Introduction to

Research

Arpan Shrestha
MPhil. Scholars
 Meaning of Research

Fred Kerlinger and H.B.Lee (2000): ― Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
natural phenomena‖.
John W. Best and J.V Kahn (2006): ― Research is a systematic and objective analysis and
recording of observations that may lead to the development of a theory.
Uma Sekaran and Roger Bougie (2013): ―Research is an organized, systematic, data-
based, critical, scientific enquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with
the objective of finding answers or solutions to it‖.
 What is Scientific Research

Scientific research is the process of finding facts or solutions to problems systematically,

experimentally, and logically. Its process always remains purposive and comprehensive.
Generally, scientific research is conducted to solve problems. It analyzes all the
dimensions of the problem systematically and finds out the natural causes of the problem,
collects, and interprets the data, and finds out the solutions to the problems.
It is not undertaken based on someone‘s intuition, experience, and estimation, instead, it is
always comprehensive and objective in nature.
According to F.N. Kerlinger – ―Scientific research is a systematic, empirical, and critical
investigation of propositions about the presumed relationship among the variables.‖
 Features of Scientific Research

1. Purposiveness
2. Testability
3. Replicability
4. Objectivity
5. Rigour
6. Generalizability
 Types of Research
 Basic or Fundamental Research:
A research which is conducted for the depth knowledge about any issue or for the
development of theory is known as basic or fundamental research.
The main purpose of basic research is to generate more knowledge and understanding of the
issue and build theories based on research result. Such theories are the bases for the further
research in same issue. Its purpose is not to apply the findings to solve an immediate problems at
hand, but rather to generate more knowledge and understanding of the phenomena and
problems that occur in several organizations, and to build theories based on research result.
Fundamental research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and
refinement of research method, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research
methodology.
Professors, academia and students do basic or fundamental research so that more knowledge is
generated in particular areas of interest.
 Types of Research

Example: The HRD manager commonly believe that on-the-job training has
a great impact on the productivity of the workers. However, they have
observed that the productivity of workers over forty years of age does not
improve from such training. Why is this so? What factors might be
responsible for this phenomenon? What type of training should be given to
improve the productivity of such worker.

To answer the question raised in the example just presented, one has to
undertake a basic research.
 Types of Research
Applied or Action Research:

A research which is conducted to find out a solution for an immediate problem faced by the
society or industry/ business organization is known as applied research.

The main aim of applied research is to find out the solution for some practical problems.
Applied research provides answer of the problem raised on policy, programs projects and
procedures. Business executives, therefore, take interest in applied research. They often
hired outside researchers and consultants to study a problem to rectify the problem situation.

As applied research is concerned with knowledge that has immediate applications, it is also
called decisional research.
 Types of Research

Example: The Janakpur Cigarette Factory (JCF) has to improve its productivity in
order to remain competitive in the market. There are two alternative strategies to
improve its strategies to improve its productivity. One is to pay attention to all of
its existing brands and make continuous improvement. The other is to focus on
new brand development. Each of this alternatives has some advantages and
disadvantages. The factory will now have to research into each of these strategies
and see which one would best suit the factory, taking into account its capabilities,
know-how, resources and so on.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Bases of Difference Basic Research Applied Research
Objective Main objective of basic research is Main aim of applied research is to
to develop theory and enhance the find out the solution of immediate
existing knowledge. problems faced by the concerned
organization.
Focus Researcher undertakes research in Researcher should conduct research
those issues where he/she has focusing on the problems faced by the
interest and knowledge. society or organization.
Time limit There is no time limit in basic Fixed time is given to the researcher in
research. applied research
Generalization Result of basic research can be Applied research focuses on the
generalized in all similar nature of particular problems of particular
organization. organization. So generalization is not
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Bases of Basic Research Applied Research
Difference
Practical Principles developed through Findings of the applied research can
basic research cannot be be implemented immediately in real
implemented in practice. life and practice.
Analysis Generally, basic researches are Applied researches are based on
based on technical analysis. individual and situation analysis.

Assumption Generally, it is assumed that It is assumed that variables which are

variables used in this research used in applied research are, to some
are constant. extent, dynamic.
Research
Process
 Research Process
1. Realizing problem: Realizing the issue is the first step in the research process.
Many sources of research ideas are available (observing the situation or sensing
the problem). The environment is constantly experiencing new problems. These
changes in the environment were somehow observable to the researcher. Even
though the researcher may not fully understand what is going on at this point, he
or she is aware that things are not progressing as smoothly as they should.

2. Problem Identification: After realizing the problem, researcher should try to find
out the causes of the problems and the actual problem. Researcher should find out
the problem and causes through the collection of information and analysis od
situation. Research should define such problems that helps to minimize time and
cost. Thus researcher should clearly identify the problems.
 Research Process
For example: if the number of customer decreases in a restaurant, the researcher should find out the
causes of decrease of customer. It may be due to lack of customer service, physical decoration, late
service and so on.

3. Theoretical Framework : The third step of research process is Theoretical framework, where
researcher make an attempt to integrate the information logically so that the reason for the
problem can be conceptualized. The critical variables are examined and association among them
is identified. Putting all the variables and their association together, a theoretical framework is
developed.

