116 CHAPTER 2 Fluid Flow in Food Processing

Table 2.3 Pipe and Heat-Exchanger Tube Dimensions

Steel pipe Heat-exchanger tube
(Schedule 40) Sanitary pipe (18 gauge)

Nominal ID OD ID OD ID OD
size (in) in/(m) in/(m) in/(m) in/(m) in/(m) in/(m)
0.5 0.622 0.840 – – 0.402 0.50
(0.01579)a (0.02134) (0.01021) (0.0127)
0.75 0.824 1.050 0.652 0.75
(0.02093) (0.02667) (0.01656) (0.01905)
1 1.049 1.315 0.902 1.00 0.902 1.00
(0.02644) (0.03340) (0.02291) (0.0254) (0.02291) (0.0254)
1.5 1.610 1.900 1.402 1.50 1.402 1.50
(0.04089) (0.04826) (0.03561) (0.0381) (0.03561) (0.0381)
2.0 2.067 2.375 1.870 2.00 – –
(0.0525) (0.06033) (0.04749) (0.0508)
2.5 2.469 2.875 2.370 2.5
(0.06271) (0.07302) (0.06019) (0.0635)
3.0 3.068 3.500 2.870 3.0 – –
(0.07793) (0.08890) (0.07289) (0.0762)
4.0 4.026 4.500 3.834 4.0
(0.10226) (0.11430) (0.09739) (0.1016)
Source: Toledo (1991)
a
Numbers in parentheses represent the dimension in meters.

Example 2.11 A 20! Brix (20% sucrose by weight) apple juice is being pumped at 27!C from an
open tank through a 1-in nominal diameter sanitary pipe to a second tank at a
higher level, illustrated in Figure E2.3. The mass flow rate is 1 kg/s through 30 m of
straight pipe with two 90! standard elbows and one angle valve. The supply tank
maintains a liquid level of 3 m, and the apple juice leaves the system at an eleva-
tion of 12 m above the floor. Compute the power requirements of the pump.

Given
Product viscosity (µ) " 2.1 # 10$ 3 Pa s, assumed to be the same as for water, from
Table A.2.4
Product density (ρ) " 997.1 kg/m3, estimated from the density of water at 25!C
Pipe diameter (D) " 1 in nominal " 0.02291 m, from Table 2.3
Mass flow rate ( m! ) " 1 kg/s
Pipe length (L) " 30 m
90! standard elbow friction, from Table 2.2
 2.9 Flow Characteristics of Non-Newtonian Fluids 167

■ Figure 2.47 Friction factor-Generalized

Reynolds number chart for non-Newtonian flow
f" 16/GRE
Friction factor diagram in cylindrical tubes. (From Dodge and Metzner,
1959)

0.01 n%
Friction factor (f)

2.0
1.4
1.0
0.8
0.6

Experimental regions 0.4

Extrapolated regions
0.3

0.2
0.0
0.001
1000 10,000 100,000

Generalized Reynolds number (NGRe)

and for turbulent flow

α% " 1 (2.182)
The friction factor, f, for laminar flow is given by Equation (2.177)
and for turbulent flow, f is obtained from Figure 2.47.
For coefficients Cfe′ , Cfc′ , and Cff′ , experimental data for non-
Newtonian fluids are limited. The following rule-of-thumb guidelines
are proposed by Steffe (1996) to determine the three coefficients for
non-Newtonian fluids.
a. For non-Newtonian fluids above a generalized Reynolds num-
ber of 500, use data for Newtonian fluids in turbulent flow (see
Table 2.2 and Equations (2.90) and (2.92)).
b. For non-Newtonian fluids, for the range 20 & NGRe & 500, first
determine coefficients Cfe, Cfc, Cff as in step (a), then use the
following expressions:

500 # Cfe 500 # Cfc 500 # Cff

C%fe " ; C%f c " ; C%f f " (2.183)
NGRe NGRe NGRe

The resulting values of the coefficients are then substituted in Equation

(2.180).
Example 2.24 illustrates the determination of pumping requirements
of a non-Newtonian liquid.
792 Appendices

