April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

STRESS AND STRAIN (continuation from class work)

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
Sometimes, a body is subjected to a number of forces acting on its outer edges as well as
at some other sections, along the length of the body. In such a case, the forces are split
up and their effects are considered on individual sections. The resulting deformation, of
the body, is equal to the algebraic sum of the deformations of the individual sections.
Such a principle, of finding out the resultant deformation, is called the principle of
superposition. The relation for the resulting deformation may be modified as:
δl = 𝑃𝑙/𝐴𝐸=1/𝐴𝐸(𝑃1𝑙1+𝑃2𝑙2+𝑃3𝑙3+𝑃4𝑙4+⋯…. )
𝑃2𝑙2=Corresponding values of section 2, and so on.
EXAMPLE 1
A steel bar of cross-sectional area 200 mm2 is loaded as shown in Figure 1. Find the
change in length of the bar. Take E as 200 GPa.

Figure 1
SOLUTION
Given: Cross-sectional area (A) = 200 mm2 and
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa= 200 × 103 N/mm2. For the sake of simplification,
the force of 50 KN acting at A may be split up into two forces of 20KN and 30 KN
respectively. Now it will be seen that part AB of the bar is subjected to a tension of 20
KN and AC is subjected to a tension of 30 KN as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

We know that the change in length of the bar.

δl = 𝑃𝑙𝐴𝐸=1𝐴𝐸(𝑃1𝑙1+𝑃2𝑙2).
=1200 𝑥 200 𝑥103(20𝑥103𝑥300+30𝑥103𝑥800)
=0.75mm

EXAMPLE 2
A brass bar, having cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 is subjected to axial forces as shown
in Figure 3. Find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 80 GPa.

Figure 3

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

SOLUTION.
Given: Cross-sectional area (A) = 500 mm2 and
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 80 GPa =80 KN/mm2. For the sake of simplification,
the force of 100 KN acting at A may be split up into two forces of 80 KN and 20 KN
respectively. Similarly, the force of 50 KN acting at C may also be split up into two forces
of 20 KN and 30 KN respectively. Now it will be seen that the part AB of the bar is
subjected to a tensile force of 80 KN, part AC is subjected to a tensile force of 20 KN and
the part CD is subjected to a compression force of 30 KN as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4
δl = 𝑃𝑙𝐴𝐸=1𝐴𝐸(𝑃1𝑙1+𝑃2𝑙2+𝑃3𝑙3)
=1500𝑥80[80𝑥500+20𝑥1500−30𝑥1200]
= 0.85mm.
NB :.( Taking plus sign for tension and minus for compression).

EXAMPLE 3.
. A steel rod ABCD 4.5 m long and 25 mm in diameter is subjected to the forces as
shown in Figure 5. If the value of Young’s modulus for the steel is 200 GPa, determine
its deformation.

Figure 5
SOLUTION.
Given: Diameter (D) = 25 mm and
Young’s modulus (E) = 200 GPa = 200 KN/mm2.
We know that cross-sectional area of the steel rod. A = 𝜋𝐷24=𝜋𝑥2524=491𝑚𝑚2
For the sake of simplification, the force of 60 KN acting at A may be split up into two
forces of 50 KN and 10 KN respectively. Similarly the force of 20 KN acting at C may
also be split up into two forces of 10 KN and 10 KN respectively as shown in figure 6.

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

Figure 6.
Now it will be seen that the bar AD is subjected a tensile force of 50 KN, part AC is
subjected to a tensile force of 10 KN and the part BC is subjected to a tensile force of 10
KN as shown in Figure 6.
We know that deformation of the bar,

δl = 𝑃𝑙𝐴𝐸=1𝐴𝐸(𝑃1𝑙1+𝑃2𝑙2+𝑃3𝑙3)
=1491𝑥200 [50𝑥4.5𝑥103+10𝑥3𝑥103+10𝑥1𝑥103]
= 270mm.

EXERCISE.
1. A copper rod ABCD of 800 mm2 cross-sectional area and 7.5 m long is subjected
to forces as shown in Figure 1. Find the total elongation of the bar.
Take E for the bar material as 100 KN/mm2. [4.6 mm]

Figure 1
2. A steel bar of 600 mm2 cross-sectional area is carrying loads as shown in Figure
2. Determine the elongation of the bar. Take E for the steel as 200 KN/mm2.
[1.4 mm]

Figure 2
3. A steel bar ABC of 400 mm length and 20 mm diameter is subjected to a point
loads as shown in Figure 3 Determine the total change in length of the bar. Take
E = 200 GPa. [0.32 mm]

Figure 3.

