Semester – 1 (2020-2021)

Technical Overview of Casting Process and Sustainability Measures

EPP 201 – Manufacturing Technology I

Assignment – 2

Prepared by:
Muhammed Shahan Poomadath (149616)

Prepared for:
Dr Sareh Aiman Hilmi Bin Abu Seman

Date: 13/11/2020
Introduction
Casting is a process in which a liquid metal is somehow delivered into a mold that contains a hollow cavity of the
intended shape. The metal and mold are then cooled, and the metal part is extracted. Casting processes have been known
for thousands of years and have been widely used for sculpture (especially in bronze), jewelry in precious metals, and
weapons and tools. Traditional techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting, and sand casting. The modern
casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken
down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring methods, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.

Major Classes of Casting

Expendable mold Casting
Expendable mold casting is a casting method that uses temporary or single-use molds and on solidifying the mold in
these processes is broken up to remove the casting. The most common forms of expendable mold casting are sand
casting, plaster casting, investment (lost wax) casting, and evaporative pattern casting. The materials used in this type
are refractory. i.e. They can withstand high temperatures.

Non-expendable mold Casting

Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not be reformed after each
production cycle. In this type, Molds are made of metals that maintain their strength at high temperatures. Metals being
a better heat conductor, the cast in this process is subjected to a higher rate of cooling thereby affecting microstructure
and grain size. This technique includes at least four different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous
casting.

Composite mold Casting

This type of molds combines the advantages of both expendable and non-expendable molds. The molds are made of
two or more materials and have both permanent and expendable portion. Composite molds are used in the various casting
process to improve mold strength, to control the cooling rates, and to optimize the cost of the process.

Expendable-Mold, Permanent-Pattern Casting Process

Sand Casting
Sand casting is the most widely used casting process. It utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts
that can be made of nearly any alloy. Because the sand mold must be destroyed to remove the part, called the casting,
sand casting typically has a low production rate. The process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand
mold. The metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the sand mold, which is formed
by the pattern. The sand mold separates along a parting line and the solidified casting can be removed. Most sand casting
operations use silica sand (SiO2) as the mold material. Sand is inexpensive and has high-temperature characteristics and
a high melting point. There are two general types of sand: naturally bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand). During
sand selection, the sand having fine and round grains are selected to form a smooth mold surface. However, fine grain
sand with increasing mold strength also lowers the mold permeability thereby trapping gases and steam evolved during
casting. Good collapsibility of mold is also recommended which allows shrinkage while cooling due to which hot tearing
and cracking can be avoided. There are three basic types of sand molds: green-sand, cold-box, and no-bake molds. Green
molding sand is a mixture of sand, clay, and water. The term “green” refers to the fact that the sand in the mold is moist
or damp while the metal is being poured into it. It is the least expensive method of making and allows reusing of sand.
In the cold-box mold process, various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand to bond the grains
chemically for greater strength without the use of heat whereas in the no-bake mold process, a synthetic liquid resin is
mixed with the sand and the mixture hardens at room temperature. Sand casting is done by hand hammering (tamping)
or ramming it around the pattern by molding machines. These machines eliminate arduous labor, increase casting
quality, and manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled manner to increase production.

Shell Molding
Shell molding is unique because it uses resin-covered sand as a base material. When the sand is poured into the heated
mold, it fills the mold cavity while reacting with the heat. This reaction causes some of the resin-covered sand to form
a shell inside the mold, which is removed using ejector pins. Two half-shells are made in this manner and are bonded or
clamped together to form a mold. Shell sand has a much lower permeability than the sand used for green-sand molding.
The decomposition of shell-sand binder produces a high volume of gas thereby requiring the molds to be vented
properly. Trapped air and gas can cause serious problems in the shell molding of ferrous castings. This method provides
a high-quality finish, reduces cleaning, machining, and other finishing costs, and produces complex shapes with less
labor allowing the process to be automated easily.

