

The expression for input resistance of this circuit can be obtained from its equivalent circuit which is as shown in figure (2).
h fe1 I b
1

I b1 h oe1
Rs B1 _
+
~
I

Vs ~ Vi
↑
h fe 2 I b2

Ri R e = R e 2 || R c1
Figure (2): Equivalent Circuit
In the above circuit, the first stage represents the exact model, since the load is infinite and the second stage is the simplified
approximate model.
Since, the effective load Re is small i.e., Re = Re2 || Rc1 , the condition hoe Re < 0.1 is satisfied.
1
For >> hie2, hoe1 may be neglected.
hoe1
Vi
On solving = Ri we get,
I bi
Ri ≈ h fe1 . h fe2 . Re
Rc1 .Re2
Ri ≈ h fe1 . h fe2
Rc1 + Re2
Under biasing arrangement, the input resistance is given as,

Rin = (h fe1 .h fe2 .Re ) || Reff

'

Where,
Re
Reff =
1 − AV
Q18. What are the drawbacks of a Darlington amplifier? How it overcomes in bootstrap CC amplifier? Explain
with neat diagram.
Ans:
A Darlington amplifier is the cascaded version of CC amplifier. It consists of two CC amplifiers connected using direct
coupling technique.

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The circuit diagram of a Darlington amplifier is as shown Bootstrap is a technique of adding a resistor and
in figure (1). capacitor between the biasing junction and emitter. The
VCC circuit arrangement of a bootstrap CC amplifier is as shown
in figure (2).
+VCC
RB
Q1
RS C1

R1
Q2
C1
VS a
Z′i C2
V0

RE R3
+ C2
b
VS ~

R2 RE V0
Figure (1): Darlington Amplifier

The main drawbacks of a darlington amplifier are,

1. In darlington connection, the output D.C current from

first stage is (1 + hfe) I b . For darlington connection of Figure (2): Bootstrap CC Amplifier
1

n stages, the current gain is as large as (1 + hfe)n I b1 .

The capacitor C2 and resistor R3 provide a high impedance
Thus, the successive stage must be a power stage, but as
to the CC amplifier stage. Thus, satisfies its requirement. Since,
power stage is not used in amplifiers. However, it is not
there is connection between the input (point a) and output (point
possible to use more than two transistors in a darlington
b) terminals, the input changes directly affect the output and thus
connection.
the output current is not very high as compared to darlington
2. The leakage current of the first transistor gets amplified connection. The leakage current of the transistor is also blocked
by the second stage. Therefore, the overall leakage by the capacitor and thus, there is no chance of amplification
current is very high and hence the darlington connection through successive stages.
of three or more is not used in practical applications.
Hence, the drawbacks of the darlington amplifier are
3. Eventhough the main objective of darlington connection overcome by the bootstrap technique.
is to increase the input impedance, the biasing
Q19. With the help of a neat circuit diagram, describe
arrangement used in this type of connection reduces the
the working of a cascode amplifier.
input impedance is given as,

Input impedance, (or)

Zin = RB || Z i′ With neat sketch explain the operation of

cascode amplifier.
Where,
Z i′ – Transistor circuit input impedance Ans: Model Paper-III, Q2(a)

RB – Biasing resistor One of the methods used to overcome the low impedance
problem of a common base amplifier circuit is to use a cascode
Z i′ >> RB
amplifier. A cascode amplifier is formed by connecting a common
∴ Z in = RB = Very small value emitter amplifier in series with a common base amplifier.

By employing the bootstrap CC amplifier, the above The circuit arrangement of a cascode amplifier is as
drawbacks can be overcomed. shown in figure (1).