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

STRESSES IN THE BARS OF DIFFERENT SECTIONS

Sometimes a bar is made up of different lengths having different cross-sectional areas
as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Bars of different sections

In such cases, the stresses, strains and hence changes in lengths for each section is
worked out separately as usual. The total changes in length is equal to the sum of the
changes of all the individual lengths. It may be noted that each section is subjected to
the same external axial pull or push. Let
P = Force acting on the body,
E = Modulus of elasticity for the body,
l1 = Length of section 1,
A1= Cross-sectional area of section 1,
l2, A2 = Corresponding values for section 2 and so on. We know that the change
in length of section 1.
𝛿𝑙1=𝑃𝑙1𝐴1𝐸 Similarly 𝛿𝑙2=𝑃𝑙2𝐴2𝐸 and so on
Therefore total deformation of the bar is;
𝛿𝑙= 𝛿𝑙1+ 𝛿𝑙2+ 𝛿𝑙3+ ………
=𝑃𝑙1/𝐴1𝐸 + 𝑃𝑙2/𝐴2𝐸 +𝑃𝑙3/𝐴3𝐸 +…….
=𝑃/𝐸 (𝑙1/𝐴1 +𝑙2/𝐴2 +𝑙3/𝐴3 +…………
NOTE.
Sometimes, the modulus of elasticity is different for different sections. In
such cases, the total deformation,
𝛿𝑙=𝑃 (𝑙1/𝐴1𝐸1+𝑙2/𝐴2𝐸2+𝑙3/𝐴3𝐸3+………).

EXAMPLE 1
A steel component shown in Figure 1 is subjected to a tensile load of 160 KN. Determine
the total elongation of the component, if its modules of elasticity is 200 KN/mm2.

Figure 1
SOLUTION
Given: Tensile load (P) = 160 KN = 160 × 103 N;
Length of section 1 (l1) = 90 mm; Length of section 2 (l2) = 120 mm;
Area of section 1 (A1) = 50 mm2;
Area of section 2 (A2) =100mm2 and
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 KN/mm2. = 200 × 103 N/mm2.
We know that total elongation of the component,
𝛿𝑙 =𝑃/𝐸 (𝑙1/𝐴1 +𝑙2/𝐴2) =160𝑥103/200𝑥103 (90/50+120/100)
= 2.4mm.
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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

EXAMPLE 2.
A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminium bar is shown in Figure 2.
Assuming that the bars are prevented from buckling sidewise, calculate the magnitude
of force P that will cause the total length of the member to decrease by 0.25 mm. The
values of elastic modulus for steel and aluminium are 210 KN/mm2 and 70 KN/mm2
respectively.

Figure 2

SOLUTION.
Given: Decrease in length (δl) = 0.25 mm;
Modulus of elasticity for steel (ES) = 210KN/mm2 = 210 × 103 N/mm2;
Modulus of elasticity for aluminium (EA) = 70 KN/mm2 = 70 × 103 N/mm2;
Area of steel section (AS) = 50 × 50 = 2 500 mm2;
Area of aluminium section (AA) = 100 × 100 =10000 mm2;
Length of steel section (lS) = 300 mm and
Length of aluminium section (lA) = 380 mm.

Let P = Magnitude of the force in KN.

We know that decrease in the length of the member (𝛿 l),
𝛿𝑙=𝑃(𝑙1/𝐴𝑆𝐸𝑆+𝑙2/𝐴𝐴𝐸𝐴).
0.25=P (300/2500𝑥210𝑥103+380/10000𝑥70𝑥103)
P=224.4x103N =224.4KN
EXERCISE.
1. A copper bar is 900 mm long and circular in section. It consists of 200 mm long
bar of 40 mm diameter, 500 mm long bar of 15 mm diameter and 200 mm long
bar of 30 mm diameter. If the bar is subjected to a tensile load of 60 KN, find the
total extension of the bar. Take E for the bar material as 100 KN/mm2.
[1.963 mm]
2. A stepped bar ABCD consists of three parts AB, BC and CD such that AB is 300
mm long and 20 mm diameter, BC is 400 mm long and 30 mm diameter and CD
is 200 mm long and 40 mm diameter. It was observed that the stepped bar
undergoes a deformation of 0.42 mm, when it was subjected to a compressive
load P. Find the value of P, if E = 200 KN/mm2. [50 KN]
3. A member ABCD is subjected to point load as shown in Figure 1. Determine the
total change in length of the member. Take E = 200 KN/mm2.
[0.096 mm (decrease)]

