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Chapter 13 Exponential Functions and Logarithms

This document provides an overview of exponential functions and logarithms. It introduces exponential functions of the form f(x) = kax, where k is a non-zero constant, a is the base, and describes their properties and applications. The key objectives are to understand manipulating exponential expressions using index laws, sketching graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions, and solving exponential and logarithmic equations. Examples are provided to demonstrate multiplying and dividing powers using the index laws.

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Chapter 13 Exponential Functions and Logarithms

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13

Chapter 13
Exponential functions
and logarithms

Objectives
To understand the rules for manipulating exponential expressions.
To deﬁne exponential functions and to sketch their graphs.
To solve exponential equations.
To evaluate logarithmic expressions.
To solve equations using logarithmic methods.
To sketch graphs of functions of the form y = loga x and simple transformations of this.
To understand and use a range of exponential models.
To apply logarithmic scales.

The function f (x) = ka x , where k is a non-zero constant and the base a is a positive real
number other than 1, is called an exponential function.
Consider the following example of an exponential function. Assume that a particular
biological organism reproduces by dividing every minute. The following table shows the
population, P, after n one-minute intervals (assuming that all organisms are still alive).

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
P 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 2n

Thus P deﬁnes a function which has the rule P = 2n , an exponential function.

In this chapter, the work on functions in this course is continued. Many of the concepts
introduced in Chapter 5 – such as domain, range, transformations and inverse functions – are
used in the context of exponential and logarithmic functions.
There are many applications of exponential and logarithmic functions, and some of these are
investigated in the ﬁnal two sections of this chapter.

13A The index laws

Skillsheet The expression an is called a power, where a is a non-zero number called the base and
n is a number called the exponent or index. In this section we concentrate on indices that
are integers.
We note that, if n is positive, then 0n = 0. But if n is negative or zero, then 0n is undeﬁned.

Index law 1: Multiplying powers

Index law 1
To multiply two powers with the same base, add the indices.
am × an = am+n

If m and n are positive integers,

then am =
a × a × ··· × a
m terms

and a =
n
a × a × ··· × a
n terms

∴ am × an = (a × a × · · · × a) × (a
× a × · · · × a)

m terms n terms

=
a × a × ··· × a
(m+n) terms

= am+n

Example 1
Simplify each of the following:
a 23 × 212 b x 2 y3 × x 4 y c 2 x × 2 x+2 d 3a2 b3 × 4a3 b3

Solution Explanation
a 23 × 212 = 23+12 When multiplying powers with the same base,
=2 15 add the indices.

b x 2 y3 × x 4 y = x 2 × x 4 × y 3 × y In part b, the indices of the base-x powers are added,

= x6 y4 and the indices of the base-y powers are added.
Note that y = y1 .
c 2 x × 2 x+2 = 2 x+x+2 In part c, we use x + x + 2 = 2x + 2.
=2 2x+2

d 3a2 b3 × 4a3 b3 In part d, the indices of the base-a powers are added,
=3×4×a ×a ×b ×b 2 3 3 3 the indices of the base-b powers are added, and the
factors that are numerals are multiplied together.
= 12a5 b6

Using the TI-Nspire

Parts b, c and d can be simpliﬁed as shown: the
TI-Nspire will simplify automatically.
Note: When using ∧ to enter indices, you
need to use either or to return to
the baseline.

Using the Casio ClassPad

To enter expressions involving powers, use the
power button O found in the Math1 keyboard.
Tap EXE to obtain the simpliﬁed expression.
Note: Tap the stylus under the index to return the
cursor to the baseline.
The pronumerals a and b must be selected
from the Var keyboard.

Index law 2: Dividing powers

Index law 2
To divide two powers with the same base, subtract the indices.
am ÷ an = am−n

If m and n are positive integers with m > n, then

m terms

a × a × ··· × a
a ÷a =
m n
a × a × ··· × a

n terms

=
a × a × ··· × a (by cancelling)
(m−n) terms

= am−n

Example 2
Simplify each of the following:
x 4 y3 b4x × b x+1 16a5 b × 4a4 b3
a 2 2 b c
x y b2x 8ab

Solution Explanation
x4 y3
a = x4−2 y3−2 When dividing powers with the same
x 2 y2
base, subtract the indices.
= x2 y
In part a, the indices of the base-x
b4x × b x+1 powers are subtracted, and the indices
b = b4x+x+1−2x
b2x of the base-y powers are subtracted.
= b3x+1
In parts b and c, both index law 1 and
16a5 b × 4a4 b3 16 × 4 index law 2 are used. In part c, the
c = × a5+4−1 × b1+3−1
8ab 8 factors that are numerals are grouped
= 8a8 b3 together and simpliﬁed.

The zero index and negative integer indices

1
Deﬁne a0 = 1 for a 0, and deﬁne a−n = for a 0.
an

Index laws 1 and 2 also hold for negative indices m, n.

For example:
24 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
24 × 2−2 = = = 22 (i.e. 24+(−2) )
22 2×2
1 1 1
2−4 ÷ 22 = × 2 = 4 = 2−6 (i.e. 2−4−2 )
24 2 2 × 22
1
23 ÷ 23 = 23 × = 1 = 20 (i.e. 23−3 )
23
2 3
The reciprocal of a fraction such as is . For fractions, the index −1 means ‘the
3 2
reciprocal of’. For example:
2 −1 3
=
3 2
When raising a fraction to other negative indices, take the reciprocal ﬁrst. For example:
5 −2 6 2 36
= =
6 5 25

Example 3
Evaluate each of the following:
1 −4 3 −3
a 8−2 b c
2 4

Solution
1 2 1 1 −4 3 −3 4 3 64
a 8−2 = = b = 24 = 16 c = =
8 64 2 4 3 27

Index law 3: Raising the power

Consider the following:
(23 )2 = 23 × 23 = 23+3 = 26 = 23×2
(43 )4 = 43 × 43 × 43 × 43 = 43+3+3+3 = 412 = 43×4
(a2 )5 = a2 × a2 × a2 × a2 × a2 = a2+2+2+2+2 = a10 = a2×5
In general, (am )n = am×n .