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.11
+VCC

RL
R1
Iou t
IC2
R3 C2
T2 R’ou t

R2 IE2
C1 IC1

T1 Vou t
Ib1
RS IE1
R4
Vin
VE1
VS
RE1 C3

R’in Rin 1
Figure (1): Circuit of Cascode Amplifier
In figure (1), transistor 1 (i.e., T1) and its associative elements serve as a common emitter amplifier and it forms the input
stage. The transistor 2 (i.e., T2) and its associative elements serve as common base amplifier and it forms the output stage of the
cascode amplifier.
If the cascode amplifier is subjected to D.C bias conditions, the emitter current of common emitter amplifier stage is set
by VE1 and RE1, whereas its collector current is approximately equal to its emitter current i.e., IC1 ≈ IE1. The emitter current of T2
is equal to the collector current of T1 i.e., IE2 = IC1 and hence collector current of T2 is approximately equal to emitter current of
T1 i.e., IC2 ≈ IE1. This current will not change though the level of VB2 changes, until VCE1 is maintained sufficiently large for the
current operation of transistor T1.
The A.C equivalent circuit of cascode amplifier is obtained by shorting D.C supply and capacitors.
The A.C equivalent circuit and its simplified h-parameter model are as shown in figures 2(i) and 2(ii) respectively.

IC2
Iou t
T2
Ie2
IC1 Vou t
RL
T1
RS
Ie1
Vin RB
VS

Rin′ Rin
Figure 2(i): A.C Equivalent Circuit of Cascode Amplifier
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RS h fe2 Ib2
IS Ib1 B1 IC1 C1 E2 C2
Ib2 IC2

Iou t
RB h ie1 h fe1 Ib1 h ie2 RL
+ Vou t
VS

Rin Rin 1 E1 Rout 1 Rin 2 B2 Rou t

Figure 2(ii): h-Parameter Equivalent of Cascode Amplifier

By analysing the 1st stage i.e., CE amplifier stage we get,
Input resistance (Rin1) = hie

Current gain (Ain1) = –hfe

Ain1 RL1
Voltage gain (AV1) =
Rin1
By analysing the 2nd stage i.e., CB amplifier stage we get,
hie
Input resistance (Rin2) =
1 + h fe
h fe
Current gain (Ain2) =
1 + h fe

Voltage gain (AV2) = Ain 2 RL 2

Rin 2

Overall input resistance (Rin) = Rin1 || RB = Rin1 || R3 || R4

I out I I I I I
Overall current gain (Ais) = = out × c 2 × e 2 × c1 × b1
IS I c 2 I e 2 I c1 I b1 I S

Vout Vout Vin

Overall voltage gain (AVS) = = ×
VS Vin VS

Rin
= AV ×
Rin + RS

Output resistance (Rout) = Rout2 || RL.

Q20. List out the special features of darlington pair and cascode amplifiers.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q3(b)

Features of Darlington Pair Amplifier

1. The main characteristic of Darlington pair configuration is that it provides higher current gain than the individual stages.
2. This configuration occupies lesser space than two individual transistors due to the usage of common collector.
3. Darlington pair amplifier can form the input stage of a touch-sensitive switch due to its responsiveness towards the current
passed by skin contact even at safe voltages.
4. It can also provide excellent buffering between a high impedance source and a low impedance load.

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.13
Features of Cascode Amplifier
1. The main characteristic of a cascode configuration is that it provides high gain due to its high output resistance.
2. Cascode amplifiers are more popular as they extend the frequency range of operation of common emitter amplifiers to
higher frequencies.
3. It also offers improved bandwidth due to reduced Miller capacitance associated with the input time constant.
4. Cascode configuration also establishes a Q point, so that, the transistors are in active region.

1.3 Stabilization
Q21. How the stability of DC amplifier can be improved?
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q2(b)

Figure (1) illustrates the basic circuit of a DC amplifier.