Plaster-mold Casting
This process uses a mixture of gypsum, strengthening compounds, and water to create a mold. The plaster used is not
pure Plaster of Paris and has additives like talc or magnesium that improve green strength, dry strength, permeability,
and castability which prevents cracking and reduces setting time. Due to the low permeability of plaster molds, gases
evolved during solidification are often trapped. This problem could be overcome by pouring molten metal in a vacuum
or under pressure. Mold permeability could also be increased by the Antioch process or by using foamed plaster
containing trapped air bubbles. This type of casting provides a good surface finish with fine details, and also a more
uniform grain structure with less warpage due to slow cooling.

Ceramic-mold Casting
A ceramic slurry containing a mixture of fine-grained zircon (ZrSiO4), aluminum oxide, and fused silica, is poured over
a relief pattern that may be made of wood or metal and left to solidify to form a cavity mold in the shape of the component
to be cast containing cope and drag parts. Each ceramic part is then hardened by high-temperature firing and then fitted
together to make one hollow mold to cast the molten metal. These molds can be used for casting ferrous and other high-
temperature alloys, stainless steels, and tool steels due to the high-temperature resistance of refractory molding
materials. Even though this process is a bit expensive, it can be used to produces castings having good dimensional
accuracy, surface finish, and intricate shapes.

Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes

Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam Process)
It is a type of casting process that uses a pattern made from a material like polystyrene foam that will evaporate when
the molten metal is poured into the molding cavity. This process is also known as lost-foam casting and falls under the
trade name full-mold process. In this process, polystyrene beads containing 5 to 8% pentane are placed in a preheated
die that is usually made of aluminum. The polystyrene expands and takes the shape of the die cavity. Additional heat is
applied to fuse and bond the beads together. The die is then cooled and opened, and the polystyrene pattern is removed.
The pattern is coated with a water-based refractory slurry, dried, and placed in a flask. The flask is then filled with loose,
fine sand, which surrounds and supports the pattern. After compacting the sand periodically, molten metal is poured
into the mold which vaporizes the pattern and fills the mold cavity. This process has several advantages which include
design flexibility, minimal finishing and cleaning operations, and the possibility of automation. It is also economical for
long production runs but has drawbacks like the high cost of production of die used for expanding the polystyrene beads
to make the pattern and the need for two sets of tooling. This process can also be modified into the Repicast® C-S process
in which a ceramic shell surrounds the polystyrene pattern due to which carbon pickup into the metal is avoided.

Investment Casting
In this process, a wax or suitable polymer pattern is coated by dipping into the refractory material slurry. Once the
refractory material coating is hardened then this dipping process is repeated several times to increase the coating
thickness and its strength. Once the final coating is hardened the wax is melted out and molten metal is poured into the
cavity created by the wax pattern. Once the metal solidifies within the mold, metal casting is removed by breaking the
refractory mold. The term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is invested (surrounded) with the refractory
material. This process is suitable for casting high-melting-point alloys with good surface finish, close dimensional
tolerances requiring few or no finishing operations, and intricate shapes. A variation of the investment-casting process
called ceramic-shell casting is used extensively for the precision casting of steels and high-temperature alloys.
Permanent-Mold Casting Processes
Vacuum Casting
This process is also called countergravity low-pressure process and is used as an alternative to investment, shell-mold,
and green-sand casting. This process is suitable for casting thin-walled complex shapes with uniform properties. In this
process, a mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal dies and cured with amine vapor. The mold is then
held with a robot arm and immersed partially into molten metal held in an induction furnace. The vacuum then reduces
the air pressure inside the mold which draws the molten metal into the mold cavities. After solidification, the mold is
filled, and molten metal is then withdrawn. The production costs for this process are similar to those for green-sand
casting and it also provides the possibility of automation.

Slush Casting
It is a variant of permanent molding casting which is used to create a hollow casting or hollow cast. In the process, the
material is poured into the mold and allowed to cool until a shell of material forms in the mold. The remaining liquid is
then poured out to leave a hollow shell. The resulting casting has good surface detail, but the wall thickness can vary.
The process is usually used to cast ornamental and decorative products using low-melting-point metals such as zinc, tin,
and lead alloys.