4. Hypothesis Formulation: Hypothesis refers to the estimated result of the research. It is estimated
on the basis of past studies. It presents the relationship of two variables in the testable form.
Researcher finds out the problems and related factors of problems through literature review. On
the basis of the facts found from literature review, researcher formulates hypothesis. It helps to
determine the methods to be used and data to be collected. Hypothesis may not be always
accepted. Sometimes it may be rejected. Hypothesis helps in systematize the result and draw
conclusions.
 Research Process
5. Research Design: Research design is a framework of research. Research works are completed based on
research design. It helps to collect evidence in less time and cost. Research design depends on the objectives
of research. It clarifies the way of collecting data, methods of analysis and bases of research. Research design
is prepared before initiating research. Researcher should find out appropriate research design based on the
research problem.

6. Data Collection: Collection of information on the basis of research problem and objectives is referred as data
collection. It is the work performed in the field/ outside the organization. Success of research depends largely
on data collection. Reliable data collection helps to draw conclusion. A researcher should develop
questionnaire, schedule for interview or observation for collecting data. But data collection differs on the
basis of objectives, research design and need. Researcher should decide what sort of data and information are
essential before data collection.
 Research Process
7. Data analysis: A researcher classifies all the collected data and information on the basis o their feature
and nature. Classified data are then after codified, tabulated and presented in charts. Such presented
data are analyzed using mathematical, statistical, financial and accounting tools. Most of the researcher
used statistical tools for the analysis of data. Mean, median, mode and standard deviation are
descriptive statistical tools and t-test, z-test and Chi-Square are inferential statistical tools and are used
to test hypothesis. Use of statistical tools depends on the research design and nature of data.

8. Refinement of theory: After the analysis of data, certain conclusions are drawn in relation to
hypothesis. Whatever the conclusion are drawn, they are considered as theories. Such conclusions are
applied in all the similar organizations which are regarded as generalization. Conclusion without
hypothesis are discussed on the basis of previous theories. Such discussion create new issues and
requires for the further research.
RESEARCH APPROACHES.

Research Approaches

Deductive Research Inductive Research

 DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH APPROACH
Deductive research approach is the research approach which is used to test
the theory. It involves the development of a theory that is subjected to a
rigorous test.
The stage involve in such research are
a. Deducting a hypothesis from the theory.
b. Expressing the hypothesis in operational term.
c. Testing the operational hypothesis.
d. Examining the specific outcomes of the enquiry, and
e. Modifying the theory in the light of the findings, if necessary.
DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH APPROACH
In general, it is an approach where previous theories are to be
hypothesis and tested scientifically with the objective of
developing theories or improving in the existing theories. It is also
called a Top down Approach.
 INDUCTIVE APPROACH RESEARCH
A process where the researcher starts with specific observations/ descriptions
followed by analysis that produces explanation of the observation is known
as inductive approach.
In this approach, the researcher tries to understand the nature of the
problem, gather the required quantitative and qualitative data, and analyze
them to draw conclusion. Informally, this approach is also called a bottom-up
approach. Hence, developing an understanding about the problem and
making proper analysis of its different dimensions are strengths of inductive
research.
 INDUCTIVE APPROACH RESEARCH
The result of this analysis would be the formulation of a theory. Thus, in an
inductive approach, theory is built from the empirical evidence gathered
through different sources.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE RESEARCH
Deductive Inductive
Approach: Deductive research uses a top-down Inductive research uses a bottom-up
approach. approach.
Aim The deductive research aims at The inductive research aims at
verifying theories. producing new knowledge or creating
new theories.
Focus In deductive research, researchers In inductive research, researcher mainly
mainly focus on testing hypothesis. focuses on finding answers to the
research questions.
Usage The deductive approach is mostly The inductive approach is mostly used
used in quantitative research that in qualitative research that aims at
mostly deals with numbers. finding rich descriptive data.
Use of In deductive research, the researcher In inductive research, the researcher
Observation uses observation with the intention of attempts to find patterns through
validating the pattern. observation.
 PARADIGM SHIFT
A Research Paradigm is a philosophical framework that guides
how research should be conducted, based on people ‘s
philosophies and their assumption about the world and the nature
of knowledge.
The two main Paradigm
Positivism
Interpretivism
POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
 POSITIVISM
Positivism is a paradigm that originated in the natural sciences. It
rests in the assumption that social reality is a singular and objective,
and is not affected by the act of investigating it. The research
involve a deductive process with a view to providing explanatory
theories to understand social phenomena.
 PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTION OF POSITIVISM
1. Social reality is objective and external to the researcher.
2. There is only one reality.
3. Knowledge comes from objective evidence about observable and
measurable phenomena.
4. The researcher is distant from phenomena under study.
5. The result are unbiased and value-free.
6. The researcher uses passive voice, accepted quantitative words and set
definitions.
7. The researcher takes deductive approach.
 INTERPRETIVISM
Interpretivism is a paradigm that emerged in response to criticisms of
positivism. It rests on the assumption that social reality is in our minds,
and is multiple and subjective. Therefore, social reality is affected by
the act of investigating it. The research involves an inductive process
with a view to providing interpretive understanding of social
phenomena within a particular context.
 PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTION OF INTERPRETIVISM
1. Social reality is subjective and socially constructed.
2. There is multiple realities.
3. Knowledge comes from subjective evidence from participants
4. The researcher interacts with phenomena under study.
5. The finding are biased and value laden.
6. The researcher use personal voice, accepted qualitative terms
and limited a prior definition.
7. The researcher take a inductive approach.
 WHAT IS TRIANGULATION
Triangulation is a research strategy that uses multiple sources of data,
methods, theories, or investigators to increase the validity and credibility of
research findings. It is a way to mitigate the presence of any research
biases in your work.
Triangulation is a valuable research strategy that can help to improve the
quality and credibility of research findings. However, it is important to note
that triangulation is not a foolproof way to eliminate bias. It is still
important to be aware of the limitations of each data source and method,
and to carefully consider the findings of all sources before drawing
conclusions.
 CONT..
Here are some examples of triangulation in research:
A researcher studying the effects of a new drug on depression might use data
from clinical trials, surveys of patients, and interviews with doctors.
A historian studying the causes of the American Civil War might use primary
sources such as letters, diaries, and speeches, as well as secondary sources such as
historical textbooks and scholarly articles.
A sociologist studying the impact of poverty on education might use data from
government surveys, interviews with parents and teachers, and observations of
classrooms.
Triangulation is a valuable research strategy that can be used in a variety of
disciplines. It is a way to improve the quality and credibility of research findings by
reducing bias and providing a more comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon being studied.
 TYPES OF TRIANGULATION

