1/28/2024

Bell Coleman/ Reversed Brayton /

CHAPTER -2 Reversed Joule Cycle
qrej
Isobaric Heat
Rejection
qrej
Isobaric Heat
Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration Cycle
• Reciprocating compressor (index of compression < ϒ)
Rejection 2
3 2
wc wc
• For expansion Expender is also reciprocating
Isentropic Isentropic

• Low speed machines for compression and expansion

Gas Cycle Refrigeration
Compression T 3 Compression
P

we
Isentropic 1

and
we
Expansion qabs
Isentropic 1

Reversed Brayton/ Reversed Joule Cycle

4 qabs 4
Expansion Isobaric Heat
Isobaric Heat Absorption
Absorption

• Rotary compressor (index of compression > ϒ) mainly

Aircraft Refrigeration
V S

Theoretical Bell Coleman/ Reversed Brayton / Reversed Joule Cycle centrifugal or axial flow type
• Two isobaric (constant pressure) heat interaction processes

& Air conditioning (Heat Absorption and Heat Rejection)

• Two isentropic (Reversible Adiabatic) Compression processes
• For expansion Gas/Air Turbine/Motor is also rotary
• High speed machines for compression and expansion
• Representation on property diagrams is same for Bell Colman and
1
Reversed Brayton/Reversed Joule Cycle 2 3
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

qrej
qrej
Isobaric Heat
Isobaric Heat
Rejection 2
Rejection
3 2 wc
wc Isentropic
Isentropic Compression
T 3
Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration Cycle (BCG/AR Cycle) P
Compression
Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration System (BCG/ARS)
we
Isentropic 1
we Expansion
4 qabs
Isentropic 4 qabs 1
Isobaric Heat
Expansion Isobaric Heat Absorption
Absorption

V S

Theoretical Closed/Dense Type Bell Coleman/ Reversed Brayton / Reversed Joule Cycle
qrej
qrej
Isobaric Heat
Isobaric Heat
Rejection
Rejection 2
3 2

Open Type Open Type

wc wc

Closed/ Dense Type Isentropic

Compression T 3
Isentropic
Compression Closed/ Dense Type
BCG/AR Cycle BCG/ARS
P

BCG/AR Cycle BCG/ARS

we
Isentropic 1
we
Isentropic 1 Expansion qabs
4 qabs 4
Expansion Isobaric Heat
Isobaric Heat
Absorption
Absorption

V S

4 Theoretical Open Type Bell Coleman/ Reversed Brayton / Reversed Joule Cycle 5 6
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

Closed/ Dense Type Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration System Open Type Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration System
qREJ
qREJ Isobaric Heat
Isobaric Heat Rejection

Reversed Brayton Gas/Air Refrigeration System (RBG/ARS)

Rejection

3(3’) 3(3’)

GAS/AIR GAS/AIR
COOLER 2(2’) COOLER 2(2’)

qABS
Isobaric Heat qABS
4(4’) Isobaric Heat
Absorption 1 4(4’)
Absorption 1
RECIPROCATING
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSOR RECIPROCATING
EXPANDER RECIPROCATING
EXPANDER
COMPRESSOR
Closed/ Dense Type Open Type
wE
Isentropic/ Polytropic Specific COLD COOLING COIL wC
Isentropic/Polytropic Specific wE
RBG/ARS RBG/ARS
Work of Expansion CHAMBER
Work of Compression Isentropic/ Polytropic Specific wC
COLD
Work of Expansion Isentropic/Polytropic Specific Work
wNET
CHAMBER of Compression
PRIME Net Specific
MOVER Work Input wNET
Net Specific
PRIME
Work Input
MOVER

7 8 9
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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 1/28/2024

Closed/Dense Type Bell Coleman/ Reversed Brayton / Reversed Joule Cycle

Closed/ Dense Type Reversed Brayton Gas/ Air Refrigeration System Open Type Reversed Brayton Gas/ Air Refrigeration System
qREJ
qREJ Advantages
Isobaric Heat
Isobaric Heat
Rejection
Rejection
 Pressure of the lower side can be kept higher than atmospheric and due to
lesser specific volume, the size of the compressor and expander can be
decreased

3(3’) 2(2’) 3(3’) 2(2’)

i.e. at suction of compressor and discharge of expander, pressure higher
GAS/AIR
COOLER
GAS/AIR
COOLER
than atmospheric in closed cycle hence it become less bulky due to less
wNET
wNET
specific volume.
Specific Work
Specific Work
wT Input
Isentropic/ Polytropic Specific
GAS/AIR
TURBINE GAS/AIR PRIME wT
GAS/AIR
Input
 Once moist free air charged in closed type system will allow the operation
Work of Turbine MOVER Isentropic/ Polytropic Specific PRIME
COMPRESSOR
Work of Turbine
TURBINE GAS/AIR
COMPRESSOR MOVER of the system without any chocking as this air will not come directly in
contact with the products or atmospheric air i.e. Problem of chocking of
qABS
WC system is eliminated
Isentropic/Polytropic
Isobaric Heat WC
Specific Work of Compression qABS
Absorption
Isobaric Heat
Isentropic/Polytropic
Specific Work of Compression  Density of air at suction is more that’s why it is also called dense cycle
1 Absorption
4(4’)

4(4’)
1
Disadvantages
COLD
 Initial cost of the system is higher as cooling coil is required which puts
CHAMBER COOLING COIL
additional cost.
COLD
CHAMBER
10 11 12
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

Open Type Bell Coleman/ Reversed Brayton / Reversed Joule Cycle qrej
Isobaric Heat
Rejection Analysis of Bell Coleman Refrigeration Cycle
Disadvantages 3 2’ 2
wc
Isentropic qREJ
 Moisture coming out of the products and present in the ambient air/gas P
3’
Compression Isobaric Heat
Rejection
of the space mix with cold air/gas and can freeze at the exit of the
discharge valve of expander and cause clogging of the passage i.e. leading 3 2’ 2
wC
to chocking of the system. we
Isentropic 4 qabs
1
Isentropic
4’ 3’ Compression
Expansion Isobaric Heat
P
 Pressure at the lower side will be always equal to the ambient air/ gas Absorption

pressure hence large specific volume at suction of compressor and V

discharge of expander, thus leading to bulky compressor and expander.
Actual Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration Cycle (1-2’-3’-4’-1) wE
Isentropic
Advantages qrej
Expansion 4 4’ qABS
Isobaric Heat
1