Figure (1): Two-stage DC Amplifier

Due to the variations in the temperature, an output current produced at collector of Q1 varies. This current is amplified by
transistor Q2 and produces an output. The output of Q2 is an undesirable output because of changes in dc components of amplifier
with temperature. Hence, the operation of DC amplifier becomes unstable.
The reverse saturation current ICBO changes with temperature. The variation in IC is expressed as,
2

DIC2T = AI2 DIC1 + DIC2

= AI2 S1 DICBO1 + S2 DICBO2
Where,
AI – Current gain of second stage amplifier.
2

∆IC1
S1 = ω
∆ICBO1
∆I C
S2 = 2
ω
∆ICBO2

For Q1 and Q2, the change in reverse saturation current is same, then,
DICBO1 . DICBO2 ... (2)
From equation (1), the stability factor is given by,
∆TC 2T
ST =
ICBO

= AI S1 + S2 ... (3)
2

In equation (3), the stability factor S1 of first stage i.e., at Q1 is multiplied with current gain AI of Q2. Due to this, the
2
fluctuations in output current increases and the stabilization of dc amplifier becomes complex.

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From figure (1), the stability factors S1 and S2 and current gain AI2 can be expressed as,
1
S1 =
1 + h 21
1
S2 =
1 + h 21
h fe
AI2 =
1 + h oe Ri2

Substituting S1, S2 and AI2 in equation (3), the total stability factor is obtained as,
JK h NO KJ 1 ON 1
ST = KKK OO K OO +
fe
O K
K 1 + h O ... (4)
1 + h oe Ri2 21 1 + h 21
L P L P
In order to improve the stability of the circuit, a series and shunt resistors are connected as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)
The stabilization resistors R4, R5, R6 and R7 produce ac and dc inverse feedback. The dc inverse feedback increases the
stability to the desired levels, whereas ac inverse feedback reduces the gain.
1.4 differential amplifiers
Q22. Discuss about the principle of operation differential amplifier.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q2(b)

Differential amplifier is a circuit which amplifies the difference between two input signals. It is also called difference
amplifier. Consider the emitter biased circuits as shown in figure (1).

+VCC +VCC

R C1 R C2
VC1 VC2
Q1 Q2

R E1 R E2

− VEE − VEE

Figure (1): Emitter Biased Circuits

From figure (1), the transistors Q1 and Q2 has the same characteristics and RE1 = RE2 and RC1 = RC2 . + VCC and – VEE are
the positive and negative supply voltages whose magnitudes are measured with respect to ground. Figure (2) shows the basic
differential amplifier.

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.15
+ VCC Q23. List the advantages of differential amplifiers.

Ans:

RC RC The advantages of differential amplifier are given as

follows,
Vout
1. Differential amplifier can amplify small voltage signals
Q1 Q2 without any distortion due to its high input resistance.
R i1 R i2
2. It has two input terminals with respect to ground. Thus,
the difference between two input signals is amplified and
Vi1 ~ ~ Vi 2
external noise is rejected by it.
RE
3. It has very low temperature drift.
− VEE 4. The differential voltage gain of this amplifier is high.

Figure (2): Differential Amplifier 5. Differential amplifier does not require any by-pass or
coupling capacitors.
It employs few resistors and two matched pair of
transistors connected in common emitter mode. It can amplify 6. It has the ability to reject the noise.
the difference between two D.C signals and two A.C signals. It 7. It has the stability of the quiescent point Q.
is widely used in instrumentation and measurement applications.
1.5 chopper stabilization
The working of a differential amplifier involves an
Q24. Explain chopper stabilized DC amplifiers.
emitter coupled differential amplifier with two identical
emitter based circuits which has the transistors with equal Ans: Model Paper-III, Q2(b)

characteristics and equal emitter and collector resistors. The resistor stabilized dc amplifier provide moderate
The circuits are also provided with equal magnitudes of performance with reduced gain. In order to increase the stability,
positive and negative supplies and produces a zero output. Due performance and gain, a chopper circuit is employed in the dc
to this, stability is high. If the voltages are not equal then, the amplifier.
output is given by, Figure (1) illustrates the basic chopper circuit.
Chopper
Vo = Vi2 ~ Vi1
+ 1 5 +
The differential amplifier can be used as DC amplifier 2
by making one input voltage to zero. Input vi Output vo

Figure (3) illustrates a differential amplifier acting as a

DC amplifier, when Vi = 0.
2 Figure (1): Chopper Circuit

Different types of chopper circuits can be used. Few are,

1. A vibrating reed

2. Motor driven switch

3. An electronic switch.

The chopper stabilized DC amplifier converts dc signal

to ac signal, amplifies it and again converts into dc form.