1. Theory triangulation: This involves using multiple theoretical perspectives to

interpret the same data. This can help to provide a more comprehensive and
nuanced understanding of the phenomenon being studied.

2. Methodological triangulation: This involves using multiple methods to collect data

on the same phenomenon. For example, a researcher studying the effects of a
new educational intervention might use surveys, interviews, and observations.
 TYPES OF TRIANGULATION

3. Data triangulation: This involves using multiple data sources to collect information
on the same phenomenon. For example, a researcher studying the effects of
social media on body image might use surveys, interviews, and content analysis of
social media posts.

4. Investigator triangulation: This involves using multiple researchers to collect or

analyze data. This can help to reduce researcher bias and ensure that the
findings are not simply the product of one individual's perspective.
 WHAT IS MANAGEMENT RESEARCH?

Management research is the systematic study of management concepts, theories, and

practices. It is a broad field that encompasses a wide range of topics, including

organizational behavior, leadership, strategic management, and human resource

management.

The goal of management research is to improve our understanding of how organizations

work and how they can be managed more effectively. Management research can be used

to solve practical problems, develop new theories, and inform public policy.
 CONT..
According to Wikipedia, ―business and management research is a systematic
inquiry that helps to solve business problems and contributes to management
knowledge.‖
According to Zikmund, ―management research is the systematic and objective
process of gathering, recording, and analyzing data for aid in making business
decisions.‖
According to V. P. Michael, ―management research is a systematic activity
directed towards investigating managerial or business problems, which may
result in or discovery of management tools for problem-solving and decision
making.‖
Thus, in simpler terms, management research identifies management problems
and solves them within the given time period.
 CONT..
Here are some of the key concepts in management research:
Systems thinking: This is the view that organizations are complex systems that
are made up of interrelated parts.
Contingency theory: This theory states that there is no one best way to
manage, and that the best approach depends on the specific situation.
Organizational culture: This is the shared values, beliefs, and assumptions that
guide the behavior of organizational members.
Leadership: This is the process of influencing others to achieve a common
goal.
Motivation: This is the process of stimulating people to act in a desired way.
 CONT..
Decision making: This is the process of choosing among alternative courses of
action.
Communication: This is the process of exchanging information between people.
Conflict management: This is the process of resolving disagreements between
people.
Change management: This is the process of helping organizations to adapt to
change.
Management research is a constantly evolving field. New research is being
conducted all the time, and our understanding of how organizations work is
constantly being refined. This makes management research a valuable tool for
improving organizational performance and achieving success in the ever-changing
world of business.
 NATURE OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH
1. Empirical:
Management research is typically empirical. This means that it is based on data and
evidence, rather than on speculation or theory. Management researchers collect data
through a variety of methods, such as surveys, interviews, and observations. They then
use this data to test theories and develop new knowledge about management.
2. Multidisciplinary:
Management research is multidisciplinary. This means that it draws on insights from a
variety of disciplines, such as economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology. This
is because management is a complex phenomenon that cannot be fully understood by
any single discipline.
 CONT..
3. Pragmatic
Management research is pragmatic. This means that it is focused on solving real-world problems.
Management researchers are not content to simply generate new knowledge. They want to use this
knowledge to improve the way organizations are managed.
4. Cumulative
Management research is cumulative. This means that it builds on previous research. Management
researchers build on the work of their predecessors to develop a more complete understanding of
management.
5. Contextual
Management research is contextual. This means that it takes into account the specific context in
which management takes place. Management researchers recognize that there is no one-size-fits-
all solution to management problems. The best approach to managing an organization will vary
depending on the specific circumstances.
VALUE OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH IN BUSINESS DECISION MAKING

There needs to take many decisions in business, building up proper strategies,

and directing the companies towards success. So, to make a decision there
needs a proper roadmap for the future.