A.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AND AIR

Table A.4.1 Physical Properties of Water at the Saturation Pressure

Coefficient of
volumetric Specific
Temperature thermal heat Thermal Thermal Absolute Kinematic
Density expansion cp conductivity diffusivity viscosity viscosity Prandtl
T T ρ β (kJ/ k α µ ν number
(°C) (K) (kg/m3) (!10"4 K"1) [kg °C]) (W/[m °C]) (!10"6 m2/s) (!10"6 Pa s) (!10"6 m2/s) NPr
0 273.15 999.9 –0.7 4.226 0.558 0.131 1793.636 1.789 13.7
5 278.15 1000.0 – 4.206 0.568 0.135 1534.741 1.535 11.4
10 283.15 999.7 0.95 4.195 0.577 0.137 1296.439 1.300 9.5
15 288.15 999.1 – 4.187 0.587 0.141 1135.610 1.146 8.1
20 293.15 998.2 2.1 4.182 0.597 0.143 993.414 1.006 7.0
25 298.15 997.1 – 4.178 0.606 0.146 880.637 0.884 6.1
30 303.15 995.7 3.0 4.176 0.615 0.149 792.377 0.805 5.4
35 308.15 994.1 – 4.175 0.624 0.150 719.808 0.725 4.8
40 313.15 992.2 3.9 4.175 0.633 0.151 658.026 0.658 4.3
45 318.15 990.2 – 4.176 0.640 0.155 605.070 0.611 3.9
50 323.15 988.1 4.6 4.178 0.647 0.157 555.056 0.556 3.55
55 328.15 985.7 – 4.179 0.652 0.158 509.946 0.517 3.27
60 333.15 983.2 5.3 4.181 0.658 0.159 471.650 0.478 3.00
65 338.15 980.6 – 4.184 0.663 0.161 435.415 0.444 2.76
70 343.15 977.8 5.8 4.187 0.668 0.163 404.034 0.415 2.55
75 348.15 974.9 – 4.190 0.671 0.164 376.575 0.366 2.23
80 353.15 971.8 6.3 4.194 0.673 0.165 352.059 0.364 2.25
85 358.15 968.7 – 4.198 0.676 0.166 328.523 0.339 2.04
90 363.15 965.3 7.0 4.202 0.678 0.167 308.909 0.326 1.95
95 368.15 961.9 – 4.206 0.680 0.168 292.238 0.310 1.84
100 373.15 958.4 7.5 4.211 0.682 0.169 277.528 0.294 1.75
110 383.15 951.0 8.0 4.224 0.684 0.170 254.973 0.268 1.57
120 393.15 943.5 8.5 4.232 0.684 0.171 235.360 0.244 1.43
130 403.15 934.8 9.1 4.250 0.685 0.172 211.824 0.226 1.32
140 413.15 926.3 9.7 4.257 0.686 0.172 201.036 0.212 1.23
150 423.15 916.9 10.3 4.270 0.684 0.173 185.346 0.201 1.17
160 433.15 907.6 10.8 4.285 0.680 0.173 171.616 0.191 1.10
170 443.15 897.3 11.5 4.396 0.679 0.172 162.290 0.181 1.05
(Continued)
 A.4 Physical Properties of Water and Air 793

Table A.4.1 (Continued)

