Lenses

A lens is any glass, plastic or transparent refractive medium with two opposite faces,
and at least one of the faces must be curved.

Types of Lenses
There are two types of basic lenses.

(1.) Converging/ Convex Lenses – These lenses are thicker in the middle than at the
edge, and cause parallel beams of light to converge.
(2.) 1-human eye
2-camera
3-microscopes
4-telescope
Magnifying glasses and eyeglasses for far-sighted people.

(3.) Diverging/ Concave Lenses – These lenses are thinner in the middle, than at the
edge and cause parallel beams of light to diverge.
1-laser
2-binocular
3-flashlights
4-(CD,DVD players for example)
Eye glasses,to correct near sightedness.
Optical Centre (c) – This is the point in the lens, through which all rays will pass without
any deviation.

Principal Axis – This is an imaginary line which is perpendicular to the optical centre
which passes through the lens.

Principal Focus (F):

(a.) Principal Focus of a Convex Lens – This is the point on the principal axis to which
parallel rays converge after refraction by the lens.
(F is real)

(b.) Principal Focus of a Concave Lens – This is the point on the principal axis from a
parallel beam of light where it appears to come from on leaving the lens.

(F is virtual)
Focal Length (f) – This is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus.
Since light can come from either side of a diverging or converging lens they have two
principal foci and two focal lengths, one on either side of the lens.
Focal Plane – This is the plane which is perpendicular to the principal axis and passes
through the principal focus.
If a parallel beam of light passing through the lens is not parallel to the
principal axis, it will still be brought to a focus; however the focus would not be on the
principal axis, but will be on the focal plane of the lens.

Linear Magnification (m) – This is the factor by which the size of the object has been
magnified by the lens in a direction which is perpendicular to the axis of the lens. Linear
magnification can be calculated by using the equations:

m= image height = I OR image distance = v

object height O object distance u

3.

Lenses

Magnification v/u Effect on Image Compared to Object

greater than 1 magnified

equal to 1 equal size
less than 1 diminished

Images

Difference between Real and Virtual Images

Virtual Image Real Image

The image is observed at a The image is formed where the
point from which rays seem to light rays actually meet.
come from (no light rays
actually pass through this
imaginary point).
No image is obtained on a An image will be formed on a
screen placed at this point. screen placed at this point.
 Virtual Image Produced by Real Images Focused on
A magnifying glass placed
close to an object.
Cinema screen (source projector)
Plane mirror. The film of a camera.
The retina of the eye.
Spectacles used for correcting
short sightedness.
Microscope (compound)
http://microscopy.berkeley.edu/courses/tlm/cm
pd/cmpd.html

Differences between Real and Virtual Images formed by Lenses

Virtual Images Real Images

Cannot be formed on a screen. May be formed on a screen.
Are not formed by the intersection of Are formed by the intersection of real
real rays. rays.
They are erect. Are inverted.
Are on the same side of the lens as the
object. Are on the opposite side of the lens.

5.
Ray Diagrams

Constructive Ray Diagrams for Convex Lens

Constructive Ray Diagrams for Concave Lens

Lenses

Examples: (1.) An object 6cm high is placed 20cm away from a converging lens of focal
length 8cm. Find a scale, drawing the position, size and nature of the image; the object
should be drawn at right angles to the principal axis.

(2.) An object 2cm high is placed 10cm away from a converging lens of
focal length 5cm. Draw a ray diagram of how the image is formed, and find the position
and height of the image.

(3.) An object 1cm tall is placed 25cm away from a converging lens, with
a focal length of 20cm. Find by a scale drawing the position and size of the image
formed.
 (4.) An object 4cm tall is placed 30cm away from a converging lens, with
a focal length of 20cm. Use a ray diagram to describe the image formed.

Lens Formula:
The lens formula is given by the equation.

1 1 1
+ =
u v f
The linear magnification m of a lens is the ratio of the image height to the object height.

h2 v
m= =
Lenses h1 u

Example: A building is 6m high, and it is 80m from a converging camera lens. If the
camera forms an image which is 6mm high, (a) What is the magnification;
(b) How far must the camera film be
behind the lens for the image to be formed.

object = 6m (6 000mm)
image = 6mm
distance = 80m (80 000mm)

(a) magnification = I = 6 = o.oo1

O 6000

(b) mag. = v
U
o.oo1 = v
80 000
v = o.oo1 x 80 000mm = 80mm

Power of Lens (F)

When a lens is powerful it deviates rays more precisely. It will converge (or diverge)
parallel rays to (or from) a focus in a short distance (a powerful lens will have a short
focal length).
F= 1
f (always in meters)
The power of lens is measured in dioptres (D).
1D is the power of the lens, of focal length 1 (Diverging lens have a negative power)
The Lens Formula
 1 1 1
= +
f u v

N.B. When using the lens formula distances to real objects and images are given positive
values, whereas distances to virtual objects are given negative values.

(2.) A converging lens with a power of +3.0D, is used in a pair of spectacles.