Pressure Casting
It is a type of permanent-mold process in which the molten metal is forced upward by gas pressure into a graphite or
metal mold and the pressure is maintained until the metal has solidified completely in the mold. The molten metal also
may be forced upward by a vacuum, which removes dissolved gases and produces a casting with lower porosity. This
process is generally used for high-quality castings and is used to produce parts such as steel railroad-car wheels.

Die Casting
Die casting is a semi or fully automated casting process in which the liquid melt is pressed into a mold under high
pressure. Usually, alloys with a low melting point are used. This casting process is particularly suitable for series and
mass production of components. It is also possible to produce large and complex components with low wall thicknesses.
It includes mainly types; hot-chamber and cold-chamber process. In the hot-chamber process, dies usually are cooled
by circulating water or oil through various passageways in the die block to improve die life and to help in rapid metal
cooling. In the cold-chamber process, the chamber is not heated, and the molten metal is poured into the injection
cylinder. Die casting produces smooth surfaces with good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. It can also be used
to produce strong, high-quality parts with complex shapes, especially with aluminum, brass, magnesium, and zinc. Die-
casting dies may be a single cavity, multiple cavity, combination cavity, or unit dies and are usually made of hot-work
die steels or mild steels.

Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is a process that delivers components of high material soundness. As a result, it is the technology of
choice for applications like jet engine compressor cases, hydro wear rings, many military products, and other high-
reliability applications. It has also proven to be a cost-effective means of providing complex shapes with reduced
machining requirements and lower manufacturing costs as compared to forgings and fabrications. In this process, the
molten metal is poured into a preheated, spinning die. The die may be oriented either on a vertical or horizontal axis
depending on the configuration of the desired part. By spinning a mold while the molten metal is poured into it,
centrifugal force acts to distribute the molten metal in the mold. The combination of this applied pressure and the
engineering mechanics of controlled solidification and secondary refining produces components of superior quality. The
three types of centrifugal casting are True Centrifugal Casting; used to produce hollow cylindrical parts, Semicentrifugal
Casting; used to produce parts with rotational symmetry, and Centrifuging.

Squeeze Casting
This process involves the solidification of molten metal under high pressure. The machinery includes a die, punch, and
ejector pin. The pressure applied by the punch keeps the entrapped gases in solution. The pressures required in squeeze
casting are lower than those for hot or cold forging. Squeeze casting results in fine microstructure with good mechanical
properties due to rapid heat transfer and can also be used to produce complex parts with fine surface detail.

Semisolid-metal Forming
This process combines the advantages of casting and forging and is named after the fluid thixotropic property, which is
the phenomenon that allows this process to work. In this process, the metal entering the die is stirred so that all the
dendrites are crushed into fine solids, and when cooled in the die it develops into a fine-grained structure. Four semisolid
metal casting processes are being used today: thixomolding, thixocasting, rheocasting, and stress-induced melt
activation (SIMA). The advantages of this process over die casting include the development of homogenous structures
with uniform properties, lower porosity, and high strength, production possibility of thick and thin parts, the usability
of the cast as well as wrought alloys, and the possibility of heat treatment. This process also results in shorter cycle
times due to lower superheat results. However, the overall cost of production of this process is higher than die casting.

Design Consideration
Some general rules must be followed to produce castings that are free from defects and meet various specifications and
standards. These rules are normally applicable to shape of the castings and techniques to minimize hot spots that could
lead to shrinkage cavities. Nature of liquid metal flow in molds and dies and the rate of cooling in different regions also
affect the produced castings.