Index law 3
To raise a power to another power, multiply the indices.
(am )n = am×n
This rule holds for all integers m and n.

Example 4
Simplify each of the following:
−3 2
1
a (a ) 5 3
b c (b3 )2 × (b2 )−1
2

Solution Explanation
a (a ) = a
5 3 15
Index law 3 is used.
−3 2 −6
1 1
b = = 26 = 64 For part b, the following calculation is
2 2
probably preferable:
2
1 −3
2 = (23 )2 = 82 = 64
c (b3 )2 × (b2 )−1 = b6 × b−2 = b4 In part c, index law 1 is also used.

Index laws 4 and 5: Products and quotients

Index law 4
(ab)n = an bn

If n is a positive integer, then

(ab)n = (ab) × (ab) × · · · × (ab)

n terms

= (a × a × · · · × a) × (b
× b × · · · × b)

n terms n terms

=a b n n

Index law 5
a n an
=
b bn

If n is a positive integer, then

a n a a a
= × × ··· ×
b b b b
n
a
= n
b

Example 5
Simplify each of the following:
3
4 −2 2a3 b2
a (2a b ) × (3ab )
2 3 3
b ÷ (ab−1 c)3
abc2

Solution Explanation
4 −2 −2 −2 −8
a (2a b ) × (3ab )
2 3 3
= 8a b × 3 a b
6 9
In part a, index law 4 is used, and then
1
8a4 b laws 3 and 1 and the fact that 3−2 = .
= 9
9
3
2a3 b2 8a9 b6 1
b ÷ (ab−1 c)3 = × In part b, index law 5 is used. Dividing
abc2 a3 b3 c6 a3 b−3 c3
by a fraction always means multiply by
8a3 b6
= the reciprocal of that fraction.
c9

Working with a negative base

The power (−a)n can be written as (−1 × a)n = (−1)n (a)n . We note that:
If n is even, then (−1)n = 1.
If n is odd, then (−1)n = −1.
Hence, if a is a positive number, then the number (−a)n is positive when n is even and
negative when n is odd.

Example 6
Simplify each of the following:
a (−3)4 b (−5a)3 c (−2a)3 × 3a2

Solution
a (−3)4 = 81 b (−5a)3 = −125a3 c (−2a)3 × 3a2 = −8a3 × 3a2
= −24a5

Using prime decomposition

Bases that are composite numbers are often best factored into primes before further
calculations are undertaken.

Example 7
Simplify the following, expressing the answers in positive-index form:
3−3 × 64 × 12−3 32n × 6n
a 12n × 18−2n b c
9−4 × 2−2 8n × 3n
Solution Explanation
a 12n × 18−2n = (3 × 22 )n × (32 × 2)−2n The prime decomposition of 12 is
−4n −2n
=3 ×2 ×3
n 2n
×2 12 = 22 × 3
= 3−3n × 20 The prime decomposition of 18 is
1
= 3n 18 = 2 × 32
3
−3 Each number in this question can be
3−3 × 64 × 12 3−3 × 24 × 34 × 2−6 × 3−3
b = expressed using powers of 2 and 3.
9−4 × 2−2 3−4 × 3−4 × 2−2
3−2 × 2−2 Index law 4 is used in each of the
= parts. For example:
3−8 × 2−2
= 36 12−3 = (22 × 3)−3
= (22 )−3 × 3−3
32n × 6n (3n × 3n ) × (3n × 2n )
c = = 2−6 × 3−3
8n × 3n 23n × 3n
3n × 3n
=
22n
3 2n
=
2

Section summary
The expression an is called a power, where a is a non-zero number called the base and
n is a number called the exponent or index.
Index laws The following results hold for all non-zero numbers a and b and all
integers m and n:
1 am × an = am+n 2 am ÷ an = am−n 3 (am )n = amn
a n an
4 (ab)n = an bn 5 = n
b b
For every non-zero number a and positive integer n:
• a0 = 1
1 1
• a−n = n
and −n = an
a a
0n = 0, if n is a positive integer, and 00 is undeﬁned.

Exercise 13A

1 For each of the following, use the stated rule to give an equivalent expression in
simplest form:
a x2 × x3 b 2 × x3 × x4 × 4 Index law 1
x5 4x6
c d Index law 2
x3 2x3
e (a3 )2 f (23 )2 Index law 3
g (xy)2 h (x2 y3 )2 Index law 4 (also use law 3 for h)
x 3 3 2
x
i j Index law 5 (also use law 3 for j)
y y2

Example 1 2 Simplify each of the following:

a 35 × 312 b x 3 y2 × x 4 y3 c 3 x+1 × 33x+2 d 5a3 b2 × 6a2 b4

Example 2 3 Simplify each of the following:

x 5 y2 b5x × b2x+1 8a2 b × 3a5 b2
a 3 b c
x y b3x 6a2 b2
Example 3 4 Evaluate each of the following:
1 −3 5 −3
a 7−2 b c
4 2
Example 4 5 Simplify each of the following:
−2 3
1
a (b5 )2 b c (b5 )2 × (b2 )−3
3
Example 5 6 Simplify each of the following:
3
5a3 b3
a (3a4 b3 )3 × (4a2 b4 )−2 b ÷ (a2 b−1 c)3
ab2 c2
Example 6 7 Simplify each of the following:
a (−2)6 b (−3a)3 c (−2a)5 × 3a−2