If the input applied to chopper circuit is a dc signal with

If Re > RL then the stability of the circuit increases and
2 time varying signal superimposed on it as shown in figure 2(a),
the gain reduces compared to basic differential amplifier. then the output is of the form depicted in figure 2(b).

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(a) Input Signal (b) Output Signal
Figure (2)
The output signal is a pulsed signal with instantaneous amplitude. This output of chopper is amplified by ac amplifiers
present in dc amplifier circuit and from the amplified signal, the original dc signal is retrieved.
Different types of stabilized chopper circuits are described below.
1. Ring Bridge Modulator
A ring bridge modulator which acts as a DC amplifier with chopper circuit is as shown in figure (3).

Figure (3): Ring Bridge Modulator

In figure (3), bridge ABCD contains four silicon diodes on their arms and the bridge is balanced with applied input signal
and output signal.
The input given to modulator through a transformer TR is a modulating signal.
1

The paths ABC and CDA of bridge ABCD conducts alternatively with respect to the polarity of modulating signal and
current Ii passes through P1 and P2 in transformer TR with respect to the phase of input modulating signal. Due to the conduction
2
in bridge circuit the current Ii flows through nodes A and C and also through the windings S1 and S2 of TR . Since, these windings
1
are in opposite polarity, the current Ii is directed by the transformer TR and produces the output. The diodes used in bridge acts as
2
switches and produces no residual voltage and current. Hence, the current Ii is directed in a perfect path. But, because of voltage
drop across the diode, error is produced in the bridge due to which bridge sensitivity decreases. Thus, the sensitivity of bridge
is increased by inputting a high impedance modulating signal and by tuning the primary winding of TR to resonance level.
2

2. Single Transistor Chopper

Figure (4) describes a single transistor chopper circuit.

Figure (4): Single Transistor Chopper Circuit

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.17
The square wave shown in figure (4) is given as an input to the circuit. Depending upon input voltages (vi), the transistors
enters cutoff and saturation regions.
If the transistor is in cutoff, then emitter to collector produces a high resistance.
If the transistor is in active, emitter to collector produces low resistance.
The transition of cutoff and saturation results in a chopped output voltage (vo).
3. Two Transistor Chopper
A two transistor chopper circuit is depicted in figure (5).

Figure (5): Two Transistor Chopper Circuit

The operation of two transistor chopper is same as the operation of single transistor chopper. But, the input given is parallel
to two transistors and in the saturation region of transistor, low resistance is produced. Thus, the final result of the circuit is a
chopped voltage vo obtained as shown in figure (5).

1.6 operational amplifiers, ideal specifications of operational amplifiers

Q25. What is an op-amp? Why it is called? Draw its equivalent circuit and list its specifications.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q3(a)

A direct coupled high gain amplifier comprising one or more differential amplifier circuits followed by a level shifting
circuit (level translator) and output circuit (push-pull amplifier) is called as an operational amplifier. It is usually referred to as
an op-amp.
The circuit symbol of an op-amp is as shown in figure.
Inverting input
terminal –
Output terminal
Op-amp
Non-inverting
input terminal +

Figure: Circuit Symbol of Op-amp

It contains two input terminals and one output terminal. The terminal designated by ‘–’ sign is inverting input terminal
and it inverts the phase of the signal applied to it. Whereas the terminal designated by ‘+’ sign is non-inverting terminal and it
does not changes the phase of the signal applied to it.
The basic function of an op-amp is to amplify the difference between the two input signals. An op-amp is widely used
to amplify both A.C. as well as D.C. input signals. Not only for amplification, they are also designed to perform mathematical
operations such as,
(i) Addition
(ii) Subtraction
(iii) Multiplication
(iv) Differentiation
(v) Integration
(vi) Logarithmic functions.
Since an operational amplifier can be used to perform all the above operations, it is named as operational amplifier
(op-amp).