Coefficient of
volumetric Specific
Temperature thermal heat Thermal Thermal Absolute Kinematic
Density expansion cp conductivity diffusivity viscosity viscosity Prandtl
T T ρ β (kJ/ k α µ ν number
(°C) (K) (kg/m3) (!10"4 K"1) [kg °C]) (W/[m °C]) (!10"6 m2/s) (!10"6 Pa s) (!10"6 m2/s) NPr
180 453.15 886.6 12.1 4.396 0.673 0.172 152.003 0.173 1.01
190 463.15 876.0 12.8 4.480 0.670 0.171 145.138 0.166 0.97
200 473.15 862.8 13.5 4.501 0.665 0.170 139.254 0.160 0.95
210 483.15 852.8 14.3 4.560 0.655 0.168 131.409 0.154 0.92
220 493.15 837.0 15.2 4.605 0.652 0.167 124.544 0.149 0.90
230 503.15 827.3 16.2 4.690 0.637 0.164 119.641 0.145 0.88
240 513.15 809.0 17.2 4.731 0.634 0.162 113.757 0.141 0.86
250 523.15 799.2 18.6 4.857 0.618 0.160 109.834 0.137 0.86
Source: Adapted from Raznjevic (1978)

Table A.4.2 Properties of Saturated Steam

Specific volume (m3/kg) Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/[kg °C])
Vapor Saturated
Temperature pressure Saturated Liquid vapor Saturated
(°C) (kPa) Liquid vapor (Hc) (Hv) Liquid vapor
0.01 0.6113 0.0010002 206.136 0.00 2501.4 0.0000 9.1562
3 0.7577 0.0010001 168.132 12.57 2506.9 0.0457 9.0773
6 0.9349 0.0010001 137.734 25.20 2512.4 0.0912 9.0003
9 1.1477 0.0010003 113.386 37.80 2517.9 0.1362 8.9253
12 1.4022 0.0010005 93.784 50.41 2523.4 0.1806 8.8524
15 1.7051 0.0010009 77.926 62.99 2528.9 0.2245 8.7814
18 2.0640 0.0010014 65.038 75.58 2534.4 0.2679 8.7123
21 2.487 0.0010020 54.514 88.14 2539.9 0.3109 8.6450
24 2.985 0.0010027 45.883 100.70 2545.4 0.3534 8.5794
27 3.567 0.0010035 38.774 113.25 2550.8 0.3954 8.5156
30 4.246 0.0010043 32.894 125.79 2556.3 0.4369 8.4533
33 5.034 0.0010053 28.011 138.33 2561.7 0.4781 8.3927
36 5.947 0.0010063 23.940 150.86 2567.1 0.5188 8.3336
40 7.384 0.0010078 19.523 167.57 2574.3 0.5725 8.2570
45 9.593 0.0010099 15.258 188.45 2583.2 0.6387 8.1648
50 12.349 0.0010121 12.032 209.33 2592.1 0.7038 8.0763

(Continued)
794 Appendices

Table A.4.2 (Continued)

