Unit-4- Electrical Machines

Lecture-2

Rotor emf, current and power factor:

The revolving magnetic field set up in the stator by poly phase currents is common
to both stator and rotor winding. This field induces emfs. in both the windings. The
stator induced emf per phase is given by the relation;
E1 = 4.44 kw1 T1 f m …(i)
Where kw1 = winding factor
T1 = No. of turns/phase of stator winding;
f = stator or supply frequency and
m = maximum value of flux.
The rotor induced emf/phase, E2 = 4.44 kw2 T2 fr m …(ii)
Where fr is the rotor current frequency, and under stationary condition i.e., at the
start fr = f.
Therefore, rotor induced emf/phase at stand still or start, E2s = 4.44 kw2 T2 f m
From eq. (ii), induced emf in the rotor under running condition,
E2 = 4·44 kw2 T2 (sf) m= sE2s (fr = f)
The induced emf in the rotor circuit is maximum at the start and varies according to
the value of slip under running condition.

Rotor Resistance: Since the rotor winding is made of some conducting material
(copper or aluminium), it has a definite resistance (R= ρl/a). Its value remains
constant and is denoted by R2.
Rotor Reactance: Whole of the flux produced by the rotor currents does not link
with the stator winding. The part of rotor flux which links the rotor conductors but
not with the stator winding is called leakages flux and hence develops leakage
inductance (L2). Then
Rotor reactance, X2 = 2π fr L2 = 2π sf L2 = s (2π f L2)
Where
fr = rotor frequency = sf (slip*stator frequency)
L2 = leakage inductance
Rotor Impedance:
Rotor impedance, = R2 +j X2 = R2 + j sX2s
Magnitude of rotor impedance,
Rotor Current and Power Factor:
The rotor circuit diagram of an induction motor is shown in Fig-7

Fig-7- Rotor circuit diagram

At standstill condition
Induced emf per phase in rotor = E 2
Rotor impedance Z 2 = (R2)2+(X2)2
𝐸2
Rotor current, I2 = E2/Z2 = 𝐼2 =
𝑅22 + 𝑋22
𝑅2
Power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 =
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22 Fig-8-Rotor equivalent circuit

At running condition (slip s)

Induced emf per phase in rotor = sE 2
Rotor impedance Z 2 = (R2)2+(sX2)2
𝑠𝐸2
Rotor current, 𝐼2 =
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22
𝑅2
Power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 =
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22 Fig-9-Simplified equivalent
circuit
𝐸2
Eq. for current may be rewritten as 𝐼2 =
𝑅2 2
+ 𝑋22
𝑠

The above equation gives convenient form of rotor ezuivalent circuit as shown in
Fig-8
The resistance R 2/s is a function of slip and can be split into two parts

and R2 represents rotor resistance. The final simplified equivalent circuit for rotor
shown in Fig-9.
Rotor Torque:
The torque T developed by the rotor is directly proportional to (i) rotor current (ii)
rotor e.m.f. and (iii) power factor of the rotor circuit
T E2I2 cos2 (1)
or T = K E2I2 cos2 (2)
where I2 = rotor current at standstill
E2 = rotor e.m.f. at standstill
cos2 = rotor p.f. at standstill
Torque under Running condition (T)
𝑠𝐸2 𝑅2
Substitute Rotor current, 𝐼2 = and Power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 = in
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22 𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22

equation (2), then torque developed by induction motor rotor is

𝑠𝐸2 𝑅2 𝐾𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
Rotor current, 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐸2   = (3)
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22 𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22

From above equation, the running torque is proportional to the square of supply
voltage because rotor induced emf E 2 is proportional to supply voltage.
Starting Torque (Ts)
At start rotor is stationary and so the slip the slip, s = 1.0 and the staring torque may be
obtained by substituting s = 1.0 in eq. (3)
𝐾𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = (4)
𝑅22 + 𝑋22

Generally, the stator supply voltage is constant, so the rotating flux set up by the
stator current and rotor induced emf E 2 are also constant.
𝐾1 𝑅2
So, 𝑇𝑠𝑡 = where K1 is another constant
𝑅22 + 𝑋22

Condition for maximum running torque (Ts)

𝐾𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
Running torque is 𝑇 = 𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22

𝑠 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2
Torque will be maximum when or 𝑅2
or 𝑅2 is maximum viz
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22 2 + 𝑠𝑋 2 − 𝑋2 𝑠 + 2𝑅2 𝑋2
𝑠 2 𝑠

𝑅2
− 𝑋2 𝑠 =0 or s= R2/X2
𝑠

Substitute s= R2/X2 in eq. (3)

𝐾𝐸22 𝑅22 /𝑋2 𝐾𝐸22
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = (5)
𝑅22 + 𝑅22 2𝑋2
It is evident from the above equations that:
(i) The value of rotor resistance does not alter the value of the maximum torque
but only the value of the slip at which it occurs.
(ii) The maximum torque varies inversely as the standstill reactance. Therefore, it
should be kept as small as possible.
(iii) The maximum torque varies directly with the square of the applied voltage.
(iv) To obtain maximum torque at starting (s = 1), the rotor resistance must be
made equal to rotor reactance at standstill.
Torque-Slip Characteristics:
The motor torque under running conditions is given by;
𝐾𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇=
𝑅22 + 𝑠 2 𝑋22
If a curve is drawn between the torque and slip for a particular value of rotor
resistance R2, the graph thus obtained is called torque-slip characteristic. Fig.-10
shows a family of torque-slip characteristics for a slip-range from s = 0 to s = 1 for
various values of rotor resistance.