Example 7 8 Simplify the following:

2−3 × 84 × 32−3 52n × 10n
a 36n × 12−2n b c
4−4 × 2−2 8n × 5n
9 Simplify the following:
a x3 × x4 × x2 b 24 × 43 × 82
c 34 × 92 × 273 d (q2 p)3 × (qp3 )2
e a2 b−3 × (a3 b2 )3 f (2x3 )2 × (4x4 )3
g m3 p2 × (m2 n3 )4 × (p−2 )2 h 23 a3 b2 × (2a−1 b2 )−2

10 Simplify the following:

x 3 y5 16a5 b × 4a4 b3 (−2xy)2 × 2(x2 y)3 (−3x2 y3 )2 4x4 y3
a b c d ×
xy2 8ab 8(xy)3 (2xy)3 (xy)3
11 Simplify each of the following, expressing your answer in positive-index form:
x3 yz−2 × 2(x3 y−2 z)2 a2 b × (ab−2 )−3
a m3 n2 p−2 × (mn2 p)−3 b c
xyz−1 (a−2 b−1 )−2
a2 b3 c−4 a2n−1 × b3 × c1−n
d e
a−1 b2 c−3 an−3 × b2−n × c2−2n
12 Simplify each of the following:
2n × 8n+1 3n−1 × 92n−3
a 34n × 92n × 273n b c
32n 62 × 3n+2
22n × 92n−1 252n × 5n−1 6 x−3 × 4 x
d e f
6n−1 52n+1 3 x+1
62n × 93 3n−2 × 9n+1 8 × 25 × 37
g h i
27n × 8n × 16n 27n−1 9 × 27 × 81
13 Simplify and evaluate:
(83 )4 1253 814 ÷ 273
a b c
(212 )2 252 92

13B Rational indices

1
Skillsheet Let a be a positive real number and let n ∈ N. Then a n is defined to be the nth root of a.
1 1 √
That is, a n is the positive number whose nth power is a. We can also write this as a n = n a.
1
For example: 9 2 = 3, since 32 = 9.
1
We define 0 n = 0, for each natural number n, since 0n = 0.
1
If n is odd, then we can also define a n when a is negative. If a is negative and n is odd,
1 1
define a n to be the number whose nth power is a. For example: (−8) 3 = −2, as (−2)3 = −8.
In all three cases we can write:
1 √ 1 n
a n = n a with a n = a

Using this notation for square roots:

√ √ 1
a = 2 a = a2
m
Further, the expression a x can be deﬁned for rational indices, i.e. when x = , where m and n
n
are integers, by deﬁning
m 1 m
a n = an

To employ this deﬁnition we will always ﬁrst write the fractional power in simplest form.

Example 8
Evaluate:
1 1 5 2
a (−64) 3 b 9− 2 c 16 2 d 64− 3

Solution
1 1 1 1 1
a (−64) 3 = −4 b 9− 2 = 1
= √ =
92 9 3
5 1 5 √2 5
c 16 2 = 16 2 = 16 = 45 = 1024
2 1 1 1 1 1
d 64− 3 = 2
= 1 2
= √ 2
= 2
=
3
64 4 16
64 3 64 3

Note: In the previous section, we stated the index laws for m and n integers:
1 am × an = am+n 2 am ÷ an = am−n 3 (am )n = am×n
These laws are applicable for all rational indices:
m n m n m n m n mp
n
m n
+ − ×p
1 aq × ap = aq p 2 aq ÷ ap = aq p 3 a q = aq

Example 9
Simplify:
1 √ √4 x 4
34 × 6 × 2 1
a b (x−2 y) 2 ×
3 y−3
16 4
Solution Explanation
1 √ √4 1 1 1 1
34 × 6 × 2 34 × 32 × 22 × 24 √ √ √ 1 1 √4 1
a 3
= 1 3
6= 3 × 2 = 3 2 × 2 2 and 2 = 2 4
16 4 16 4
1 1 1 1
34 × 32 × 22 × 24
=
23
3 3
34 × 24 12
= 23 = 2 4
23
3 3
34 34
= 12 3
= 9
2 4 −4 24
1 x 4 1 x4 x4
b (x−2 y) 2 × = x −1 2
y × = x4 × y12
y−3 y−12 y−12
25
= x3 × y 2

Section summary
1
Let a be a positive real number and let n ∈ N. Then a n is defined to be the nth root
1
of a. That is, a n is the positive number whose nth power is a.
1
Define 0 n = 0, for each n ∈ N.
1
If n is odd, then we can define a n when a is negative. If a is negative and n is odd,
1
define a n to be the number whose nth power is a.
In all three cases we can write:
1 √ 1 n
a n = n a with a n = a
The index laws can be extended to rational indices:
m n m n m n m n mn m n
+p −p p ×
1 aq × ap = aq 2 aq ÷ ap = aq 3 aq = aq p

Exercise 13B

Example 8 1 Evaluate each of the following:

2 3 1 2
a 125 3 b 243 5 c 81− 2 d 64 3
11 2 2 4
3
e f 32− 5 g 125− 3 h 32 5
8
4 3 3 27 1
−3 3
i 1000 j 10 000 4 k 81 4 l
125
1 4 4 1 − 3
2
m (−8) 3 n 125− 3 o (−32) 5 p
49
Example 9 2 Simplify:
√3 √ 1 1
−2 2
a a2 b ÷ ab3 b (a b) × −3 3
b
1
45 3 3 1 3
c 3 3
d 2 2 × 4− 4 × 16− 4
94 × 15 2
x3 y−2 −2 3−3 x−2 y 2 √5 3 √3 1
e ÷ f a2 2
× a5 5
3−3 y−3 x4 y−2

3 Simplify each of the following:

√ √
a (2x − 1) 2x − 1 b (x − 1)2 x − 1
√ √
c (x2 + 1) x2 + 1 d (x − 1)3 x − 1
1 √ √3
e √ + x−1 f (5x2 + 1) 5x2 + 1
x−1

13C Graphs of exponential functions

Two types of graphs of exponential functions will be examined.