Sustainable Manufacturing using Casting Process:

Sustainability is one the most important criteria in all aspect of human existence including manufacturing. Let us
investigate some of the ways to make manufacturing using casting processes sustainable.
1. Using simulation to design most appropriate product development process. Simulation results from case
studies have shown that it is possible to use existing simulation technologies to analyze and also improve the
energy efficiency without too much extra effort. These studies have shown potential for reducing energy
and material use through reduced melting temperature, designing appropriate gating system for each specific
alloy.[1]
2. Green-sand molds must be used in sand casting whenever possible due to the fact the sand can be recycled
easily for subsequent reuse. It is also has comparatively the least expensive method of mold production.[2]
3. In investment casting, which is not generally considered an environment friendly method, wax patterns must
be preferred over plastic patterns because wax can be recovered and reused.[3]
4. In this technologically advanced era, 3-D printing is finding itself in the forefront to replace traditional and
conventional methods of mold making. 3-D printing makes it possible to produce highly complex parts as well
provides a method to replace energy/resource intensive and time-consuming trial and error method of
conventional mold making.[4]
5. Social sustainability must also be emphasized on when talking about sustainable manufacturing. For small
production enterprises, it is necessary to select a casting process that not only focuses on green manufacturing
but also on the economic factor, so that in the long run, the enterprise’s collapse doesn’t disturb the social
structure.[5]
6. Use of dry lubricants in injection plunger in Die Casting process rather than using conventional wet lubricants
which usually end up diluting local waterways around the production plant. Dry lubricants are clean, user-
friendly beads which may or may not include graphite and which can come in different sizes depending upon
the plunger tips they need to lubricate.[6]
7. Recent advancements in centrifugal casting by use of a variable-speed rotating turntable under electronic
control allows us to introduce molten metal into the cavity by combining gravity feed and centrifugal force
feed. This process significantly improves energy efficiency, reduces waste, and minimizes the need for risers
and may eliminate vents through a process that uses both gravity feed and centrifugal force feed, to very
accurately control the flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity. It also minimizes the amount of metal
remaining in the sprue when the metal cools. The riser can be of minimal size thereby minimizing waste.[7]
8. While casting aluminum alloys, the process of semi-solid casting should be preferred over conventional die
casting due to the considerable extension in tool life for semi-solid casting.[8]
9. In investment casting, recently developed rapid drying chambers, allows for the layering process to take place
in a fraction of the time that it previously took to form a layered investment casting shell. Using this
technology, investment casting products can be produced at a much faster thereby ensuring efficient use of
energy.[9]
10. For shell molding, research results show that thermal reclamation of the used foundry sand helps in achieving
sustainability, and selection of optimal process parameters like percentage of resin, catalyst, and fresh silica
sand addition are very important in the process of shell molding.[10]
References
• Casting Process and Types
Chapter 11-Chapter 12, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6th Edition, Serope Kalpakjian, Stephen
Schmid

• Sustainable Manufacturing using Casting Process

1. Svensson, I.L.: Component Casting with Simulation,” School of Engineering, Jonkoping University,
Sweden, 2001
2. Section 11.2.1: (263), Chapter 11, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6th Edition, Serope
Kalpakjian, Stephen Schmid
3. Section 11.3.2: (273), Chapter 11, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6th Edition, Serope
Kalpakjian, Stephen Schmid
4. https://www.spotlightmetal.com/environmental-economic-and-social-sustainability-in-foundries-a-806710/
5. https://www.spotlightmetal.com/environmental-economic-and-social-sustainability-in-foundries-a-806710/
6. https://diecasting.com/blog/2017/11/13/importance-of-lubricants-in-die-casting/
7. https://www.foundrymag.com/issues-and-ideas/article/21928244/advanced-centrifugal-casting-for-complex-
geometries
8. https://www.foundrymag.com/melt-pour/article/21928694/the-benefits-of-semisolid-casting-for-aluminum-
alloys
9. https://blog.iqsdirectory.com/investment-casting-process-2/
10. P. Kumar- N. Mohandas Gandhi.2020, Achieving environmental sustainability in the shell mould foundry
through thermal reclamation. Transactions of the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engine, 44(2):325-
332.