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

Material Coefficient of thermal

expansion
Steel Copper Stainless steel 12 × 10–6/°C 17.5 × 10–6/°C
Brass, Bronze Aluminium 18 × 10–6/°C 19 × 10–6/°C 23
× 10–6/°C

Figure 1.
4. The stepped bar shown in Figure 2 is made up of two different materials. The
material 1 has Young’s modulus = 2 × 105 N/mm2, while that of material 2 is 1 ×
105 N/mm2. Find the extension of the bar under a pull of 30 KN if both the
portions are 20 mm in thickness. [0.5125 mm]

Figure 2
5. The bar shown in Figure 3 is tested in universal testing machine. It is observed
that at a load of 40 KN the total extension of the bar is 0.280 mm. Determine the
Young’s modulus of the material. [201KN/mm2]

Figure 3

THERMAL STRESSES/ TEMPARATURE STRESSES

Every material expands when temperature rises and contracts when temperature falls. It
is established experimentally that the change in length ∆ is directly proportional to the
length of the member L and change in temperature t.
Thus ∆ ∝ tL
∆ = α tL
The constant of proportionality α is called coefficient of thermal expansion and is
defined as change in unit length of material due to unit change in
temperature. Table 1 shows coefficient of thermal expansion for some of the
commonly used engineering materials:

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

Table 1
materials Coefficient of thermal expansion
Steel 12x10-6/0c
Copper 17.5x10-6/0c
Stainless steel 18x10-6/0c
Brass, Bronze 19x10-6/0c
Aluminium 23x10-6/0c
If the expansion of the member is freely permitted, as shown in Figure 10, no
temperature stresses are induced in the material

Figure 10
Free Expansion Permitted.
If the free expansion is prevented fully or partially the stresses are induced in the bar, by
the support forces. Referring to Figure 11

.
Figure 11
If free expansion is permitted the bar would have expanded by ∆ = α tL Since support is
not permitting it, the support force P develops to keep it at the original position.
Magnitude of this force is such that contraction is equal to free expansion, i.e.
PL/AE = α tL or
p = E α t.
Which is the temperature stress. It is compressive in nature in this case.
Consider the case shown in Figure 12 in which free expansion is prevented partially.

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

Figure 12
In this case free expansion = α tL Expansion prevented ∆ = α tL – δ
The expansion is prevented by developing compressive force P at supports
∴ PL/AE = ∆ = α tL – δ.
EXAMPLE 1
A steel rail is 12 m long and is laid at a temperature of 18°C. The maximum temperature
expected is 40°C.
(i) Estimate the minimum gap between two rails to be left so that the temperature
stresses do not develop.
(ii) Calculate the temperature stresses developed in the rails, if:
a. No expansion joint is provided.
b. If a 1.5 mm gap is provided for expansion.
(iii) If the stress developed is 20 N/mm2, what is the gap provided between the
rails? Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and α = 12 × 10–6/°C.
SOLUTION
(i) The free expansion of the rails
= α tL = 12 × 10–6 × (40 – 18) × 12.0 × 1000
= 3.168 mm
∴ Provide a minimum gap of 3.168 mm between the rails, so that
temperature stresses do not develop.
(ii) (a) If no expansion joint is provided, free expansion prevented is equal to 3.168
mm. i.e. ∆ = 3.168 mm
∴ PL/AE = 3.168
∴ p =P/ A= (3.168𝑥2𝑥105) ÷ (12𝑥1000) = 52.8 N/mm2.
(b) If a gap of 1.5 mm is provided,
Free expansion prevented ∆ = α tL – δ
= 3.168 – 1.5
=1.668 mm.
∴The compressive force developed is given by PL/AE= 1.668
or p =P/ A=(1.668𝑥2𝑥105 )÷(12𝑥1000)= 27.8 N/mm2.
(iii) If the stress developed is 20 N/mm2, then p = P/A= 20
If δ is the gap, ∆ = α tL – δ
∴PL/AE= 3.168 – δ