Graph of y = ax when a > 1

Example 10
Plot the graph of y = 2 x and examine the table of values for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. A calculator can
be used.
Solution y

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 8
7
y = 2x 1
8
1
4
1
2 1 2 4 8 6
5
4
3
2 y = 2x
1
x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

We can make the following observations about graphs of the form y = a x where a > 1:
As the magnitude of the negative x-values becomes larger and larger, the y-values get
closer and closer to zero, but never reach zero. That is, the graph of y = a x approaches the
x-axis from above. The x-axis is said to be an asymptote.
We can write: As x → −∞, y → 0+ .
This is read: As x approaches negative inﬁnity, y approaches 0 from the positive side.
As the x-values increase, the y-values increase.
The y-axis intercept is at (0, 1).
The range of the function is R+ .

Example 11
Plot the graph of y = 10 x and examine the table of values for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. A calculator can
be used to obtain approximate values.

Solution y

x −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 y = 10x

10
9
y = 10 x 0.1 ≈ 0.316 1 ≈ 3.16 10 8
7
6
The x-axis is an asymptote. 5
4
The y-axis intercept is at (0, 1). 3
2
As the x-values increase, the y-values increase. 1
x
For a given value of x, this rate of increase for y = 10 x is −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
greater than that for y = 2 x .

Note that, for any numbers a and b greater than 1, there is a positive number k with ak = b.
This can be seen from the graphs of y = 2 x and y = 10 x . Using a calculator to solve 2k = 10
gives k = 3.3219 . . . . Hence 10 x = (23.3219... ) x and therefore the graph of y = 10 x can be
1 1
obtained from the graph of y = 2 x by a dilation of factor = from the y-axis.
k 3.3219 . . .

All graphs of the form y = a x , where a > 1, are related to each other by dilations from
the y-axis. (This will be discussed again later in the chapter.)

Graph of y = ax when 0 < a < 1

Example 12
Plot the graph of y = ( 12 ) x and examine the table of values for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. A calculator can
be used.
Solution y
−x
Note that y = ( 12 ) x =2 .
8
6
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
4 x
1
y = ( 12 ) x 8 4 2 1 1
2
1
4
1
8 y= = 2–x
2 2
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

We can make the following observations about graphs of the form y = a x where 0 < a < 1:
The x-axis is an asymptote. As the x-values increase, the graph approaches the x-axis from
above. This is written: As x → ∞, y → 0+ .
The y-axis intercept is at (0, 1).
The range of the function is R+ .

Graphs of y = ax in general
In general: y y

y = a x, a > 1 y = a x, 0 < a < 1

1 1
x x

1
In both cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1, we can write y = a x as y = b−x , where b = . The graph of
a
y = b−x is obtained from the graph of y = b x by a reﬂection in the y-axis.
Thus, for example, the graph of y = ( 12 ) x is obtained from the graph of y = 2 x by a reﬂection
in the y-axis, and vice versa. Using function notation: Let f (x) = 2 x and g(x) = ( 12 ) x . Then
g(x) = 1 x
2 = (2−1 ) x = 2−x = f (−x)

Example 13
Plot the graph of y = 2 x on a CAS calculator and hence ﬁnd (correct to three decimal
places):
a the value of y when x = 2.1 b the value of x when y = 9.

Using the TI-Nspire

Plot the graph of y = 2 x .
a To go to the point with x-coordinate 2.1,
use menu > Trace > Graph Trace and
type 2.1 enter .
Press enter to paste the coordinates to
the point.
Press esc to exit the Graph Trace tool.
When x = 2.1, y = 4.287 (correct to three
decimal places).
b To ﬁnd the value of x for which y = 9,
plot the graph of y = 9 on the same
screen and use menu > Geometry >
Points & Lines > Intersection Point(s).
Press esc to exit the Intersection Point(s)
tool.
When y = 9, x = 3.170 (correct to three
decimal places).
Note: Alternatively, ﬁnd the intersection point using menu > Analyze Graph >
Intersection.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In , enter 2 x in y1. Tick the box and select
the graph icon $.
a Tap in the graph window, select Analysis >
G-Solve > x-Cal/y-Cal > y-Cal and enter x = 2.1.

When x = 2.1, y = 4.287

(correct to three decimal places).

b Select Analysis > G-Solve > x-Cal/y-Cal > x-Cal

and enter y = 9.

When y = 9, x = 3.170
(correct to three decimal places).
Note: An alternative method for part b is to enter
y2 = 9 and use Analysis > G-Solve >
Intersection, as shown on the right.

Transformations of exponential graphs

The techniques for transformations that were introduced in earlier chapters are now applied to
the graphs of exponential functions.