Isobaric Heat Absorption

 Only three components (i.e. gas/air compressor, gas/air cooler and gas/ Rejection 2 2’

air expander/ turbine) are required. As the cold gas/air is directly enter wc
Isentropic
V

the space of cold chamber and directly taken out of the space of cold T 3 Compression
Actual Bell Coleman Gas/Air Refrigeration Cycle (1-2’-3’-4’-1)
chamber, so there is no need of cooling/ refrigerating coil (i.e. heat 3’

exchanger). we
Isentropic 1
In general (including pressure losses in both heat exchangers):
 Less weight compared to closed/ dense type system.
Expansion
4 4’ qabs
Isobaric Heat
Specific Work Input to Compressor (nC < γ):
Absorption
𝐧𝐂
 Less initial cost as only one heat exchanger (costly component) is 𝐰𝐂 = (𝐏 𝐯 − 𝐏𝟏 𝐯𝟏 )
𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝟐′ 𝟐′
S
required. Actual Brayton Gas/Air Refrigeration Cycle (1-2’-3’-4’-1)
13 14 15
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

Amount of Energy Absorbed as Heat per kg with or without Cooling Coil:

𝐧𝐂 𝐧𝐄
Specific Work Input to Expander (nE < γ): 𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐦̇ 𝐏 ′ 𝐯 ′ − 𝐏𝟏 𝐯𝟏 − (𝐏 𝐯 − 𝐏𝟒′ 𝐯𝟒′ )
𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝟑′ 𝟑′ 𝐪𝐀𝐁𝐒 = 𝐂𝐩(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ )
𝐧𝐄
𝐰𝐄 = (𝐏 𝐯 − 𝐏𝟒′ 𝐯𝟒′)
𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝟑′ 𝟑′ Apply Gas Law (Pv = RT): Cooling Capacity (C.C.) of the System or Rate of Energy Absorbed as Heat by the
System with or without Cooling Coil (Closed Type or Open Type System):
𝐧𝐂 𝐧𝐄
Net Specific Work to run the System: 𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐦̇ 𝐑𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐑𝐓𝟏 − 𝐑𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐑𝐓𝟒′
𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝐐̇𝐀𝐁𝐒 = 𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ )
wNET = wC - wE
𝐧𝐂 𝐧𝐄 Rate of Energy Rejected as Heat by the System with or without Cooling Coil (Closed
𝐧𝐂 𝐧𝐄 𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐦̇𝐑 𝐓 ′ − 𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓 ′ − 𝐓𝟒′ Type or Open Type System):
𝐰𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐏 ′ 𝐯 ′ − 𝐏𝟏 𝐯𝟏 − (𝐏 𝐯 − 𝐏𝟒′ 𝐯𝟒′) 𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝟑
𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝟑′ 𝟑′
𝐐̇𝐑𝐄𝐉 = 𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟑′ )
Net Power Required to run the System: 𝐂𝐩
Using relationship, 𝐑 = 𝐂 𝛄−𝟏
= 𝐂𝐩 − 𝐂𝐯 and 𝛄 =
𝐩 𝛄 𝐂𝐯 Coefficient of Performance for Bell Coleman Refrigeration (Cooling) System:

𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐖̇𝐂 − 𝐖̇𝐄 = 𝐦̇(𝐰𝐂 − 𝐰𝐄 ) 𝛄−𝟏 𝐧𝐂 𝐧𝐄

𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 𝐓 ′ − 𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓 ′ − 𝐓𝟒′ 𝐐̇𝐀𝐁𝐒
𝛄 𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝟑 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 =
16 17
𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 18
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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 1/28/2024

We know that
For Theoretical Bell Coleman Refrigeration (Cooling) Cycle:
𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ ) 𝛄−𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 = nC = nE = γ (Isentropic Compression and Expansion) 𝐓𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝛄
𝛄−𝟏 𝐧𝐂 𝐧𝐄 (Achieved by insulating the Cylinders of Compressor and Expander) =
𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓 ′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓 − 𝐓𝟒′ ) 𝐓𝟏 𝐏𝟏
𝛄 𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏 𝟑′
Also there are No Pressure Losses in both Heat Exchangers
Therefore, 𝛄−𝟏
For Practical Bell Coleman Refrigeration (Cooling) Cycle: 𝐓𝟑 𝐏𝟑
Coefficient of Performance for Theoretical Bell Coleman 𝛄
nC < γ (Achieved by circulating Cooling Medium during =
Refrigeration (Cooling) Cycle: 𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟒
Compression)
and nE = γ (Achieved by insulating the Cylinder of Expander) (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒) As P4 = P1 and P3 = P2
Therefore, 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
{ (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏) − (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟒 )} 𝐓𝟑 𝐏𝟐
Coefficient of Performance for Practical Bell Coleman 𝛄
=
Refrigeration (Cooling) Cycle: 𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟏
𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ ) (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒)
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑𝐏𝐫. = 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝛄−𝟏 𝐧𝐂
𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ ) 𝐓 𝐓 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒)
𝛄 𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐 − 𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 𝐓𝟑 − 𝟏 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝟏 𝟒 𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
𝐓𝟏 −𝐓𝟒′ 𝐏𝟐 𝛄 𝐏𝟐 𝛄
𝐓𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 − 𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑𝐏𝐫. = 𝐧𝐂
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟏
𝛄−𝟏
𝛄 𝐧𝐂−𝟏
𝐓 ′ − 𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓 ′ − 𝐓 ′
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 19 20 21
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 ) For Actual Bell Coleman Refrigeration (Cooling) Cycle:

𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
𝐏𝟐 𝛄 The actual COP can be best determined by conducting actual experimental
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 ) − 𝟏 tests. However if we neglect the losses in the Cold Chamber and consider the
𝐏𝟏 𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = mechanical efficiencies of compressor and expander into account, the actual COP
𝛄−𝟏
𝟏 will be written as follows:
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝐏𝟑 𝛄
𝛄−𝟏 𝐏𝟒 − 𝟏 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ )
𝐏𝟐 𝛄 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐀𝐜𝐭. =
− 𝟏 𝛄−𝟏 𝐧𝐂 𝟏 𝛄−𝟏 𝐧𝐄
𝐏𝟏 (𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ )𝛈𝐦 𝐞𝐱𝐩
𝛄 𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝛈𝐦𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩 𝛄 𝐧𝐄 − 𝟏
𝟏
𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏 Theoretical Piston Displacement of Compressor:
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏 𝐫𝐩 𝛄 − 𝟏 The quantity/ volume of the gas/air handled per unit time by the
𝐫𝐩 𝛄 − 𝟏 compressor at the suction is called Theoretical Piston Displacement (Th. P.D.) of
compressor.
𝟏
𝟏 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑𝐓𝐡. = Commonly used Units : m3/min or cmm (cubic metre per minute)
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝐓𝟑
𝐓𝟐 − 𝟏 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟏
− 𝟏 𝐓𝟒
𝐓𝟏 (𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 = 𝐕̇𝟏 = 𝐦̇ 𝐯𝟏 =
𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟏
𝐓𝟏 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟒) (𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟏
(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
(𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 = =
𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂 𝐏𝟏 𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂
22 23 24
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

Theoretical Piston Displacement of Expander:

Where 𝐕̇𝟏 = Volume flow rate of gas/air at suction of compressor The quantity/ volume of the gas/air handled per unit time by the Where 𝐕̇𝟒 = Volume flow rate of gas/air at discharge of expander
expander at the discharge is called Theoretical Piston Displacement (Th. P.D.) of 𝐦̇ = Mass flow rate of gas/air in the system, kg/min.
𝐦̇ = Mass flow rate of gas/air in the system, kg/min. expander.
𝐯̇ 𝟒 = Specific volume of gas/air at discharge of expander, 𝐦𝟑 /𝐤𝐠
𝐯̇ 𝟏 = Specific volume of gas/air at suction of compressor, 𝐦𝟑 /𝐤𝐠 Commonly used Units : m3/min or cmm (cubic metre per minute)
𝐓𝟒 = Temp. of gas/air at discharge of expander, K
𝐓𝟏 = Temp. of gas/air at suction of compressor, K
𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟒 = Pressure of gas/air at discharge of expander, kPa
𝐏𝟏 = Pressure of gas/air at suction of compressor, kPa (𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 = 𝐕̇𝟒 = 𝐦̇ 𝐯𝟒 =
𝐏𝟒 R = Gas Constant of Gas/Air, for Air R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
R = Gas Constant of Gas/Air, for Air R = 0.287 kJ/kg K (𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟒
(𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 = = (𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )
𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐄 𝐏𝟒𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐄 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 =
(𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )
Actual Piston displacement of reciprocating compressor
Actual Piston displacement of reciprocating compressor For Speed of Electric Motor
𝛑 𝟐
(𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 = 𝐜𝐜 𝐧′𝐂 𝐃 𝐋𝐍 𝛑 𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐟
𝟒 𝐜 𝐜 𝐜 (𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 = 𝐜𝐄 𝐧′𝐄 𝐃 𝐋 𝐍 𝐍=
Where 𝐜𝐜 = number of cylinders of compressor 𝟒 𝐄 𝐄 𝐄 𝐩
Where
Where 𝐜𝐄 = number of cylinders of expander
𝐧′𝐂 = 1 for Single Acting and 2 for Double Acting compressor f is frequency in cycles per sec. (cps) or Hz (Herts)
25
𝐧𝐄′ = 1 for Single Acting and 2 for Double Acting expander
26 27
p is number of poles of electric motor
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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Analysis of Reversed Brayton Gas/Air Cycle Specific Work Input to Gas/Air Turbine (polytropic expansion with nT > γ): Amount of Energy Absorbed as Heat per kg with or without Cooling Coil:
qrej
Isobaric 𝐰𝐓 = 𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ ) 𝐪𝐀𝐁𝐒 = 𝐂𝐩(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ )
Heat 2 2’
Rejection
wc Net Specific Work to run the System:
Isentropic
T 3 Compression
wNET = wC - wE Cooling Capacity (C.C.) of the System or Rate of Energy Absorbed as Heat by the
System with or without Cooling Coil (Closed Type or Open Type System):
3’
wT
𝐰𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏) − 𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ )
Isentropic 1 𝐐̇𝐀𝐁𝐒 = 𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ )
Expansion qabs
4 4’
Isobaric Net Power Required to run the System: Rate of Energy Rejected as Heat by the System with or without Cooling Coil (Closed
Heat
Absorption Type or Open Type System):
S
Actual Brayton Gas/Air Refrigeration Cycle (1-2’-3’-4’-1) 𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐖̇𝐂 − 𝐖̇𝐓 = 𝐦̇(𝐰𝐂 − 𝐰𝐓 ) 𝐐̇𝐑𝐄𝐉 = 𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟑′ )
In general (including pressure losses in both heat exchangers):
𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 = 𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 {(𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ )} Coefficient of Performance for Reversed Brayton Refrigeration (Cooling) System:
Specific Work Input to Gas/ Air Compressor (polytropic compression with nC > γ):

𝐰𝐂 = 𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) 𝐐̇𝐀𝐁𝐒
Gas/Air Compressor used here is generally non positive displacement type e.g. Centrifugal or axial 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 =
flow compressor 28 29
𝐖̇𝐍𝐄𝐓 30
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ ) Where T2 and T4 can be found from the following: For Theoretical Reversed Brayton Gas/Air Cycle:
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 =
𝐦̇𝐂𝐩 {(𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ )} 𝛄−𝟏 nC = nE = γ (Isentropic Compression and Expansion)
𝐓𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝛄
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒′ ) = Also there are No Pressure Losses in both Heat Exchangers
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 = 𝐓𝟏 𝐏𝟏
{(𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏) − (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ )}
𝛄−𝟏
𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟒 𝛄 Therefore,
T2’ and T4’ can be determined using the following: =
𝐓𝟑′ 𝐏𝟑′ Coefficient of Performance for Theoretical Reversed Brayton
(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) Gas/Air Cycle:
𝛈𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐂 = If nC and nT are known/given then T2’ and T4’ can be determined
(𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏)
using the following: (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 )
(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝐓𝟐′ = 𝐓𝟏 + 𝐧𝐂 −𝟏
{ (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟒 )}
𝛈𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐂 𝐓𝟐′ 𝐏𝟐′ 𝐧𝐂
=
(𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒′ ) 𝐓𝟏 𝐏𝟏
𝛈𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐓 = (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 )
(𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒) 𝐧𝐄 −𝟏 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. =
𝐓𝟒′ 𝐏𝟒′ 𝐧𝐄 𝐓 𝐓
𝐓𝟒′ = 𝐓𝟑′ − 𝛈𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐓 (𝐓𝟑′ − 𝐓𝟒) = 𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐 − 𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 𝐓𝟑 − 𝟏
𝐓𝟑′ 𝐏𝟑′ 𝟏 𝟒