Calculate: (a.) Its focal length; (b.) The position of the image formed, if an object is 25cm
from its optical centre.

a.
1
F=
f

1
f=
F

1
f= m
3

1 1 1
b. = +
f u v

1 1
3= +
u 0.25

1 1
3− =
0.25 u

1
-1 =
u
-1 = u

(b.) Image is virtual, erect 1m on the same side of the lens as the object is magnified by
4.125
(3.) A diverging lens has a power of -2.0D, calculate, (a.)focal length; (b.) the position
and nature of the image it forms, of an object 2m away from it.

a.
 1
F=
f

1
f=
F

1
f= m
−2

1 1 1
b. = +
f u v

1 1
−2= +
2 v

1 1
−2− =
2 v

1 1
-2 =
2 v
-0.4 m = v

(b.) The image is virtual, and erect. 0.4m on the same side of the lens as the object is.
Diminished by 0.2.

The Eye
 Diagram of The Eye

Cornea – This is the tough transparent part of the eye, found at the front of the eye.
Sclera – This is the white, tough part of the eye.
Iris – This is the coloured part of the eye, which surrounds the pupil controlling the
amount of light entering the eye.
Pupil – The pupil is the dark hole in the middle of the eye, it allows the eye to adjust to
different light intensities.
Lens – The lens is a bi-concave converging lens of a jelly-like, flexible and transparent
material.
ciliary muscles –The ciliary muscles change the size of the lens, to focus on far and near
objects, by the process accommodation.
Retina – This is the light sensitive part of the eye, and is made up of rods and cones. This
is where the images are formed.
Choroid – This supplies the eye with blood, and reduces reflection within the eye.

Eye Defects
Long Sight or hyperopia– In some people the eyeball is shorter from back to front than is
usual; in others, the lens is too flat. Light from a distant object can be focused on to the
retina, but from a close object the focus is behind the retina, because the rays are not bent
enough. Wearing convex lenses can help these people to overcome this eye defect,
known as long sight.

Short Sight or myopia – If the lens is too curved, or the eyeball is too deep from the
cornea to the retina, the rays from a distant object are bent more than necessary. The
image is thus formed in the jelly in front of the retina, and is blurred by the time it
reaches the retina. Persons with this eye defect are said to be shortsighted. Wearing
concave lenses helps the individual to see far objects clearly.

Cameras
Comparing The Lens of a Camera to The Human Eye

Eye Pinhole Camera Lens Camera

Type of lens converging none converging
Change of lens:
Method of thicker for near All distances focused Lens move from the
focusing objects if pinhole is small film for near objects.
a) iris a) hole size a) iris diaphragm
b) sensitivity of b) exposure b)exposure time or
Light control the retina c) sensitivity of the shutter speed
film c) sensitivity of the
film

Pinhole Camera
Facts:
1.) The image is inverted.
2.) No focusing is required.
3.) A larger pinhole gives a brighter image, but less distinct.
4.) A longer pinhole camera gives a larger image, but it is less bright.
5.) The image is said to be a real image, because it is formed by rays of light on a screen.
6.) A virtual image is one you cannot touch.

Periscope

The periscope helps to see around corners; they are used in submarines. In the periscope
the reflecting surfaces are facing each other, and are parallel but are set so the that the
angles incidence and reflection will be 45°, turning the ray of light through 90° at each
mirror.

Accommodation
Accommodation (Acc) is the process by which the vertebrate eye changes optical
power to maintain a clear image or focus on an object as its distance varies.
Accommodation acts like a reflex, but can also be consciously controlled. Mammals,
birds and reptiles vary the optical power by changing the form of the elastic lens using
the ciliary body (in humans up to 15 diopters). Fish and amphibians vary the power by
changing the distance between a rigid lens and the retina with muscles.[1]

Astigmatism
Astigmatism is an optical defect in which vision is blurred due to the inability of the
optics of the eye to focus a point object into a sharp focused image on the retina. This
may be due to an irregular or toric curvature of the cornea or lens. The two types of
astigmatism are regular and irregular. Irregular astigmatism is often caused by a
corneal scar or scattering in the crystalline lens, and cannot be corrected by standard
spectacle lenses, but can be corrected by contact lenses. The more common regular
astigmatism arising from either the cornea or crystalline lens can be corrected
by eyeglasses or toric lenses. A 'toric' surface resembles a section of the surface of
a Rugby ball or a doughnut where there are two regular radii, one smaller than the other
one. This optical shape gives rise to astigmatism in the eye.[1]
The refractive error of the astigmatic eye stems from a difference in degree of
curvature refraction of the two different meridians (i.e., the eye has different focal points
in different planes). For example, the image may be clearly focused on the retina in the
horizontal plane, but not in the vertical plane. Astigmatism causes difficulties in seeing
fine detail resulting in blurred vision. Three options exist for the treatment of
astigmatism: spectacles, contact lenses (either hard contact lenses or toric contact lenses),
and refractive surgery.

Cataract
A cataract is a clouding of the lens inside the eye which leads to a decrease in vision. It
is the most common cause of blindness and is conventionally treated with surgery. Visual
loss occurs because opacification of the lens obstructs light from passing and being
focused on to theretina at the back of the eye.[1]
It is most commonly due to biological aging but there are a wide variety of other causes.
Over time, yellow-brown pigment is deposited within the lens and this, together with
disruption of the normal architecture of the lens fibers, leads to reduced transmission of
light, which in turn leads to visual problems.
Those with cataracts commonly experience difficulty in appreciating colors and changes
in contrast, driving, reading, recognizing faces, and coping with glare from bright lights.
[2]

Depth of focus
Depth of focus is a lens optics concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the
image plane (the film plane in a camera) in relation to the lens. In a camera, depth of
focus indicates the tolerance of the film's displacement within the camera, and is
therefore sometimes referred to as "lens-to-film tolerance."