Example 14
Sketch the graphs of each of the following pairs of functions. For the second function in
each pair, state the equation of the asymptote, the y-axis intercept and the range. (The
x-axis intercepts need not be given.)
a f : R → R, f (x) = 2 x and g : R → R, g(x) = 2 x + 3
b f : R → R, f (x) = 3 x and g : R → R, g(x) = 2 × 3 x + 1
c f : R → R, f (x) = 3 x and g : R → R, g(x) = −3 x + 2

Solution Explanation
a y
y = 2x + 3 The graph of y = 2 x + 3 is obtained
by transforming the graph of y = 2 x
by a translation of 3 units in the
positive direction of the y-axis.
y = 2x
4 The asymptote of y = 2 x is the
y=3 line with equation y = 0, which
x is transformed to the line with
0 equation y = 3.
Graph of g(x) = 2 x + 3:
The asymptote has equation y = 3.
The y-axis intercept is g(0) = 20 + 3 = 4.
The range of the function g is (3, ∞).

b y The graph of y = 2 × 3 x + 1 is
obtained by transforming the graph
y = 2 × 3x + 1 of y = 3 x by a dilation of factor 2
from the x-axis, followed by a
y = 3x translation of 1 unit in the positive
direction of the y-axis.
3
y=1 The asymptote of y = 3 x is the line
x
0 y = 0, which is transformed to the
line y = 1.
Graph of g(x) = 2 × 3 x + 1:
The asymptote has equation y = 1.
The y-axis intercept is g(0) = 2 × 30 + 1 = 3.
The range of the function g is (1, ∞).
c y The graph of y = −3 x + 2 is
obtained by transforming the graph
y = 3x
of y = 3 x by a reﬂection in the
x-axis, followed by a translation of
2 y=2 2 units in the positive direction of
x the y-axis.
0
The asymptote of y = 3 x is the line
y = 0, which is transformed to the
y = –3x + 2
line y = 2.
Graph of g(x) = −3 x + 2:
The asymptote has equation y = 2.
The y-axis intercept is g(0) = −30 + 2 = 1.
The range of the function g is (−∞, 2).

Example 15
Sketch the graph of each of the following:
a y = 2 × 3x b y = 32x c y = −32x + 4

Solution Explanation
a y The graph of y = 2 × 3 x is obtained
6 (1, 6) from the graph of y = 3 x by a dilation
5 of factor 2 from the x-axis.
y = 3x
4 Both graphs have a horizontal
3 (1, 3) asymptote with equation y = 0.
2
y = 2 × 3x 1
x
–2 –1 0 1 2

b y The graph of y = 32x is obtained from

the graph of y = 3 x by a dilation of
factor 12 from the y-axis. (See the note
y = 32x
below.)
y = 3x
1 Both graphs have a horizontal
, 3 (1, 3)
2 asymptote with equation y = 0.
1 x
y=0 0 1

c y The graph of y = −32x + 4 is obtained

from the graph of y = 3 x by a dilation
y = 3x of factor 12 from the y-axis, followed
y=4 by a reﬂection in the x-axis and then
3 a translation of 4 units in the positive
1 direction of the y-axis.
x
0 The graph of y = −32x + 4 has a
y = –32x + 4 horizontal asymptote with equation
y = 4.

Note: In the notation introduced in Chapter 7, write the transformation for part b as
(x, y) → ( 12 x, y). Then describe the transformation as x = 12 x and y = y, and hence
x = 2x and y = y . The graph of y = 3 x is mapped to the graph of y = 32x .

Section summary
Graphs of exponential functions: y y

y = a x, a > 1 y = a x, 0 < a < 1

1 1
x x

In both cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1, the graph of y = a x has the following properties:
• The x-axis is an asymptote. • The y-axis intercept is 1.
• The y-values are always positive. • There is no x-axis intercept.
All graphs of the form y = a , where a > 1, are related to each other by dilations from
x

the y-axis. Similarly, all graphs of the form y = a x , where 0 < a < 1, are related to each
other by dilations from the y-axis.
x
Let a > 1. If f (x) = a x and g(x) = 1a , then g(x) = f (−x) and so the graph of y = g(x)
is the reﬂection in the y-axis of the graph of y = f (x).

Exercise 13C
1 Using a calculator, plot the graphs of the following and comment on the similarities and
differences between them:
a y = 1.8 x b y = 2.4 x c y = 0.9 x d y = 0.5 x
2 Using a calculator, plot the graphs of the following and comment on the similarities and
differences between them:
a y = 2 × 3x b y = 5 × 3x c y = −2 × 3 x d y = −5 × 3 x
Example 13 3 Plot the graph of y = 2 x on a CAS calculator and hence find the solution of the
equation 2 x = 14.
4 Plot the graph of y = 10 x on a CAS calculator and hence find the solution of the
equation 10 x = 6.
Example 14, 15 5 Sketch the graphs of the following functions. Give equations of asymptotes and
y-axis intercepts, and state the range of each function. (The x-axis intercepts need not
be given.)
a f : R → R, f (x) = 3 × 2 x + 2 b f : R → R, f (x) = 3 × 2 x − 3
c f : R → R, f (x) = −3 x − 2 d f : R → R, f (x) = −2 × 3 x + 2
e f : R → R, f (x) = ( 12 ) x + 2 f f : R → R, f (x) = −2 × 3 x − 2
6 Sketch the graph of each of the following:
x
a y = 2 × 5x b y = 33x c y = 52 d y = −32x + 2

13D Solving exponential equations and inequalities

Skillsheet Solution of equations
One method without using a calculator is to express both sides of the equation as powers with
the same base and then equate the indices (since a x = ay implies x = y, for any a ∈ R+ \ {1}).