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Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

We know that (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 )

𝛄−𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
𝐓𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝛄 𝐏𝟐 𝛄
= (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 ) − 𝟏 𝟏
𝐓𝟏 𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
𝟏 𝐏𝟑 𝛄
𝛄−𝟏 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. = 𝐏𝟒 − 𝟏
𝛄−𝟏
𝐓𝟑 𝐏𝟑 𝛄 𝐏𝟐 𝛄
= − 𝟏
𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟒 𝐏𝟏 𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
As P4 = P1 and P3 = P2 𝟏 𝐫𝐩 𝛄 − 𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
𝛄−𝟏
𝐓𝟑 𝐏𝟐 𝛄 𝐫𝐩 𝛄 − 𝟏
= 𝟏
𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟏 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝐓𝟑
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. =
𝟏 𝐓𝟒 − 𝟏
𝐓𝟐
− 𝟏 𝐓𝟒
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒) 𝐓𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 𝐓𝐡. =
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟒)
𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏 𝐓𝟏
𝐏𝟐 𝛄 𝐏𝟐 𝛄 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. =
𝐓𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 − 𝟏 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟏
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Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

4
 1/28/2024

Comparison Between 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑𝐓𝐡. 𝐨𝐫 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. and 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐂𝐑 NUMERICAL

OPTIMUM PRESSURE RATIO A dense air refrigeration system operates between pressure limits of 2 bar and 8 bar. The
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟒
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. 𝐨𝐫 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. = = 𝟏 temperature of air at inlet to compressor is – 3oC and temperature at inlet to expander is
(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟒 ) 27 C. The compression takes place by the law pv1.2 = constant and expansion is assumed
o
𝐓𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. 𝐨𝐫 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑 𝐓𝐡. = 𝛄−𝟏
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐂𝐑 = to be isentropic. The mechanical efficiency of compressor and expander may taken as
(𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟏 ) 𝐫𝐩 𝛄 − 𝟏 90% each. Determine the size of compressor and expander taking bore equal to stroke to
𝐓𝟏 produce 2000 kg of ice per day from water at 15oC to ice at – 10oC. Assume latent heat of
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝐡. 𝐨𝐫 𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐑𝐁𝐑𝐓𝐡. (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟏 )
𝛈𝐁𝐂𝐑/𝐑𝐁𝐑 = = = P2’’ ice to be 335 kJ/kg and specific heat of ice to be 2.09 kJ/kg K. The volumetric efficiency
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐂𝐑 𝐓𝟏 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) of compressor and expander may be considered 85%. The compressor and expander are
(𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟏 ) 2’’
P2 rp COP double acting running at 300 rpm. The useful refrigeration effect is considered as 80% of
2 P2’
1 ∞ the theoretical refrigeration effect. Also calculate the COP of the system.
2
+ Δw
Atmospheric/Ambient T
P2min 2 4.56 Given : P1 = 2 bar = 200 kPa; P2 = 8 bar = 800 kPa; T1 = – 3oC = - 3 + 273 = 270 K
Atmospheric/Ambient T 2’
3 Temp. (Fixed or known) 3’’ 3 3’ 3 2.71
Temp. (Fixed or known) 2’ P1 T3 = 27oC = 27 + 273 = 300 K; nC = 1.2; nE = γ = 1.4 (for Air)
2min 4 2.05
4’ 5 1.72 ηmC = ηmE = 90% = 0.9; DC = L C; DE = LE;
1
4’ 1
Desired Temp. 𝐧′𝐂 =𝐧′𝐄 = 𝟐;
Desired Temp. 4’’ 6 1.5
(Fixed or known) 4 (Fixed or known) 4 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
+ Δw = - Δq 𝐦̇𝐢𝐜𝐞 = 2000 kg/day = 𝟐𝟒 ×𝟔𝟎 = 1.3889 kg/min.
Tw = 15oC; Tice = - 10oC

S S hice = 335 kJ/kg ; Cpice = 2.09 kJ/kg K ; ηvol.C = ηvol.E = 85% = 0.85
Carnot Refrigeration cycle (1-2’-3-4’-1)
Bell Colman/Brayton Refrigeration Cycle (1-2-3-4-1) NC = NE = 300 rpm; (R.E.)useful = 80 %(R.E.)th. = 0.8(R.E.)th.
37 38 39
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

Required: Dc = Lc = ? DE = LE = ? 𝛄−𝟏
Assume Cpw = 4.1868 kJ/kg ; Cpa = 1.005 kJ/kg; R = 0.287 kJ/kg; and γ = 1.4 𝐓𝟒 𝐏𝟒 𝛄
=
COPBCR = ? (R.E.)useful = 𝐦̇𝐢𝐜𝐞 𝐂𝐩𝐰 (𝐓𝐰 − 𝟎) + 𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐞 + 𝐂𝐩𝐢𝐜𝐞 (𝟎 − 𝐓𝐢𝐜𝐞 ) 𝐓𝟑 𝐏𝟑
qREJ 𝟏.𝟒−𝟏
Solution: Isobaric Heat = 1.3889{4.1868(15 – 0) + 335 + 2.09(0 – (-10)} 𝟐 𝟏.𝟒
Rejection
𝐓𝟒 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × (𝟎. 𝟐𝟓)𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟗 = 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟕 𝐊
𝟖
3 = 1.3889(62.802 + 335 + 20.9) = 581.5352 kJ/min
qrej
Isobaric Heat
(R.E.)th. = 𝐦̇𝐚 𝐂𝐩𝐚 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒 )
Rejection
GAS/AIR (R.E.)useful = 80 %(R.E.)th. = 0.8(R.E.)th.
COOLER 2’ 3 2’ 𝟕𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝟏𝟗 𝟕𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝟏𝟗
wc 𝐦̇𝐚 = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝐢𝐧.
qABS (𝐑. 𝐄. )𝐭𝐡. 𝟓𝟖𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝟓𝟐 polyropic
Compression nC < γ
𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × (𝟐𝟕𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟕) 𝟔𝟖. 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟔
4 Isobaric Heat
Absorption
1 (𝐑. 𝐄. )𝐭𝐡. = = P