And thus, management research helps the business analyst to take proper
decisions by clearly understanding the research outcomes.

Management research provides support in the following areas of business

decision-making:
1. Identifying the problems:

In the first stage, management research helps to identify the exact problems that are
occurring in the business. It helps to scan all the activities from the internal and external
environment of the business and highlight the potential threats that need to be rectified.

2. Assessing the underlying factors of problems:

Management research assists in determining the actual cause of problems after they have
been identified. Only management can then take the first move in determining the best
course of action. They also aim to explore potential opportunities and define the nature of
opportunities with this.
3. Selecting the appropriate course of action:

The researcher chooses the optimal path of action after identifying various opportunities and alternative courses
of action. All selections may not guarantee a 100% success rate, so it is critical to carefully select the optimal
decision.

4. Implementing a course of action:

The success of a concept is determined by how well it is executed. Selecting only the best strategies will not
work. They must also put up their best efforts to put it into action in order to overcome their managing challenges.

5. Evaluating and controlling:

The final phase in making business decisions is to review and monitor the results as well as the implementation
process. The researcher collects the outcome data, passes it to the firm manager, and then gives their analysis. So,
from here either they can follow the feedback looping process, or stay satisfied with their final result.
Applying Scientific Thinking to Managerial problem.

Scientific thinking refers to the goal-oriented, logical ways of evaluating, and using a
definite method for solving a problem. Research should not be conducted and
analyzed as per subjective perception and personal experience but should be based
on a specific and pre-defined purpose.

So, the main idea here is that research is not a work of fiction, or personal judgment,
it is something that is to be done scientifically and logically so that we can solve
managerial problems and issues.

Scientific research can be applied to both pure and applied research. But the
researcher might need to face many difficulties while conducting scientific research in
social science.
So, let’s discuss some difficulties of applying scientific research methods in social science:

1. Because of the complex nature of society and people, it is difficult to track people’s needs,
interests, values, norms, preferences, inspirations, etc. The behavior of people differs from one
to another and also gets changes according to time and situation.

2. It is difficult to collect accurate measurements of social phenomena because we can’t exactly

predict and judge people’s ever-changing moods, feelings, perceptions, attitudes, etc.

3. Some people might be skeptical about research or just don’t prefer to provide accurate
information regarding their social and personal life. So, they might alter their data and the
researcher might end up collecting false data.

4. Social events and phenomena are evaluated subjectively by different people. The same
events might get favorable for some people, while they might disturb some other group of
people. So, scientific research can’t exactly define social events.
5. Social events affect people, so their opinion might also get affected. People are so sensible,
and their belief system gets changing according to their experience and knowledge. So,
scientific research can’t handle this emotional nature of people.

6. Because of the personal objection, the researcher also alters their research method to
conclude the research as per their desire. And if they practice scientific research accurately,
they can’t be able to conclude their subjective result. So, scientific research might not fit
healthy for the subjective researcher.

7. Scientific research always prefers to collect quantitative data, and society is full of
qualitative nature. So, it is difficult to measure and explain the societal relationship in
quantity.

8. Social events are not universal and every society has its own manner and culture. Thus, social
research does not get influenced and acceptance all over the world.
Ethical Concerns in Research

Researchers face ethical problems at every level of the research process, from design
to reporting. These include anonymity, confidentiality, informed permission, the
potential impact of the researcher on the participants, and vice versa.

Thus, the researcher's ethical score is determined by the researcher's behavior toward
respondents, clients, and team members, as well as his or her morality toward
research methodologies, structure, and process.

If the researcher is not obeying a common set of ethical practices and not considering
basic norms and values, then it might be considered unethical research practice. This
type of practice might lead to the wrong conclusions and the research outcomes
become worthless.
So, the common ethical practices that should be followed by the researcher are
as follows:

The researcher should not put pressure on participants to get the information.
Respondents should be free from any obligations while being answered.

The researcher should provide all accurate information to participants

regarding their research motives and procedures. False information might
degrade the value of research outcomes.

The researcher should not manipulate the collected data and should evaluate
without any subjective desire.
Cont.

The researcher should not break any laws, rules, and regulations of the research
manual. If they do so, then they will be regarded as an unethical researcher.

The researcher should treat every participant equally. Discrimination regarding

caste, sex, culture, religion, qualification, etc., is not allowed while conducting
research.

The researcher should not try to copy the research materials or prior collected
data without taking permission from the original researcher. They should respect
intellectual property rights.
Cont.

The research process and activities should not harm the culture, norms, values,
morality, and ethics of individuals and society. The researcher should not be
biased regarding an individual’s society and its components.

The researcher should consider individual rights and let them free to choose
whether they want to participate in research or not.

Thus, the quality of ethical concern determines the quality of research. The
ethical concern is more required for qualitative research but the researcher
should have a concern about it equally in any type of research.
Qualitative Research
 A research fulfilling on those sorts of theoretical and non-quantifiable
qualitative subjects is called qualitative research.