Example 16
Find the value of x for which:
a 4 x = 256 b 3 x−1 = 81 c 52x−4 = 25−x+2

Solution
a 4 x = 256 b 3 x−1 = 81 c 52x−4 = 25−x+2
4 x = 44 3 x−1 = 34 = (52 )−x+2
∴ x=4 ∴ x−1=4 = 5−2x+4
x=5 ∴ 2x − 4 = −2x + 4
4x = 8
x=2

Sometimes solving an exponential equation involves solving a polynomial equation ﬁrst. In

the following example, the solution of a quadratic equation is necessary.

Example 17
Solve:
a 9 x = 12 × 3 x − 27 b 32x = 27 − 6 × 3 x

Solution
a We have (3 x )2 = 12 × 3 x − 27. b We have (3 x )2 = 27 − 6 × 3 x .
Let a = 3 x . The equation becomes Let a = 3 x . The equation becomes
a2 = 12a − 27 a2 = 27 − 6a
a2 − 12a + 27 = 0 a2 + 6a − 27 = 0
(a − 3)(a − 9) = 0 (a + 9)(a − 3) = 0
Therefore Therefore
a−3=0 or a−9=0 a = −9 or a=3
a=3 or a=9 Hence 3 x = −9 or 3 x = 31
Hence 3 x = 31 or 3 x = 32 There is only one solution, x = 1, since
and so x=1 or x=2 3 x > 0 for all values of x.

Using the TI-Nspire

Use menu > Algebra > Solve to solve the
equation.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Go to the M screen and turn on the keyboard.
Enter the equation 9 x = 12 × 3 x − 27.
Highlight the equation using the stylus and select
Interactive > Equation/Inequality > solve.
Tap on OK to obtain the solution. (Note that the
default variable is x.)

The calculator can be used to obtain approximate answers as shown in the following example.
For the equation 5 x = 10 we can ﬁnd an exact solution, but logarithms are involved in the
ﬁnal answer. Logarithms are discussed in the following section.

Example 18
Solve 5 x = 10 correct to two decimal places.

Using the TI-Nspire

Press ctrl enter to obtain the answer as a
decimal number.
The solution is x = 1.43 (correct to two decimal
places).

Using the Casio ClassPad

To answer the question as required, you may need to
highlight the answer and tap u to convert from the
exact solution to a decimal approximation.
The solution is x = 1.43 (correct to two decimal
places).

Solution of inequalities
The following two properties are useful when solving inequalities:
a x > ay ⇔ x > y,
when a ∈ (1, ∞)
a > a ⇔ x < y, when a ∈ (0, 1).
x y

Example 19
Solve for x in each of the following:
1
a 16 x > 2 b 2−3x+1 <
16
Solution
a 24x > 21 b 2−3x+1 < 2−4
⇔ 4x > 1 ⇔ −3x + 1 < −4

⇔ x>
1 ⇔ −3x < −5
4 5
⇔ x>
3

Note: The CAS calculator can be used to help ‘visualise’ the inequality. For Example 19a,
plot the graphs of y = 16 x and y = 2 and then ﬁnd the point of intersection.

Section summary
One method for solving an exponential equation, without using a calculator, is ﬁrst to
express both sides of the equation as powers with the same base and then to equate the
indices (since a x = ay implies x = y, for any base a ∈ R+ \ {1}).
For example: 2 x+1 = 8 ⇔ 2 x+1 = 23 ⇔ x + 1 = 3 ⇔ x = 2
To solve an exponential inequality, ﬁrst proceed as for an equation and then use the
appropriate property:
• a x > ay ⇔ x > y,
when a ∈ (1, ∞)
• a > a ⇔ x < y, when a ∈ (0, 1).
x y

For example: 2 x+1 > 8 ⇔ 2 x+1 > 23 ⇔ x + 1 > 3 ⇔ x > 2

Exercise 13D

Example 16 1 Solve for x in each of the following:

a 3 x = 27 b 4 x = 64 c 49 x = 7
d 16 x = 8 e 125 x = 5 f 5 x = 625
1 1
g 16 x = 256 h 4−x = i 5−x =
64 125
2 Solve for n in each of the following:
1
a 5n × 252n−1 = 125 b 32n−4 = 1 c 32n−1 =
81
3n−2
d =1 e 33n × 9−2n+1 = 27 f 2−3n × 42n−2 = 16
91−n
g 2n−6 = 82−n h 93n+3 = 27n−2 i 4n+1 = 8n−2
j 322n+1 = 84n−1 k 25n+1 = 5 × 390 625 l 1254−n = 56−2n
1
m 42−n =
2048
3 Solve the following exponential equations:
1
a 2 x−1 × 42x+1 = 32 b 32x−1 × 9 x = 243 c (27 × 3 x )2 = 27 x × 3 2

Example 17 4 Solve for x:

a 4(22x ) = 8(2 x ) − 4 b 8(22x ) − 10(2 x ) + 2 = 0
c 3 × 22x − 18(2 x ) + 24 = 0 d 9 x − 4(3 x ) + 3 = 0

Example 18 5 Use a calculator to solve each of the following, correct to two decimal places:
a 2x = 5 b 4x = 6 c 10 x = 18 d 10 x = 56

Example 19 6 Solve for x in each of the following:

a 7 x > 49 b 8x > 2 c 25 x ≤ 5 d 3 x+1 < 81
e 92x+1 < 243 f 42x+1 > 64 g 32x−2 ≤ 81

13E Logarithms
Skillsheet Consider the statement
23 = 8
This may be written in an alternative form:
log2 8 = 3
which is read as ‘the logarithm of 8 to the base 2 is equal to 3’.