RECIPROCATING RECIPROCATING
𝟎. 𝟖 𝟎. 𝟖 (𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟏 𝛑
EXPANDER COMPRESSOR (𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 = = = 𝐜𝐜 𝐧′𝐂 𝐃𝟐𝐜 𝐋𝐜 𝐍𝐜
= 𝟕𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝟏𝟗 𝐤𝐉/𝐦𝐢𝐧 we
𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂 𝐏𝟏 𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂 𝟒
Isentropic 4 1
wE qabs
Isentropic Specific Work of COLD COOLING COIL wC 𝐧𝐂 −𝟏 Expansion Isobaric Heat 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟔𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟕 × 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝟐𝟐
Expansion CHAMBER Polytropic Specific Work of
Compression
𝐓𝟐′ 𝐏𝟐′ 𝐧𝐂 Absorption = 𝟏×𝟐× × 𝐃𝟑𝐜 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
wNET = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝟕×𝟒
PRIME Net Specific 𝐓𝟏 𝐏𝟏 V
MOVER Work Input 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟔
= 𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 × 𝐃𝟑𝐜
𝟏𝟕𝟎
𝟏.𝟐−𝟏
𝟖 𝟏.𝟐
𝐓𝟐′ = 𝟐𝟕𝟎 × = 𝟐𝟕𝟎 × (𝟒)𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝟑 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟔 𝟑 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟔 𝟑
𝟐 𝐃𝐜 = = = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟑) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝐦
𝟏𝟕𝟎 × 𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟒
= 𝟐𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟗 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑 𝐊
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Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

(𝐓𝐡. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟒 𝛑 𝟐 𝛑 𝟑
(𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 = = = 𝐜𝐄 𝐧𝐄′ 𝐃 𝐋 𝐍 = 𝐜𝐄 𝐧𝐄′ 𝐃 𝐍
𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐄 𝐏𝟒 𝟒 𝐄 𝐄 𝐄 𝟒 𝐄 𝐄
𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟏
𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟔𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟕 × 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟕 𝟐𝟐 (𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐂 𝐏𝛈
= 𝟏×𝟐× × 𝐃𝟑𝐄 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂
𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝟕×𝟒

Aircraft Refrigeration
(𝐀𝐜𝐭. 𝐏. 𝐃. )𝐄 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟒
𝟔𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟗 𝐏𝟒 𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂
= 𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 × 𝐃𝐜𝟑
𝟏𝟕𝟎 For NC=NE; LC=DC;LE=DE; ηC=ηE and P1=P4

&
𝛑 𝟐 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟏
𝟑 𝟔𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟗 𝟑 𝟔𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟗
𝟒 𝐃𝐂 𝐋𝐂 𝐍𝐂 = 𝐏𝟏 𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂
𝟑
𝐃𝐄 = = = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟕) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟓 𝐦
𝟏𝟕𝟎 × 𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟒 𝛑 𝟐 𝐦̇𝐑𝐓𝟒
𝟒 𝐃𝐄 𝐋𝐄 𝐍𝐄 𝐏𝟒 𝛈𝐯𝐨𝐥.𝐂
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟒)

Air conditioning
𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐜𝐭. =
𝛄−𝟏 𝐧𝐂 𝟏 𝐃𝐂 𝟑 𝐓𝟏
(𝐓𝟐′ − 𝐓𝟏 ) − (𝐓𝟑 − 𝐓𝟒 )𝛈𝐦𝐞𝐱𝐩 =
𝛄 𝐧𝐂 − 𝟏 𝛈𝐦𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩 𝐃𝐄 𝐓𝟒

(𝟐𝟕𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟕)

𝐂𝐎𝐏𝐁𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐜𝐭. =
𝟏. 𝟒 − 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟐 𝟏
(𝟑𝟒𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟎) − {(𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟕)𝟎. 𝟗}
𝟏. 𝟒 𝟏. 𝟐 − 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟗
𝟔𝟖. 𝟏𝟑 𝟔𝟖. 𝟏𝟑 𝟔𝟖. 𝟏𝟑
= = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟕
𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟏 − 𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟕 𝟒𝟓. 𝟑𝟑𝟗𝟏
𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕 × 𝟔 × 𝟕𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑 × − 𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟕
𝟎. 𝟗
43 44 45
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM (ECS) FOR AIRCRAFT DESIGN CONDITIONS FOR HVAC APPLICATIONS IN AIRCRAFT
Variation of Atomspheric Temperature with Altitude  In flight , the ambient air may be
 Systems and equipment associated with  Extremely Cold,
 Ventilation  Extremely Dry, and
 Heating  Contain High Levels of Ozone
-88oC Ionosphere/Exosphere/ Thermosphere
 Cooling  On ground, the ambient air may be
85 km  Humidity/Contamination Control and  Hot,
Mesosphere  Pressurization  Humid, and
in  Contain many Pollutants such as
Altitude

10oC  Occupied Compartments,  Particulate Matter,

50 km
 Cargo Compartments, and  Aerosols, and
 Electronic Equipment Bays  Hydrocarbons
Stratosphere  Other functions of ECS often are  These conditions change quickly from ground operations to flight.
15 km
-65oC
For every 100 m rise above sea  Windshield Defog  A hot day, high humidity ground condition usually dictates the thermal
level, Atoms. Temp. decreases
Troposphere by approx. – 0.64oC in
Troposphere
 Airfoil Anti-ice capacity of air conditioning equipment, and
15oC
Sea Level  Oxygen Systems, and  Flight conditions determine the supply air compressor’s capacity.
(0 km)
-85oC -70oC -55oC -40oC -25oC -10oC 5oC 20oC  Pneumatic Demands  Maximum heating requirements can be determined either cold day ground or
Atmospheric Temperature flight operations.
46 47 48
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

 ECS should provide a comfortable environment for the passengers and crew.