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Op-amp circuits with appropriate external components can be used in different applications are listed below.
1. Filters
2. Buffers
3. Oscillators
4. Comparators
5. Line drivers
6. Regulators
7. Instrumentation amplifiers and several other analog circuits.
Q26. With the help of a block diagram, explain the various stages present in an operational amplifier
Ans:
Figure shows the block diagram of an operational amplifier with various stages.
Non-inverting
input (+) Va Level
Input Intermediate Output
shifting stage Output
Inverting stage stage
stage
input (–) Vb
Dual input Dual input Emitter follower Complementary
balanced output unbalanced using constant symmetry push-pull
differential output differential current source amplifier
amplifier amplifier

Figure
Non-inverting and inverting input terminals are applied to the input stage of the op-amp. Generally, the input stage of an
op-amp is dual input balanced output differential amplifier that has two inputs and the output is measured across two collector
terminals. The input stage provides the high gain and high input resistance. The intermediate stage is a dual input unbalanced output
differential amplifier or single-ended differential amplifier which has two inputs, but the output voltage is measured at any one of
the collector terminals. Intermediate stage is also provides some gain. The output of the intermediate stage is D.C. voltage which is
higher than the ground potential due to the direct coupling. So, in order to bring the D.C. level to ground potential level a shifting
stage is used. The next stage is output stage which is complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier. The output voltage swing and
op-amp current supplying capability is increased by this stage. Low output impedance is also provided by this output stage.
Q27. Draw the equivalent circuit of an Op-amp, explain the operation.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q3(a)

Practical op-amp
Practical op-amp is a device, which can approximate to some of the electrical characteristics of an ideal op-amp by using
negative feedback. Input impedance, output impedance and bandwidth of the practical op-amp are brought close to ideal op-amp
values.

Inverting Vb
I/P –
Rout
VD Rin
Non-Inverting + Vout = Ao VD
Ao VD
I/P +
Va –

Figure: Practical Op-amp

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.19
Figure shows the equivalent circuit of an op-amp. In the figure, AoVD is the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source and Rout
is the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance. By using equivalent circuit of op-amp, we can analyze the op-amp operating principles
and can be used for observing feedback effects.

The output voltage from the equivalent circuit of the op-amp can be written as,

Vout = Ao VD

= Ao (Va – Vb)

Where,

Vout – Op-amp output voltage

Ao – Voltage gain of op-amp

VD – Differential input voltage

Va – Voltage applied at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp

Vb – Voltage applied at the inverting terminal of the op-amp.

From the above equation it is noted that the difference between the two input voltages is amplified by the op-amp. The
polarity of the difference voltage indicates the polarity of the output voltage.
Q28. Explain about Ideal Op-Amp in detail with suitable diagrams.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q3(b)

Ideal op-amp
Ideal op-amp is a differential amplifier that amplifies the difference between two input signals under stable conditions.
The equivalent circuit of an ideal op-amp is shown in figure.

V0

Figure: Ideal Op-amp

The two inputs V1 and V2 are applied to the non-inverting and inverting terminal of op-amp respectively.
The current to both the input terminals is zero.
Hence the input impedance is infinite with no leading effect on driver stage.
Since, the differential input voltage to op-amp is zero, the gain of the op-amp is infinite.
V 0 V
i.e., gain, AOL = V = 0 = ∞
d 0

The output voltage of op-amp does not depend on output current. Hence, the output impedance of the circuit is zero. Thus
it can drive many number of other circuits.
The characteristics of an Ideal op-amp are,
1. Infinite Input Impedance (Ri = ∞)
In an op-amp input resistance is measured at either non-inverting or inverting terminal with the other terminal grounded.
In an ideal op-amp the current at inverting and non-inverting terminal is zero. Therefore, any signal source can drive the
op-amp without causing any loading effect on the preceding driver stage.

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2. Zero Output Impedance (Ro = 0)

In an op-amp output resistance is measured between op-amp output terminal and ground. Since R0 = 0, the output of
op-amp does not depend on the current drawn from it. Therefore, the output can drive other devices.