Specific volume (m3/kg) Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/[kg °C])
Vapor Saturated
Temperature pressure Saturated Liquid vapor Saturated
(°C) (kPa) Liquid vapor (Hc) (Hv) Liquid vapor
55 15.758 0.0010146 9.568 230.23 2600.9 0.7679 7.9913
60 19.940 0.0010172 7.671 251.13 2609.6 0.8312 7.9096
65 25.03 0.0010199 6.197 272.06 2618.3 0.8935 7.8310
70 31.19 0.0010228 5.042 292.98 2626.8 0.9549 7.7553
75 38.58 0.0010259 4.131 313.93 2635.3 1.0155 7.6824
80 47.39 0.0010291 3.407 334.91 2643.7 1.0753 7.6122
85 57.83 0.0010325 2.828 355.90 2651.9 1.1343 7.5445
90 70.14 0.0010360 2.361 376.92 2660.1 1.1925 7.4791
95 84.55 0.0010397 1.9819 397.96 2668.1 1.2500 7.4159
100 101.35 0.0010435 1.6729 419.04 2676.1 1.3069 7.3549
105 120.82 0.0010475 1.4194 440.15 2683.8 1.3630 7.2958
110 143.27 0.0010516 1.2102 461.30 2691.5 1.4185 7.2387
115 169.06 0.0010559 1.0366 482.48 2699.0 1.4734 7.1833
120 198.53 0.0010603 0.8919 503.71 2706.3 1.5276 7.1296
125 232.1 0.0010649 0.7706 524.99 2713.5 1.5813 7.0775
130 270.1 0.0010697 0.6685 546.31 2720.5 1.6344 7.0269
135 313.0 0.0010746 0.5822 567.69 2727.3 1.6870 6.9777
140 361.3 0.0010797 0.5089 589.13 2733.9 1.7391 6.9299
145 415.4 0.0010850 0.4463 610.63 2740.3 1.7907 6.8833
150 475.8 0.0010905 0.3928 632.20 2746.5 1.8418 6.8379
155 543.1 0.0010961 0.3468 653.84 2752.4 1.8925 6.7935
160 617.8 0.0011020 0.3071 675.55 2758.1 1.9427 6.7502
165 700.5 0.0011080 0.2727 697.34 2763.5 1.9925 6.7078
170 791.7 0.0011143 0.2428 719.21 2768.7 2.0419 6.6663
175 892.0 0.0011207 0.2168 741.17 2773.6 2.0909 6.6256
180 1002.1 0.0011274 0.19405 763.22 2778.2 2.1396 6.5857
190 1254.4 0.0011414 0.15654 807.62 2786.4 2.2359 6.5079
200 1553.8 0.0011565 0.12736 852.45 2793.2 2.3309 6.4323
225 2548 0.0011992 0.07849 966.78 2803.3 2.5639 6.2503
250 3973 0.0012512 0.05013 1085.36 2801.5 2.7927 6.0730
275 5942 0.0013168 0.03279 1210.07 2785.0 3.0208 5.8938
300 8581 0.0010436 0.02167 1344.0 2749.0 3.2534 5.7045
Source: Abridged from Keenan et al. (1969). Copyright © 1969 by John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
 A.4 Physical Properties of Water and Air 795

Table A.4.3 Properties of Superheated Steam

Absolute pressure
Temperature (°C)
(kPa, with sat.
temperature, °C)a 100 150 200 250 300 360 420 500
10 V 17.196 19.512 21.825 24.136 26.445 29.216 31.986 35.679
(45.81) H 2687.5 2783.0 2879.5 2977.3 3076.5 3197.6 3320.9 3489.1
s 8.4479 8.6882 8.9038 9.1002 9.2813 9.4821 9.6682 9.8978
50 V 3.418 3.889 4.356 4.820 5.284 5.839 6.394 7.134
(81.33) H 2682.5 2780.1 2877.7 2976.0 3075.5 3196.8 3320.4 3488.7
s 7.6947 7.9401 8.1580 8.3556 8.5373 8.7385 8.9249 9.1546
75 V 2.270 2.587 2.900 3.211 3.520 3.891 4.262 4.755
(91.78) H 2679.4 2778.2 2876.5 2975.2 3074.9 3196.4 3320.0 3488.4
s 7.5009 7.7496 7.9690 8.1673 8.3493 8.5508 8.7374 8.9672
100 V 1.6958 1.9364 2.172 2.406 2.639 2.917 3.195 3.565
(99.63) H 2676.2 2776.4 2875.3 2974.3 3074.3 3195.9 3319.6 3488.1
s 7.3614 7.6134 7.8343 8.0333 8.2158 8.4175 8.6042 8.8342
150 V 1.2853 1.4443 1.6012 1.7570 1.9432 2.129 2.376
(111.37) H 2772.6 2872.9 2972.7 3073.1 3195.0 3318.9 3487.6
s 7.4193 7.6433 7.8438 8.0720 8.2293 8.4163 8.6466
400 V 0.4708 0.5342 0.5951 0.6458 0.7257 0.7960 0.8893
(143.63) H 2752.8 2860.5 2964.2 3066.8 3190.3 3315.3 3484.9
s 6.9299 7.1706 7.3789 7.5662 7.7712 7.9598 8.1913
700 V 0.2999 0.3363 0.3714 0.4126 0.4533 0.5070
(164.97) H 2844.8 2953.6 3059.1 3184.7 3310.9 3481.7
s 6.8865 7.1053 7.2979 7.5063 7.6968 7.9299
1000 V 0.2060 0.2327 0.2579 0.2873 0.3162 0.3541
(179.91) H 2827.9 2942.6 3051.2 3178.9 3306.5 3478.5
s 6.6940 6.9247 7.1229 7.3349 7.5275 7.7622
1500 V 0.13248 0.15195 0.16966 0.18988 0.2095 0.2352
(198.32) H 2796.8 2923.3 3037.6 3.1692 3299.1 3473.1
s 6.4546 6.7090 6.9179 7.1363 7.3323 7.5698
2000 V 0.11144 0.12547 0.14113 0.15616 0.17568
(212.42) H 2902.5 3023.5 3159.3 3291.6 3467.6
s 6.5453 6.7664 6.9917 7.1915 7.4317
2500 V 0.08700 0.09890 0.11186 0.12414 0.13998
(223.99) H 2880.1 3008.8 3149.1 3284.0 3462.1
s 6.4085 6.6438 6.8767 7.0803 7.3234
3000 V 0.07058 0.08114 0.09233 0.10279 0.11619
(233.90) H 2855.8 2993.5 3138.7 3276.3 3456.5
s 6.2872 6.5390 6.7801 6.9878 7.2338
Source: Abridged from Keenan et al. (1969). Copyright © 1969 by John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
a
V, specific volume, m3/kg; H, enthalpy, kJ/kg; s, entropy, kJ/kg K .
796 Appendices