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the logarithm function with base a is deﬁned as follows:

ax = y is equivalent to loga y = x

Note: Since a x is positive, the expression loga y is only deﬁned when y is positive.
The logarithm function with base a is the inverse of the exponential function with base a. We
will discuss this in Section 13G.
Further examples:
32 = 9 is equivalent to log3 9 = 2
104 = 10 000 is equivalent to log10 10 000 = 4
a0 = 1 is equivalent to loga 1 = 0

Example 20
Without the aid of a calculator, evaluate the following:
a log2 32 b log3 81

Solution
a Let log2 32 = x b Let log3 81 = x
Then 2 = 32
x
Then 3 x = 81
2 x = 25 3 x = 34
Therefore x = 5, giving log2 32 = 5. Therefore x = 4, giving log3 81 = 4.

Note: To ﬁnd log2 32, we ask ‘What power of 2 gives 32?’

To ﬁnd log3 81, we ask ‘What power of 3 gives 81?’

Laws of logarithms
The index laws are used to establish rules for computations with logarithms.

Law 1: Logarithm of a product

The logarithm of a product is the sum of their logarithms:
loga (mn) = loga m + loga n

Proof Let loga m = x and loga n = y, where m and n are positive real numbers. Then a x = m
and ay = n, and therefore
mn = a x × ay = a x+y (using index law 1)
Hence loga (mn) = x + y = loga m + loga n.

For example:
log10 200 + log10 5 = log10 (200 × 5)
= log10 1000
=3

Law 2: Logarithm of a quotient

The logarithm of a quotient is the diﬀerence of their logarithms:
m
loga = loga m − loga n
n

Proof Let loga m = x and loga n = y, where m and n are positive real numbers. Then as
before a x = m and ay = n, and therefore
m ax
= y = a x−y (using index law 2)
n a
m
Hence loga = x − y = loga m − loga n.
n
For example:
32
log2 32 − log2 8 = log2
8
= log2 4
=2

Law 3: Logarithm of a power

loga (m p ) = p loga m

Proof Let loga m = x. Then a x = m, and therefore

m p = (a x ) p = a xp (using index law 3)
Hence loga (m p ) = xp = p loga m.

For example: log2 32 = log2 (25 ) = 5.

1
Law 4: Logarithm of m

loga (m−1 ) = − loga m

Proof Use logarithm law 3 with p = −1.

For example: loga 1

2 = loga (2−1 ) = − loga 2.

Law 5
loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

Proof Since a0 = 1, we have loga 1 = 0. Since a1 = a, we have loga a = 1.

Example 21
Without using a calculator, simplify the following:
6
2 log10 3 + log10 16 − 2 log10
5
Solution
6 6 2
2 log10 3 + log10 16 − 2 log10 = log10 (32 ) + log10 16 − log10
5 5
36
= log10 9 + log10 16 − log10
25
25
= log10 9 × 16 ×
36
= log10 100
=2

Example 22
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a log5 x = 3 b log5 (2x + 1) = 2
c log2 (2x + 1) − log2 (x − 1) = 4 d log3 (x − 1) + log3 (x + 1) = 1

Solution
a log5 x = 3 ⇔ x = 53 = 125 b log5 (2x + 1) = 2 ⇔ 2x + 1 = 52
∴ 2x + 1 = 25
2x = 24
x = 12

c log2 (2x + 1) − log2 (x − 1) = 4 d log3 (x − 1) + log3 (x + 1) = 1

2x + 1
log3 (x − 1)(x + 1) = 1
log2 =4
x−1 log3 (x2 − 1) = 1
2x + 1 x2 − 1 = 3
∴ = 24
x−1
x = ±2
2x + 1 = 16(x − 1)
But the original expression is not deﬁned
17 = 14x for x = −2, and therefore x = 2.
17
x=
14

Section summary
For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the logarithm function base a is deﬁned as follows:
ax = y is equivalent to loga y = x
The expression loga y is deﬁned for all positive real numbers y.
To evaluate loga y ask the question: ‘What power of a gives y?’
Laws of logarithms m
1 loga (mn) = loga m + loga n 2 loga = loga m − loga n
n
3 loga (m p ) = p loga m 4 loga (m−1 ) = − loga m

5 loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

Exercise 13E

Example 20 1 Without using a calculator, evaluate the following:

a log2 128 b log3 81 c log5 125 d log10 0.1

2 Use the stated rule for each of the following to give an equivalent expression in simplest
form:
a log2 10 + log2 a b log10 5 + log10 2 Law 1
c log2 9 − log2 4 d log2 10 − log2 5 Law 2
e log2 (a3 ) f log2 (83 ) Law 3
1 1
g log5 h log5 Law 4
6 25

3 Without using a calculator, evaluate each of the following:

a log3 27 b log5 625
1 1
c log2 d log4
128 64
e log x (x4 ) f log2 0.125
g log10 10 000 h log10 0.000 001
i −3 log5 125 j −4 log16 2
k 2 log3 9 l −4 log16 4

Example 21 4 Without using a calculator, simplify each of the following:

a 12 log10 16 + 2 log10 5 b log2 16 + log2 8
c log2 128 + log3 45 − log3 5 d log4 32 − log9 27
√
e logb (b3 ) − logb b f 2 log x a + log x (a3 )
√
g x log2 8 + log2 (81−x ) h 32 loga a − loga a

Example 22 5 Solve for x:

a log3 9 = x b log3 x = 3
c log5 x = −3 d log10 x = log10 4 + log10 2
e log10 2 + log10 5 + log10 x − log10 3 = 2 f log10 x = 12 log10 36 − 2 log10 3
g log x 64 = 2 h log5 (2x − 3) = 3
i log3 (x + 2) − log3 2 = 1 j log x 0.01 = −2

6 Solve each of the following for x:

1
a log x = −2 b log4 (2x − 1) = 3
25
c log4 (x + 2) − log4 6 = 1 d log4 (3x + 4) + log4 16 = 5
e log3 (x2 − 3x − 1) = 0 f log3 (x2 − 3x + 1) = 0