3. Infinite Voltage Gain (AOL = ∞)

The voltage gain of an op-amp is defined as the ratio of output voltage to the difference input voltage. For an ideal op-amp
the voltage gain is infinity.

4. Zero Offset Voltage (ViOS = 0)

The differential input of an op-amp is zero, when both the inputs of an op-amp are at zero volts. The output of an ideal
op-amp is zero, when its input is zero.

The presence of small voltage at the output, though the voltage at both the inputs is zero is referred as offset voltage.

5. Infinite Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR = ∞)

CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential mode voltage gain of an op-amp to the common mode voltage gain i.e.,
Adm
CMRR =
Acm
Where,

Adm – Differential mode voltage gain

Acm – Common mode voltage gain.

CMRR of an ideal op-amp is infinite.

6. Infinite Slew Rate (Slew Rate = ∞)

The maximum rate of change of output voltage for each unit of time is known as slew rate. It is usually specified in
V/µs. It is given by,
dVout
Slew rate = V/µs
dt m ax

Slew rate of an ideal op-amp is infinite.

7. Infinite Bandwidth (BW = ∞)

Bandwidth is nothing but the upper and lower range of frequencies between which the op-amp functions satisfactorily.
Therefore, the operating frequency range of an op-amp varies from 0 to ∞ as BW = ∞.

8. No Effect to Temperature

The frequency response characteristics of an op-amp do not vary with temperature.

1.7 instrumentation amplifiers

Q29. Discuss in detail about instrumentation amplifier with suitable diagrams.

Ans: Model Paper-III, Q3(a)

Figure (1) shows the block diagram of an instrumentation amplifier.

Figure (1): Block Diagram of Instrumentation Amplifier

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Unit-1 (DC Amplifiers) 1.21
Instrumentation amplifier is the intermediate stage between the input stage and output stage. Input stage is a combination
of transducer and preamplifier. The output stage may be indicators, oscilloscopes or recorders. Instrumentation system is generally
used for measuring, monitoring and controlling of physical quantities under measurement.
The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier uses three op-amps as shown in the figure (2).

V0

+
–

Figure (2): Op-amp Based Instrumentation Amplifier

The first stage consisting of a set of non-inverting input amplifiers A1 and A2 and an output amplifier A3 i.e., differential
amplifier.
Let the output of A1 be V01 and A2 be V02, then output voltage can be written as,
R2
Vo = (V – V ) ... (1)
R1 o2 o1
Applying the Ohm’s law between the nodes A and D, we get,
Vo1 − Vo 2
I = ... (2)
R f + Rg + R f 2

Let, Rf = R f1 = R f 2
Then, equation (2) is reduced to,

Vo1 − Vo 2
I = ... (3)
2 R f + Rg
From nodes B and C,

VB − VC
I =
Rg

V1 − V2
\ I = ( VB = V1, VC = V2)
Rg ... (4)
From the equations (4) and (3), we get,

Vo1 − Vo 2 V1 − V2
=
2 R f + Rg Rg

(V2 − V1 ) (2 R f + Rg )
∴ Vo2 – Vo1 = ... (5)
Rg
By substituting equation (5) in equation (1),

R2  (V2 − V1 ) (2 R f + Rg ) 
Vo =  
R1  Rg 
R JK NOVW
R2 SS 2R f OOWW
` Vo = SS(V − V ) KK1 +
R1 S 2 1 K Rg OWW
T L PX
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Q30. Mention the features of instrumentation amplifier. List few applications.

Ans: Model Paper-III, Q3(b)

Features of Instrumentation Amplifier

1. Instrumentation amplifiers have high gain accuracy and gain linearity.

2. High Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is observed using differential input.

3. It has low temperature coefficient and hence, the gain stability is high.

4. D.C offset and drift errors of the input are low.

5. Output impedance of instrumentation amplifier is low.

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

1. Instrumentation amplifier is used for temperature indicator and temperature controller.

2. It is used in the design of light intensity meter and digital multimeters.

3. It measures flow and thermal conductivity.

4. It is used in data recorders and oscilloscopes.

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