 Aircraft systems must be

 Low in mass

 Accessible for quick inspection and servicing

 Highly reliable

 Able to withstand aircraft vibratory and maneuver loads, and

 Able to compensate for various possible system failures.

49 FIG. AMBIENT TEMPERATURE PROFILES 50

FIG. DESIGN HUMIDY RATIO 51
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

RAMMING EFFECT

Ua
Speed of Aircraft K.E. ----> Pressure Energy
High speed air strikes and becomes stagnant (zero speed)

Aircraft
Process treated as Adiabatic as occurring very - very fast
C.V.

0 1(1’)
1 – Isentropic Ramming/Stagnation/Compression
Atm. Air Ram Air
1’ – Polytropic (Actual) Ramming/Stagnation/compression

Applying the energy balance to control volume,

Ua2
h0 + = h1 = h1′
2
Ua2
Cpa T0 + = Cpa T1 = Cpa T1′
2
Ua2
T1 = T1′ = T0 +
2Cpa

FIG. CABIN PRESSURE VERSUS ALTITUDE 52 53

where T 1 and T1’ are in K; Ua in m/s and Cpa in J/kgK (1005 J/kgK or approx. 1000 J/kgKfor Air)
54
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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Cpa
HEAT (HEATING/ COOLING i.e. AIR CONDITIONING) LOAD DETERMINATION
Cpa − Cva = R and γ =
Cva For Isentropic compression/Ramming/Stagnation The cooling and heating loads involves heat transfer due to following factors:-
Cpa =
γR γ−1 External Factors:
γ−1 T1 P1 γ
=  Convection between boundary layer and the outer aircraft skin.
Sonic velocity or Sound velocity or Accoustic velocity; a = γRT0 T0 P0
Ua
 Radiation between the outer aircraft skin and the external environment.
Mach Number; M =
a  Solar radiation through windows, on the fuselage and reflected from the
ground.
For Polytropic (Actual) compression/Ramming/Stagnation
T1 T1′ Ua2 Ua2 γ−1 Ua2  Pressurization of cabin.
= =1+ = 1+
γR
=1+ Actual Pressure Rise  Ramming of the atmospheric air.
T0 T0 2Cpa T0 2 T 2 γRT0 Ram Efficiency, ηRam =
γ−1 0 Isentropic (Ideal)Pressure Rise  Conduction through cabin walls and the aircraft structure.
P1′ − P0 Internal Factors:
ηRam =
T1 T1′ γ−1 Ua2 P1 − P0  Convection and radiation between the interior cabin surface and the cabin
= = 1+ air.
T0 T0 2 a2
Ram Air temperature remains same whether isentropic ramming or polytropic (actual)  Convection and radiation between the cabin and occupants.
T1 T1′ γ−1 2 ramming occurs,
= =1+ M  Convection and radiation from internal sources of heat (e.g. electrical
T0 T0 2 but Ram Air pressure for isentropic ramming and polytropic (actual) ramming are always
different. equipment)
 Latent heat from vapour cycle systems.
55 56 57
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
 The outdoor air supplied to the airplane cabin is usually provided by the PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
compressor stages of the engine, and cooled by air conditioning packs  The pneumatic system, or engine bleed air system, extracts
located under the wing center section.
a small amount of the gas turbine engine compressor air to
 An air conditioning pack uses the compressed ambient air as the refrigerant
in air cycle cooling.
ventilate and pressurize the aircraft compartments.
 Air is supplied and exhausted from the cabin on a continuous basis.
 During climb and cruise, bleed air is usually taken from the
 As shown fig., air enters the passenger cabin from supply nozzles that run the mid-stage engine bleed port for minimum horsepower
length of the cabin. extraction (bleed penalty).
 Exhaust air leaves the cabin through return air grills located in the sidewalls  During idle descent it is taken from the high stage engine
near the floor, running the length of the cabin on both sides. bleed port, where maximum available pressure is required
 Exhaust air is continuously extracted from below the cabin floor by to maintain cabin pressure and ventilation.
recirculation fans that return part of the air to the distribution system.
 The auxiliary power unit (APU) is also capable of providing
 The remaining exhaust air passes to an outflow valve, which directs the air
over board. the pneumatic system with compressed air on the ground
 The cabin ventilation system is designed to deliver air uniformly along the and in flight.
length of the cabin.  Bleed air is pressure controlled to meet the requirements
of the system using it, and it is usually cooled to limit bleed
FIG. CABIN AIRFLOW PATH manifold temperatures to meet fuel safety requirements.
58 59 60
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

 In fan jets, engine fan air is extracted for use as a heat sink for bleed air using
 Each engine has an identical bleed air system for redundancy and to equalize
an air- to- air heat exchanger called precooler;
the compressor air bled from the engines.
 For turboprop engines, ram air is used, which usually requires ejector or fan
 The equipment is sized to provide the necessary temperature and air flow for
for static operation. airfoil and cowl anti-icing, or cabin pressurization and air conditioning with
 Other components include one system or engine inoperative.
 bleed-shutoff and modulating valves,  The bleed air used for airfoil anti-icing is controlled by valves feeding piccolo

 a fan-air-modulating valve, tubes extending along the wing leading edge.

 sensors,  Similar arrangements may be used for anti-icing the engine cowl and tail
section.
 controllers, and

 Ozone converters
 The pneumatic system is also used intermittently for

 Airfoil and engine cowl anti-icing

 Engine start and several other pneumatic functions FIG. ENGINE/APU BLEED SYSTEM
61 62 63
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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1. Simple/ Basic Aircraft RAC System (Without and With Evaporative Cooling)
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS
P2 = P2’
CC Main
1. Simple/ Basic Aircraft Refrigeration and Airconditioning System 2(2’)
2’
Compr.
Pr.