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

i.e. (20 × 12 ×1000)÷ (2x 105) = 3.168 – δ

∴ δ = 3.168 – 1.20 = 1.968 mm
EXAMPLE 2.
The composite bar shown in figure 1 is rigidly fixed at the ends A and B. Determine the
reaction developed at ends when the temperature is raised by 18°C. Given Ea= 70
KN/mm2 Es= 200 KN/mm2 αa = 11 × 10–6/°C αs = 12 × 10–6/°C

A B
Figure 1
SOLUTION:
Free expansion = αa tLa + αstLs
= (11 × 10–6 × 18 × 1500) + (12 × 10–6 × 18 × 3000)
= 0.945 mm
Since this is prevented
∆ = 0.945 mm.
Ea= 70 KN/mm2 = 70×103 N/mm2;
Es= 200 KN/mm2 = 200 × 103 N/mm2
If P is the support reaction,
𝑃𝐿𝑎 𝑃𝐿𝑠
∆ = 𝐴𝑎𝐸𝑎 + 𝐴𝑠𝐸𝑠

1500 3000
i.e. 0.945=P (600𝑥70×103 + 400𝑥200𝑥103 )

0.945 = 73.214 × 10–6 P or

P = 12907.3 N.

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COMPOSITE/COMPOUND BARS
Bars made up of two or more materials are called composite/compound bars. They may
have same length or different lengths as shown in Figure 1. The ends of different materials
of the bar are held together under loaded conditions.

Figure 1.
Consider a member with two materials. Let the load shared by material 1 be P1 and that by
material 2 be P2. Then;
i. from equation of equilibrium of the forces, we get
P = P1 + P2 ………..……………………………………….………………….equation 1.
ii. Since the ends are held securely, we get
∆l1 = ∆l2 where ∆l1 and ∆l2 are the extension of the bars of material 1 and 2 respectively
𝑃1𝐿1 𝑃2𝐿2
i.e. = 𝐴2𝐸2 ……………………………………………………………equation 2.
𝐴1𝐸1
Using equations 1 and 2, P1 and P2 can be found uniquely. Then extension of the system can
be found using the relation
∆l = 𝑃1𝐿1/𝐴1𝐸1 or
∆l=𝑃2𝐿2/𝐴2𝐸2
since ∆l = ∆l1 = ∆l2.
But, 𝑃𝐴=𝜎=𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Therefore 𝜎1/ 𝐸1= 𝜎2/𝐸2
𝜎1/𝜎2=𝐸1/𝐸2= m = modular ratio……………..………….. (Compatibility equation)
From the above equations, we can find out the stresses in the different materials. We also
know that the total load, P = P1 + P2 = σ1 A1 + σ2 A2………………..…………… (Equilibrium
equation) From the above equation, we can also find out the stress in the different
materials.

NOTES:
1. For the sake of simplicity, we have considered the composite bar made up
of two different materials only. But this principle may be extended for a bar
made up of more than two different materials also.
2. If the lengths of the two bars are different, then elongations should be

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 April 21, 2021 [STRUCTURES ONE: STRESS AND STRAIN ]

separately calculated and equated.

3. The ratio E1/E2 is known as modular ratio of the two materials and is
denoted by the letter m.
EXAMPLE 1.
1. A reinforced concrete column 500 mm × 500 mm in section is reinforced with 4 steel
bars of 25 mm diameter, one in each corner. The column is carrying a load of 1000 KN.
Find the stresses in the concrete and steel bars. Take E for steel = 210 KN/mm2 and E
for concrete = 14 KN/mm2.
SOLUTION.

Given: Area of column = 500 × 500 = 2, 50,000 mm2;

No. of steel bars (n) = 4;
Diameter of steel bars (d) = 25mm;
Load on column (P) = 1,000 KN = 1,000 × 103N;
Modulus of elasticity of steel (ES) = 210 KN/mm2 and
Modulus of elasticity of concrete (EC) = 14 KN/mm2.
Let σS = Stress in steel, and
σC = Stress in concrete.
AS=4x𝜋𝐷24=4 x 𝜋4 (25)2. =1963.5mm2.
Ac=250000-1963.5=248036.5mm2.
We also know that stress in steel,
σS =𝐸𝑆/𝐸𝐶𝑥𝜎𝑐=210/14𝑥𝜎𝑐=15𝜎𝑐 and
Total load (P), 1,000 × 103 = (σS x AS) + (σC x AC)
= (15 σC × 1963.5) + (σC × 248 036.5)
= 277 489 σC
σC =1000𝑥103277489
σC =3.6N/mm2. and
σS = 15 σC
= 15 × 3.6
σS = 54N/mm2.

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