 “The main focus in qualitative research is to understand, explain, explore,

discover and clarify situations, feelings, perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs
and experiences of a group of people”. -Ranjit Kumar

 “Qualitative research is a fundamental approach of exploration, including

individual depth interviews, group interviews, participant observation,
videotaping of participants, projective techniques and psychological testing,
case studies, street ethnography, elite interviewing, document analysis, and
proxemics and kinesics”. -Donald Cooper

 Qualitative research is an umbrella term for a series of approaches to research

in the social sciences. These are also known as hermeneutic, reconstructive or
interpretive approaches”. Uwe Flick
 Features of Qualitative Research

Based on Exploration

Follow Inductive Approach

Features of
Qualitative Interactive in Nature
Research
Reflexivity

Flexibility

Follow Holistic Approach

1. Based on Exploration: Exploration is the essential features of qualitative research.
Exploration means discovering new area, people , and their lifestyles and learning
from them. Exploration helps researchers to understand the behavior, perception, and
actions of the participant.

2. Follow inductive approach: The qualitative research follow inductive approach which
is more towards gathering information to develop concepts and generate a hypothesis.

3. Interactive in nature: Interactive means action and communication between to people

or two things, such as two way communication. Rather than following pre-set questions
in mindset, researchers use the interaction between them and participants to get
closure to the topic under study. Therefore, interaction is a research process
characterized by joint learning by participants through their involvement in that
process from the beginning.
4. Reflexivity: Reflexivity is the process of becoming self-aware. It is an attitude
of attending systematically to the context of knowledge construction. In
quantitative research, the role of the researcher depends upon the types of
questions they developed. But in qualitative research researcher should make
regular efforts to consider their own thoughts and actions in light of different
context as there is no uniform format for collecting information.
5. Flexibility: Flexibility means the ability to be easily modified. Qualitative
research is different from quantitative research as it allows for flexibility
throughout the research process. In qualitative research, the researcher
change his/her idea and design as per the situation’s demand.
6. Follows Holistic approach: The term holistic is relating to the idea that things
should be studied as a whole and not just as a sum of their parts. Quantitative
research follows a holistic approach as it is reflexive and process driven that
ultimately producing culturally situated and theory base knowledge through
an ongoing interplay between the researcher and the respondent.
 Assumption of Qualitative Research
The world is socially constructed: This suggests that the meaning of events and experiences is formed
by social and cultural circumstances rather than being intrinsic or objective. Qualitative researchers aim to
understand the world through the eyes of the people they study, as well as to uncover the social and
cultural influences that shape their lives.

Knowledge is gain through interaction: Qualitative researchers engage with individuals to learn about
their experiences, views, and understandings. This engagement could take the shape of interviews,
observations, or other data collection methods.

 Research is Subjective: Qualitative researchers are aware that their personal biases and values may
influence their findings. They attempt to be as objective as possible, but they recognize that subjectivity is
a necessary aspect of the research process.
Cont..

Research is descriptive: The focus is on describing and understanding a phenomenon. The

description includes a detailed account of the context, the activities, the participants, and the
process.

The process of research is inductive: The research is primarily exploratory and focuses on
discovery. It does not consider any hypothesis for testing. It identifies and characterizes
categories and patterns in the data and grounds the finding on the data.

Human beings are capable of reflection and self-awareness: Qualitative researchers believe
that human beings are able to reflect on their own experiences and to provide insights into their
own thoughts and feelings.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Bases of Difference Quantitative Qualitative

Meaning Quantitative research is a research Qualitative research is a method of

method that is used to generate inquiry that develops understanding
numerical data and hard facts, by on human and social sciences, to find
employing statistical, logical and the way people think and feel.
mathematical technique.

Objective To examine cause and effect To explore and discover ideas used in
relationship between variables. the ongoing processes.

Sample Size Sample Size is large. Sample Size is small.

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Bases of Difference Quantitative Qualitative

Methods Structured techniques such as Non-structured techniques like In-

surveys, questionnaires and depth interviews, group
observations. discussions etc.
Data Analysis Collected data are analyzed Collected data are analyzed
using various statistical tools. based on established theories.

Research findings In quantitative analysis the In qualitative analysis, research

findings can be applicable on findings are specific to the
the general population. objects being studied and are
not applicable on the general
population.
COMMON PRACTICES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Flexible Design: Qualitative research uses a flexible research design as opposed to a fixed
research design. Qualitative research aims to improve the validity of a study by carefully
selecting the samples to be researched and focusing on generalization. The qualitative researcher
should spend more time in the field, and the situation in the field may differ from what we
expected previously, thus the researcher should change/modify the research plan as necessary.

2. Field-based Data: Field-based data captures the ambient conditions as well as the perspectives of
participants. The outcome is derived via fieldwork and consideration of the participants' diaries,
journals, writings, photographs, or other past works.