From Atm MC GT To Atm T2’ 2

(Without or with Evaporative Cooling) T2
P5
Cabin
0 1(1’) Pr.
Atm Ram MC
2(2’) Bled off Air
2. Boot Strap Aircraft Refrigeration and Airconditioning System Air Air HE
P1
Ideal
Ram Pr.
T P1’
(Without or with Evaporative Cooling) To Atm HE
3
Cabin
Conditions
Act.
Ram Pr.
EC
1
3’ P0
T1=T1’ 3’’
3. Regenerative Aircraft Refrigeration and Airconditioning System 3’’
3(3’)
T5
4’’ 5
1’ RAM Atm. Pr.
CT
R.E.
T0 0 Actual
4’’’ 4 4’
4. Reduced Ambient Aircraft Refrigeration and Airconditioning System 4’’’
CT To Atm Ideal
Ramming
Ramming

4(4’)
EC
5 S

Cabin To Atm

64 65 66
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

3. Regenerative Aircraft RAC System

2. Boot Strap Aircraft RAC System (Without and With Evaporative Cooling)
P4 = P4’
Sec. CC
Compr. 2(2’)
CC Pr.
2(2’) P2 = P2’
Main From Atm MC GT To Atm
2’
Compr.
From Atm MC GT To Atm Pr.
T2’ 4’ 2
4 0 1(1’)
P7
T2
Cabin Atm Ram 2(2’) Bled off Air
0 1(1’) SC
Pr. Air Air
Atm Ram SHE
2(2’) Bled off Air PHE MC
P1
Air Air 3
Ideal
Ram Pr. PHE
3’ To Atm
5
PHE T
Cabin
P1’
7
5’’ Act.
5’ Conditions
To Atm Ram Pr.
EC 1
P0
T1=T1’ 4(4’)
1’ RAM Atm. Pr. 3(3’)
T7
3(3’) CT
6’’ 7
SC R.E.
T0 0 Actual
6’’’ 6 6’ RHE
To Atm Ramming
4(4’) Ideal
Ramming CT To Atm

SHE
6
To Atm S

To Atm
5’’
7 Cabin
5(5’)
6’’’ 6(6’) To Atm
Cabin

EC 67 68 69
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

4. Reduced Ambient Aircraft RAC System

P2 = P2’
P2 = P2’ Main
Main Compr.
Compr. Pr.
2’ CC
Pr. 2(2’) 2’ P1
Ideal P1’
T2’ 2
T2’ 2 Ram Pr. Act.
T2
P6 From Atm MC GT To Atm Ram Pr.
Cabin T2
Pr.
P5
MC 0
P1 MC Cabin
PHE 1(1’) HE
Ideal Atm 2(2’) Bled off Air Pr.
Ram Pr. Air Ram 1’’(1’’’)
Air
T
Cabin
P1’
AT HE T
Act.
3 Conditions 1 1’
Ram Pr. 3 Cabin
RHE 1 Conditions
3’ P0
T1=T1’ 4 3’ AT P0
1’ RAM Atm. Pr. T1=T1’
T6 6 RAM Atm. Pr.
3(3’) T5
4’ 5
R.E. CT 0’’
To Atm
T0 5’’ 0 Actual 4’’
T0 0 0’
CT Ramming Actual
Ideal R.E.
Ramming
5 5’ Ramming
4’
4 Ideal
Ramming
5
CT
S To Atm
4(4’/4’’) Cabin S

70 71 72
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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 The most common types of air conditioning cycles for commercial transport
AIR CONDITIONING  The compartment supply temperature may be controlled by mixing ram-cooled
aircraft are shown in fig.
 Air cycle refrigeration is the predominant means of air conditioning for bleed air with the refrigerated air to satisfy the range of heating and cooling.
 All equipment in common use on commercial and military aircraft is open loop,
commercial and military aircrafts.
although many commercial aircraft systems include various recirculating cabin  Other more sophisticated means of temperature control are often used; these
 Reverse Brayton cycle or Brayton refrigeration cycle is used, as opposed to the air to minimize engine bleed air use without sacrificing cabin comfort.
Brayton power cycle that is used in gas turbine engines. include ram air modulation, various bypass schemes in the air conditioning pack,
 The basic difference between the systems are the type of air cycle machine used
 The difference between the two is that, in the power cycle, fuel in a and its means of water separation. and downstream controls that heat for individual zone temperature control.
combustion chamber adds heat, and in the refrigeration cycle, a ram air heat
 The most common of these air cycle machines in use are the bootstrap ACM  The bleed airflow is controlled by a valve at the inlet of the air conditioning pack.
exchanger removes heat.
consisting of a turbine and compressor; the three wheel ACM consisting of
 The familiar Rankine vapor cycle, which is used in building and automotive air  The flow control valve regulates flow to the cabin for ventilation and
turbine, compressor and fan; and a four wheel ACM consisting of two turbines, a
conditioning and in domestic and commercial refrigeration, is used for compressor and a fan. repressurization during descent.
military aircraft as well as galley cooling (cooling of kitchen) on larger
 The boot strap machine is used in military applications, although many older  Most aircraft uses two or three air cycle packs operating in parallel to
commercial transports.
aircraft models use the bootstrap cycle.
 In an air cycle, compression of ambient air by the gas turbine engine compensate for failures during flight and to allow the aircraft to be dispatched
 The three wheel ACM (simple bootstrap cycle) is used on most of the newer
compressor provides the power input. The heat of compression is removed in
commercial aircraft including commuter aircraft and business aircraft. with certain failures.
a heat exchanger using ambient air as the heat sink.
 The four wheel ACM (condensing cycle) was first applied in 777 aircraft.  However, many business and commuter aircraft use a single pack.
 This cooled air is refrigerated by expansion across a turbine powered by the
compressed bleed air.  High altitude aircraft that have a single pack also have emergency pressurization
 The turbine energy resulting from the isentropic expansion is absorbed by a
second rotor, which is either a ram air fan, bleed air compressor, or both. equipment that uses ram cooled bleed air.
 This assembly is called an air cycle machine (ACM). 73 74 75
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