Fig-10 Torque-slip characteristics

The following points may be noted carefully:
(i) At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts from the origin.
(ii) At normal speed, slip is small so that sX2 is negligible as compared to R2.
 T  s /R2
s as R2 is constant
Hence torque slip curve is a straight line from zero slip to a slip that corresponds to
full-load.
(iii) As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the torque increases and becomes
maximum at s = R2/X2. This maximum torque in an induction motor is called pull-out
torque or break-down torque. Its value is at least twice the full-load value when the
motor is operated at rated voltage and frequency.
(iv) with higher value of slip, the term 𝑠 2 𝑋22 increases very rapidly so that 𝑅22 may be
neglected as compared 𝑠 2 𝑋22
 T s / 𝑠 2 𝑋22
1/ s ... as X2 is constant
Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence torque-slip curve is a
rectangular hyperbola.
(v) The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of the value of rotor
resistance. Therefore, the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit does not change
the value of maximum torque but it only changes the value of slip at which maximum
torque occurs.

Losses in an Induction Motor:

Various losses which occur in an induction motor during energy conversions are
given below:
(i) Constant losses (ii) Variable losses.
(i) Constant losses: The losses which are independent of the load and remain
constant irrespective of the load variation are called constant losses. These losses
may be:
(a) Core losses: These include hysteresis and eddy current losses in stator as well as
in rotor core. Eddy current losses in rotor core is negligible since rotor current
frequency is very small of the order of 0·5 to 2 Hz. These losses are constant or fixed
losses since these depend upon voltage and frequency which is practically constant.
(b) Friction and windage losses: These losses are also constant as these losses depend
upon the speed of the induction motor. The speed of induction motor is
approximately constant (for normal running, slip is very small). These losses occur
in the machine because of power loss due to friction at the bearings and to overcome
wind resistance. Additional sliding friction loss occur in the slip ring induction
motor.
(ii) Variable losses: The losses which depend on the load and change with the
variation in load are called variable losses. These losses are:
(a) I2R loss in stator winding.
(b) I2 R loss in rotor winding.
There losses occur due to the resistance of stator winding as well as resistance of
rotor winding. This loss is also called copper loss. It is proportional to the square of
the current following in the stator as well as in rotor winding.
(c) Brush contact loss: This loss occurs only in slip ring induction motors. This is
occurring because of contact resistance between brushes and slip rings. Its
magnitude is very small since contact resistance is made minimum.
(iii) Stray losses: These losses are occurring in iron as well winding of the machine.
These cannot be determined exactly but are accounted for when the efficiency of the
machine is calculated, by suitable factor.

Efficiency: the standard definition of efficiency (output power/input power)

applied to the induction motor.
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑚 =  100
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 + 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 +
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 ℎ
or 𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 ℎ +𝑃𝑐𝑜 𝑛𝑠𝑡 +𝑃𝑐𝑢
 100

Advantages and disadvantages of Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
Advantages
1. Cost of construction is low comparatively.
2. These motors are rugged in construction and mechanically robust.
3. Copper losses in cage rotor are low hence, their efficiency in high.
4. There is no overhang of rotor winding hence, their length is smaller.
5. Slip-rungs and brushes are not used, therefore, their maintenance cost is low and
there is no risk of sparking.
6. These can be cooled down comfortably by using large fans on the sides since more
space is available.
7. These motors have almost constant speed, high over-load capacity and starting
arrangement.

Disadvantages
1. These motors have low starting torque (1.5 to 2 times the full-load torque) with
large starting current (5 to 9 times the full-load current). Their power factor is also
low.
2. Speed cannot be controlled comfortably.
3. These motor are very sensitive to supply voltage fluctuations.
4. During starting, there is more energy loss in comparison to slip-ring induction
motors.
Therefore these motors are not used where frequent starting is required.
Slip-ring Induction Motors
Advantages
1. In these motors, external resistance can be added in the rotor circuit at start.
Hence heavy starting torque at low starting current can be obtained. The maximum
torque can be obtained at the start by making rotor resistance equal to standstill
rotor reactance (i.e., R2= X2S).
2. Speed of the motor can be controlled or adjusted as per need by simply inserting
external resistance in the rotor circuit.

Disadvantages
1. Cost of construction is high comparatively.
2. Rotor copper losses are more in these motors and hence the efficiency is low in
comparison to squirrel cage induction motors.
3. The size of these motors is larger due to overhang or rotor winding and slip-rings.
4. Repair and maintenance charges of these motors are more because of slip -rings
and brushes.
5. Because of overhang of rotor winding and slip-rings larges fans cannot be
accommodated which affects its cooling.

Applications of Three-phase Induction Motors:

The applications of squirrel cage induction motors and slip-ring (phase wound)
induction motors are given below:
1. Squirrel cage induction motors: These motors are mechanically robust and are
operated almost at constant speed. These motors operate at high power factor and
have high over load capacity. However, these motors have low starting torque. (i.e.,
these motors cannot pick-up heavy loads) and draw heavy current at start. On the
bases of these characteristics, these motors are best suited for:
(i) Printing machinery (ii) Flour mills (iii) Saw mills (iv) Shaft drives of small
industries (v) Pumps (vi) Prime-movers with small generators etc.
2. Slip-ring (or phase-wound) induction motors: These motors have all the
important characteristics (advantage) of squirrel cage induction motors and at the
same time have the ability to pick-up heavy loads at start drawing smaller current
from the mains. Accordingly these motors are best suited for;
(i) Rolling mills (ii) Lifts and hoists (iii) Big flour mills (iv) Large pumps (iv) Line
shafts of heavy industries (vi) Prime-moves with medium and large generators.