3. Use of non-numerical data: Qualitative research examines subjective information gathered

through interviews, focus group discussions, observation, and other methods. Analysis of such
data can be made using various computer software and other statistical and logical techniques.
4. Different interpretations: Qualitative data can be presented in both written and visual
formats. Qualitative research is defined by a combination of perspectives and
methodological choices. Taking advantage of the depth of the mixture qualitative research
might open up new possibilities. Three factors may contribute to the combination: the
possible plurality of human interpretations, the potential uniqueness of these experiences,
and the methodological differences available in qualitative research. Each scenario can
necessitate extreme decisions, which frequently involve philosophical as well as
methodological considerations.
METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Case Study

The case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into
a valuable qual research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining
an organization or an entity.

This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education,
social sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it
is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive
and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the
data.
2. Ethnography
Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational research method that
studies people in their naturally occurring environment.
This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’
environments which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any
remote location. Here geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting
data.
This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and
settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you
experience the natural settings first hand.
This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it
involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a
challenging and a time-consuming method and solely depends on the expertise
of the researcher to be able to analyze, observe and infer the data.
3. Phenomenology

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that aims to understand and

characterize the universal essence of a phenomenon as experienced by those who have lived it.
The researcher's personal assumptions and perceptions are unimportant, and the emphasis is on
the participants' beliefs, feelings, and perceptions.

Phenomenological study is idiographic, which means it focuses on the individual experience. It

is also holistic, which means that it considers the entire individual and their experience,
including their ideas, feelings, bodily sensations, and social and cultural environment.

The primary objective of phenomenological research is to obtain insight into a specific

audience's sensations and feelings in regard to the topic being examined. In the minds of the
audience, these narratives constitute fact, and they allow the researcher to draw conclusions
about the phenomenon that may add to or even contradict what was previously known about it.
4. Grounded Theory:

Grounded theory is a qualitative research methodology that focuses on developing theories

from the data itself. It is a systematic and iterative process that allows researchers to explore
complex and poorly understood phenomena. The goal is to generate a theory that explains a
phenomenon, providing insights into social processes or interactions. Grounded theory is
particularly valuable for understanding the experiences and perspectives of those being
studied.

In summary, grounded theory is a way of developing theories by collecting and analyzing

data, rather than testing existing theories. It is a flexible and iterative process that allows
researchers to explore complex phenomena and generate insights that are grounded in the
experiences of those being studied.
Methods of Collecting Qualitative Data
Observations Surveys

Methods of Collecting
Qualitative Data

Focus Group Interviews

1. Observation:

Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and recording behavior and
characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.

Without training, our observations will heavily reflect our personal choices of what to focus on and what to
remember.

You need to heighten your sensitivity to details that you would normally ignore and at the same time to be able
to focus on phenomena of true interest to your study.

Types of Observation

Participant observation: If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of group he is
observing so that he can experience what the member of group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.

Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not
participate is non participant observation.
2. Survey

• Surveys can be employed for gathering qualitative data by asking open-ended questions that
allow participants to react in their own terms.

• Qualitative surveys are frequently used to investigate complex issues or provides new ideas.

• Qualitative surveys can be done online, in person, or over the phone.

• Once collected, qualitative survey data can be evaluated using a variety of methodologies,
including theme analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.

Benefits:

Can reach a large number of people quickly and easily.

Can collect data from people in different locations, including remote areas.

Can collect data from people who are difficult to reach using other methods.
Limitations:
• It can take time to design and administer.
• It might be challenging to design in such a way that encourages rich and comprehensive
answers.
• They can be biased depending on how they are designed and implemented..
Examples of qualitative survey questions:
• Can you describe your experience using our product?
• What are the most important factors you consider when choosing a new doctor?
• What are your thoughts on the current state of the economy?
• What are your hopes and dreams for the future?
• What are some of the challenges you face as a parent?
3. Interview:
• Interviews are a qualitative data collection method that involves a two-way conversation
between the interviewer and the interviewee.
• There are three main types of interviews: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured.
• Structured interviews follow a predetermined set of questions, while semi-structured and
unstructured interviews allow for more flexibility.
• Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online.
• Interviews can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, including people's
attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and motivations.
Benefits:
• Interviews can provide rich and detailed data that would be difficult to collect using other
methods.
• Interviews can be used to collect data from people who may be difficult to reach using
other methods, such as experts or people in sensitive situations.
• Interviews can be used to explore complex topics in depth.
Limitations:
• Interviews can be time-consuming to conduct and analyze.
• Interviews can be biased, depending on the interviewer's skills and the way the interview is conducted.
• Interviews can be difficult to generalize to a larger population.
Types
• Structured interviews: These interviews follow a predetermined set of questions that are asked in the
same order to all interviewees. Structured interviews are often used in quantitative research to collect data
from a large number of people.
• Semi-structured interviews: These interviews follow a general guide of questions, but the interviewer has
the flexibility to ask additional questions or to probe for more information. Semi-structured interviews are
often used in qualitative research to explore complex topics in depth.
• Unstructured interviews: These interviews do not follow a predetermined set of questions. The
interviewer has complete flexibility to ask questions and to follow the flow of the conversation.
Unstructured interviews are often used in exploratory research to generate new ideas and to develop
hypotheses.
Interviews can be a valuable tool for data collection, but it is important to choose the right interview method
for your research goals and to conduct the interviews in a professional and ethical manner.
4. Focus Group Discussion
• A Focus Group Discussions is a qualitative data collection method that involves a small
group of people (typically 6-12) discussing a specific topic in a moderated setting.
• Focus Group Discussion are often used to explore people's attitudes, beliefs,
experiences, and motivations on a topic.
• Focus Group Discussions can be conducted in person, online, or over the phone.
• Focus Group Discussions can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, including
product development, marketing campaigns, social issues, and public policy.
Benefits:
• Focus Group Discussions can provide rich and detailed data on people's thoughts and
feelings about a topic.
• Focus Group Discussions can generate new ideas and perspectives that would be difficult
to collect using other methods.
• Focus Group Discussions can be used to explore complex topics in depth.
• Focus Group Discussions can be used to collect data from people who may be difficult to
reach using other methods, such as experts or people in sensitive situations.
Limitations:
• Focus Group Discussions can take a long time to conduct and analyze.
• Focus Group Discussions can be biased depending on the moderator's skills and the
manner in which they are handled.
• It can be challenging to generalize Focus Group Discussions to a larger community.
Methods of Analyzing Qualitative Data