Table A.4.4 Physical Properties of Dry Air at Atmospheric Pressure

Volumetric
coefficient
Temperature Density of Specific Thermal Thermal Kinematic Prandtl
t T (ρ) expansion (β) heat (cp) conductivity (k) diffusivity (α ) Viscosity (µ) viscosity (ν) number
(°C) (K) (kg/m3) (!10!3 K!1) (kJ/[kg K]) (W/[m K]) (!10!6 m2/s) (!10!6 N s/m2) (!10!6 m2/s) (NPr)
–20 253.15 1.365 3.97 1.005 0.0226 16.8 16.279 12.0 0.71
0 273.15 1.252 3.65 1.011 0.0237 19.2 17.456 13.9 0.71
10 283.15 1.206 3.53 1.010 0.0244 20.7 17.848 14.66 0.71
20 293.15 1.164 3.41 1.012 0.0251 22.0 18.240 15.7 0.71
30 303.15 1.127 3.30 1.013 0.0258 23.4 18.682 16.58 0.71
40 313.15 1.092 3.20 1.014 0.0265 24.8 19.123 17.6 0.71
50 323.15 1.057 3.10 1.016 0.0272 26.2 19.515 18.58 0.71
60 333.15 1.025 3.00 1.017 0.0279 27.6 19.907 19.4 0.71
70 343.15 0.996 2.91 1.018 0.0286 29.2 20.398 20.65 0.71
80 353.15 0.968 2.83 1.019 0.0293 30.6 20.790 21.5 0.71
90 363.15 0.942 2.76 1.021 0.0300 32.2 21.231 22.82 0.71
100 373.15 0.916 2.69 1.022 0.0307 33.6 21.673 23.6 0.71
120 393.15 0.870 2.55 1.025 0.0320 37.0 22.555 25.9 0.71
140 413.15 0.827 2.43 1.027 0.0333 40.0 23.340 28.2 0.71
150 423.15 0.810 2.37 1.028 0.0336 41.2 23.732 29.4 0.71
160 433.15 0.789 2.31 1.030 0.0344 43.3 24.124 30.6 0.71
180 453.15 0.755 2.20 1.032 0.0357 47.0 24.909 33.0 0.71
200 473.15 0.723 2.11 1.035 0.0370 49.7 25.693 35.5 0.71
250 523.15 0.653 1.89 1.043 0.0400 60.0 27.557 42.2 0.71
Source: Adapted from Raznjevic (1978).