 In the condensing cycle one turbine removes the high pressure water and second
 If the engine ingests water, or if the air cycle temperature drops significantly turbine does the final expansion to sub freezing temperature air that is to be
below the dew point, some water separation devices are installed to avoid mixed with filtered, recirculated cabin air.
water spray in the cabin.  Separating these functions recovers the heat of condensation which results in
 Low or high pressure water separation may be used. higher cycle efficiency.
 It also eliminates condenser freezing problems because the condensing heat
 A low pressure water separator, located downstream from the cooling turbine, exchanger is operated above freezing conditions.
has a cloth lining the coalesces fine water particles entrained in the turbine  The air conditioning packs are located in unpressurized areas of the aircraft to
discharge air into droplets. minimize structural requirements of the ram air circuit that provides the
 The droplets are collected, drained, and sprayed into ram air stream using a necessary heat sink for the air conditioning cycle.
bleed air powered ejector, this process increases pack cooling capacity by  This location also provides protection against cabin depressurization in the event
depressing the ram air heat sink. of bleed or ram air duct rupture.
 The most common areas for the air conditioning packs are the underwing/wheel
 The high pressure water separator condenses and removes moisture at high well area and tail cone area aft of the rear pressure bulkhead.
pressure upstream of the cooling turbine.  Other areas include the areas adjacent to the nose wheel and over wing fairing.
 A heat exchanger uses turbine discharge air to cool the high pressure air  The temperature control components and recirculating fans are located
sufficiently to condense most of the moisture present in bleed air supply. throughout the distribution system in the pressurized compartments.
 The electronic pack and zone temperature controllers are located in the E/E bay.
 The moisture is collected and sprayed into the ram airstream.  The air conditioning panel is located in the flight deck.
 A schematic of a typical air conditioning system is shown in fig.
FIG. BOOTSTRAP SYSTEM
76 77 78
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

FIG. CHILLED RECIRCULATION SYSTEM FIG. CONDENSING SYSTEM

FIG. SIMPLE/BOOTSTRAP SYSTEM
79 80 81
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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2-WHEEL 2-WHEEL
SIMPLE
CYCLE

FIG. SIMPLE CYCLE (TURBINE AND FAN) FIG. BOOT STRAP CYCLE (TURBINE AND COMPRESSOR) FIG. SIMPLE-BOOT STRAP CYCLE (TURBINE, COMPRESSOR AND FAN)
82 83 84
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

AIR CYCLE AND VAPOR CYCLE APPLIED IN AVIATION

Air cycle machine : Largely applied on aviation, from
midsize jets up to very large
aircraft.
e.g. B373, B747, A320, A340,
A380, EMB120, EMB145, EMB170,
GV, G200, etc.
Vapor cycle machine :Only used on light and very light jets.
e.g. Embraer Phenom, CJ1, CJ2,
CJ3, Lear45, etc.

FIG. CONDENSING CYCLE (TWO TURBINES, COMPRESSOR AND FAN) FIG. 4-WHEEL AIR CYCLE MACHINE WITH SERIES HEAT EXCHANGERS, CONDENSER AND RE-HEATER
85 86 87
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

WATER SEPARATORS
3-WHEEL AND 4-WHEEL MACHINES APPLIED IN AVIATION  Two types of water separators exist.
 So far we have seen the application of a low-pressure water
MODEL ACM separator that is installed behind the turbine and limits
cabin air to temperature above 0 ºC.
Concorde, CESSNA 550; EMB-120 2-wheels  In contrast, a high-pressure water separator is installed
SAAB 2000; EMB-145, G200, GV; 3-and 4-wheels before the turbine. Separating the water before the turbine
requires at least one more heat exchanger: a condenser or a
A320; B757; B767; B777; MD12; condenser and a reheater.
EMB-170; EMB190  The advantage of the high-pressure water separator is that
the air may be cooled down to temperatures of −50 ºC.
 This results in higher temperature differences at the heat
exchangers and higher efficiency of the system.

88 89 90
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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 There is a need to extract water from the ACU to prevent  High pressure separation requires a condenser HEX in
condensation in the cabin (fog and water droplets) and in the the turbine discharge duct to cabin.
case of a high-performance pack, icing at the turbine outlet.
 The air from turbine cools the bleed air (at high-
 There are two means to extract water: low-pressure separation
pressure and temperature) and this enables much of
and high-pressure separation.
the bleed air moisture to condense.
 This effectively reduces the humidity in the cabin.
 The droplets are extracted via swirling motion
 Low pressure separation is a simple system located downstream
of the turbine outlet:
imparted to air.
o Consists of a shell, fabric coalescer, baffles and a drain port  System is heavier and more costly, but more efficient
and less maintenance is needed.
o Low weight and initial cost
o Disadvantages: coalescer must be periodically cleaned or  Also, less turbine erosion.
replaced, and this system cannot be operated at temperatures
below freezing.

91 92 93
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

DRY AIR RATED TEMPERATURE (DART)

 The temperature of discharge air from the cooling turbine (or expander) before the cabin if there COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIRCRAFT RAC SYSTEMS
is no condensed moisture present is known as Dry Air Rated Temperature (DART).
 This is calculated by usual procedure assuming the constant pressure specific heat of 1.005 kJ/kgK
for air.
 DART will be essentially that resulting from a calculation which assume that air at a humidity so
low that the expanded discharge from cooling turbine becomes unsaturated.
USES OF DART :
1. For technical rating of aircraft RAC system
2. Expressing the performance of aircraft RAC systems
3. For Comparison of different types of aircraft RAC systems Simple + Evap.
 The rating of aircraft RAC systems/ units is given in terms of available mass flow rate of cold air in
kg per unit time at the design DART. (Available ACMs for Aircraft has mass flow rate from 3 Regenerative + Evap. Boot Strap + Evap.
kg/min. to 70 kg/min. and weighing from 3 kg to 100 kg)
 Thus, cooling capacity of the aircraft RAC machine giving 𝐦̇𝐚kg/s of cold air at DART of TD to
maintain cabin at Ti is
𝐐̇𝐜 = 𝐦̇𝐚 𝐂𝐩𝐚 (𝐓𝐢 − 𝐓𝐃 ) kW when 𝐂𝐩𝐚 is in kJ/kg K
600 1200 1800 2400 3000
Typical Modern Aircraft for 80 passengers Uses : Aircraft Speed (km/h)

 1.8 kg/s of air at 10oC DART just after take off, and
 1.4 kg/s of air at 12.8oC DART when the aircraft is cruising
94 95 96
Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

THANKS!!

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Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana Ch.2: PCME116; PSBILGA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

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