Methods of Analyzing Qualitative Data

Content Analysis Narrative Analysis Thematic Analysis

1. Content analysis
Content analysis is a research method that investigates and quantifies the occurrence of
specific words, subjects, and concepts in text, image, video, or audio messages. The method
converts qualitative data into quantitative data to assist you draw valid conclusions about
what customers think of your brand and how you can improve their experience and opinion.
To find patterns in communications, uncover variances in individual or group
communication trends, and make linkages between concepts, you can undertake content
analysis manually or with tools like Lexalytics.
Examples:
• Analyzing brand mentions on social media to understand your brand's reputation
• Reviewing customer feedback to evaluate (and then improve) the customer and user
experiences.
• Researching competitors‘ website pages to identify their competitive advantages and
value propositions
• Interpreting customer interviews and survey results to determine user preferences, and
setting the direction for new product or feature developments
Content analysis has some significant advantages for small teams:
• You don‘t need to directly interact with participants to collect data
• The process is easily replicable once standardized
• You can automate the process or perform it manually
• It doesn‘t require high investments or sophisticated solutions

On the downside, content analysis has certain limitations:

• When conducted manually, it can be incredibly time-consuming
• The results are usually affected by subjective interpretation
• Manual content analysis can be subject to human error
• The process isn‘t effective for complex textual analysis
2. Narrative analysis

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research method that focuses on analyzing the stories that
people tell about their lives and experiences. Narrative analysis is based on the concept that
stories are important to human thinking and meaning-making.

Narrative analysis can be used to investigate a wide range of qualitative data, including
interviews, focus group transcripts, diaries, letters, and autobiographies. Narrative analysis
can be used to investigate a range of research problems, including:

• How do people construct their narratives?

• What meanings do people attach to their experiences?

• How do people's narratives relate to broader social and cultural phenomena?

Narrative analysis can be a powerful tool for understanding the human experience. Narrative analysis can be
used to give voice to marginalized groups, to challenge dominant narratives, and to promote social change.

Here are some examples of how narrative analysis has been used to study qualitative data:

• A researcher used narrative analysis to study the stories of women who had experienced domestic violence.
The researcher found that the women's stories were often characterized by themes of shame, isolation, and
resilience.

• A researcher used narrative analysis to study the stories of immigrants who had come to the United States
in search of a better life. The researcher found that the immigrants' stories were often characterized by
themes of hope, struggle, and perseverance.

• A researcher used narrative analysis to study the stories of teachers who had worked in low-income
schools. The researcher found that the teachers' stories were often characterized by themes of frustration,
commitment, and hope.
3. Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis is a qualitative data analysis method for identifying, analyzing, and
interpreting data patterns or themes. Thematic analysis is a flexible tool for studying
qualitative data such as interviews, focus group transcripts, diaries, letters, and
autobiographies. Thematic analysis can be used to investigate a wide range of research
problems, including:

• What are the key themes in the data?

• How are these themes related to each other?

• What do these themes reveal about the participants' experiences, perspectives, and
values?
To conduct a thematic analysis, researchers typically follow these steps:

• Familiarize yourself with the data: Read and reread the data to get a good
understanding of it.

• Generate initial codes: Identify key words, phrases, and concepts in the data.

• Search for themes: Look for patterns and relationships between the codes.

• Review themes: Examine the themes to ensure that they are supported by the data and
that they are meaningful and insightful.

• Define and name themes: Give each theme a clear and concise name.

• Write a thematic report: Write a report that describes the themes and their implications.
Thematic analysis is a valuable tool for qualitative researchers who want to identify and understand the key
themes in their data. Thematic analysis can be used to generate new insights into the human experience and to
develop theories about social phenomena.
Here are some examples of how thematic analysis has been used to study qualitative data:

• A researcher used thematic analysis to study the stories of people who had experienced homelessness. The
researcher found that the participants' stories were often characterized by themes of trauma, loss, and
resilience.

• A researcher used thematic analysis to study the experiences of students from underrepresented minority
groups in college. The researcher found that the students' experiences were often characterized by themes
of isolation, discrimination, and perseverance.

• A researcher used thematic analysis to study the perspectives of healthcare professionals on the challenges
of caring for patients with chronic illnesses. The researcher found that the healthcare professionals'
perspectives were often characterized by themes of compassion, frustration, and hope.
 Role of computers in research
Computers in Research
The computers are indispensable throughout the research process. The role of computer
becomes more important when the research is on a large sample. Data can be stored in
computers for immediate use or can be stored in auxiliary memories like floppy discs,
compact discs, universal serial buses (pen drives) or memory cards, so that the same can be
retrieved later. The computers assist the researcher throughout different phases of
research process.
Role of Computers in the phases of research process There are five major phases of the
research process where computer plays different vital roles. They are:
1) Role of Computer in Conceptual phase
2) Role of Computer in Design and planning phase
3) Role of Computer in Empirical phase
4) Role of Computer in Analytic phase and
5) Role of Computer in Dissemination phase.
1) Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase

The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review of literature, theoretical frame work
and formulation of hypothesis.

Role of Computers in Literature Review: Computers help for searching the literatures (for review of
literature) and bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the world wide webs. It can thus
be used for storing relevant published articles to be retrieved whenever needed. This has the advantage over
searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other newsletters at the libraries which consume
considerable amount of time and effort.
2) Role of Computers in Design and planning phase
Design and planning phase consist of research design, population, research variables, sampling plan,
reviewing research plan and pilot study.
Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software‘s are available to calculate the sample
size
required for a proposed study. NCSS-PASS-GESS is such software. The standard deviation of the data from
the
pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.
3) Role of Computers in Empirical phase
Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data for analysis.

Data Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word files or excel
spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the whole layout
of the tables if needed, which is impossible or time-consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus,
computers help in data entry, data editing, data management including follow up actions etc.
Computers also allow for greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well
as greater ease during the analysis of these data.

In research studies, the preparation and inputting data is the most labor-intensive and time
consuming aspect of the work. Typically the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or
record form suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction
with the statistician and the programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel
spread sheet. These spread sheets can be directly opened with statistical software‘s for analysis
4) Role of Computers in Data Analysis

This phase consist of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of results.

Data Analysis: Much software is now available to perform the ‗mathematical part ‗of the
research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods. Software‘s like
SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sysat are some of the widely used. They can be like
calculating the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and calculating the
power of the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most
intricate statistical analyses.

Computers are useful not only for statistical analyses, but also to monitor the accuracy and
completeness of the data as they are collected
5) Role of Computers in Research Dissemination

This phase is the publication of the research study.

Research publishing: The research article is typed in word format and converted to portable data format (PDF) and
stored and/or published in the World Wide Web.

Use of Computer in Data Processing and Tabulation

Research involves large amounts of data, which can be handled manually or by computers. Computers provide the best
alternative for more than one reason. Besides its capacity to process large amounts of data, it also analyses data with the
help of a number of statistical procedures. Computers carry out processing and analysis of data flawlessly and with a
very high speed. The statistical analysis that took months earlier takes now a few seconds or few minutes. Today,
availability of statistical software and access to computers has increased substantially over the last few years all over the
world. While there are many specialized software application packages for different types of data analysis, Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is one such package that is often used by researchers for data processing and
analysis. It is preferred choice for social work research analysis due to its easy to use interface and comprehensive range
of data manipulation and analytical tools
Building Trustworthiness and Credibility in Qualitative Research
1. Credibility in Qualitative Research

Credibility is a measure of the truth value of qualitative research, or whether the study‘s findings are
correct and accurate. To some degree, it relies on the credibility of the researchers themselves, as
well as their research methods. Triangulation, prolonged engagement with data, persistent
observation, negative case analysis, member checks, and referential adequacy are all procedures that
can be used to increase the credibility of qualitative studies.

2. Transferability in Qualitative Research

As the name implies, transferability measures whether, or to what extent, the study‘s results are
applicable within other contexts, circumstances and settings. It also can be thought of in terms of
generalizability. In order to demonstrate transferability in qualitative research, you can utilize thick
description, which involves providing adequate details on the site, participants and methods or
procedures used to collect data during your study.
3. Dependability in Qualitative Research

Dependability is used to measure or demonstrate the consistency and reliability of your

study‘s results. This starts by tracking the precise methods you use for data collection,
analysis and interpretation and providing adequate contextual information about each piece,
so that the study could theoretically be replicated by other researchers and generate consistent
results. An inquiry audit—performed by an outside person—is one tool used to examine the
dependability of a qualitative study. Alternatively, screening parameters can be used to
solidify research dependability.
4. Confirmability in Qualitative Research

In terms of confirmability, you want to prove that your qualitative research is neutral and not
influenced by the assumptions or biases of the researchers. Rather, trustworthy research
should produce findings that objectively reflect information collected from participants. In
other words, your data should speak for itself. Confirmability is often demonstrated by
providing an audit trail that details each step of data analysis and shows that your findings
aren‘t colored by conscious or unconscious bias but accurately portray the participants‘
responses.
Strengths of Qualitative Research

• Flexibility
• In-depth and detailed information
• The use of multiple data collection tools
• Integration of human touch
• Minimizing chances of missing data
• Cost-effectiveness
• Overcoming the limitation of quantitative research