100x3 y− 21
7 If log10 x = a and log10 y = c, express log10 in terms of a and c.
y2
ab2 c2
8 Prove that log10 + log10
− log10 (bc) = 0.
c ab
11 490 7
9 If loga + loga − 2 loga = loga k, ﬁnd k.
3 297 9

10 Solve each of the following equations for x:

a log10 (x2 − 2x + 8) = 2 log10 x b log10 (5x) − log10 (3 − 2x) = 1
c 3 log10 (x − 1) = log10 8 d log10 (20x) − log10 (x − 8) = 2
e 2 log10 5 + log10 (x + 1) = 1 + log10 (2x + 7)
f 1 + 2 log10 (x + 1) = log10 (2x + 1) + log10 (5x + 8)

13F Using logarithms to solve exponential equations

Skillsheet and inequalities

If a ∈ R+ \ {1}, then the statements a x = b and loga b = x are equivalent. This deﬁning
property of logarithms may be used in the solution of exponential equations.

Example 23
Solve for x if 2 x = 11.
Solution
We immediately see that x = log2 11.
This can be evaluated with a calculator:
x = log2 11 ≈ 3.45943

Note: We will show an alternative method for solving Example 23 because it illustrates the
relationship between logarithms of diﬀerent bases. Take log10 of both sides of the
equation 2 x = 11. Then
log10 (2 x ) = log10 11
x log10 2 = log10 11
log10 11
x=
log10 2
We have shown that
log10 11
log2 11 =
log10 2
In general, if a, b and c are positive numbers with a 1 and b 1, then
loga c
logb c =
loga b

Example 24
Solve 32x−1 = 28.
Solution
2x − 1 = log3 28
2x = 1 + log3 28
1 + log3 28
x=
2
≈ 2.017 (to three decimal places)

Example 25
Solve the inequality 0.7 x ≥ 0.3.

Solution
Taking log10 of both sides:
log10 (0.7 x ) ≥ log10 0.3
x log10 0.7 ≥ log10 0.3
log10 0.3
x≤ (direction of inequality reversed since log10 0.7 < 0)
log10 0.7
x ≤ 3.376 (to three decimal places)
Alternatively, we can solve the inequality 0.7 x ≥ 0.3 directly as follows:
Note that 0 < 0.7 < 1 and thus, as x decreases, y = 0.7 x increases. Therefore the inequality
holds for x ≤ log0.7 0.3.

Exponential graphs revisited

In Section 13C we graphed exponential functions, but often we could not ﬁnd the x-axis
intercept. Now that we have deﬁned logarithms this can be done.

Example 26
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 × 10 x − 4, giving the equation of the asymptote and the axis
intercepts.

Solution
As x → −∞, y → −4+ . The equation of the y
horizontal asymptote is y = −4.
The graph crosses the y-axis when x = 0,
and so the y-axis intercept is given by
f (0) = 2 × 100 − 4 = 2 − 4 = −2.
The graph crosses the x-axis when f (x) = 0: 0 log10 (2)
x
2 × 10 − 4 = 0
x –2
2 × 10 x = 4 y = –4
10 x = 2
x = log10 2 ≈ 0.3010
(correct to four decimal places)

Section summary
If a ∈ R+ \ {1} and x ∈ R, then the statements a x = b and loga b = x are equivalent. This
deﬁning property of logarithms may be used in the solution of exponential equations
and inequalities.
For example:
• 2 x = 5 ⇔ x = log2 5 • 2 x ≥ 5 ⇔ x ≥ log2 5
• (0.3) x = 5 ⇔ x = log0.3 5 • (0.3) x ≥ 5 ⇔ x ≤ log0.3 5
The x-axis intercepts of exponential graphs can now be found.

Exercise 13F

Example 23 1 Solve each of the following equations correct to two decimal places:
a 2x = 7 b 2 x = 0.4 c 3 x = 14
d 4x = 3 e 2−x = 6 f 0.3 x = 2

Example 24 2 Solve each of the following equations correct to two decimal places:
a 52x−1 = 90 b 3 x−1 = 10 c 0.2 x+1 = 0.6

Example 25 3 Solve for x. Give values correct to two decimal places if necessary.
a 2x > 8 b 3x < 5 c 0.3 x > 4
d 3 x−1 ≤ 7 e 0.4 x ≤ 0.3

Example 26 4 For each of the following, sketch the graph of y = f (x), giving the equation of the
asymptote and the axis intercepts:
a f (x) = 2 x − 4 b f (x) = 2 × 3 x − 6 c f (x) = 3 × 10 x − 5
d f (x) = −2 × 10 x + 4 e f (x) = −3 × 2 x + 6 f f (x) = 5 × 2 x − 6

13G Graphs of logarithm functions

Graph of y = loga x when a > 1
We look at the graphs of y = log2 x and y = log10 x. We note that log10 x = log10 2 × log2 x,
and hence the graph of y = log10 x is the image of the graph of y = log2 x under a dilation
from the x-axis of factor log10 2 ≈ 0.3010.

y = log2 x
A table of values for y = log2 x is given below, and the graphs of y = 2 x and y = log2 x are
drawn on the one set of axes.
1 1
x 4 2 1 2 4 8
y = log2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 3

4 (2, 4) y=x

3
(1, 2) y = log2 x
2
(4, 2)
–1, 1 1
x
2 (2, 1)
y=2
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 1 , –1
2
–2

Notes:
The point (1, 2) is on the graph of y = 2 x and the point (2, 1) is on the graph of y = log2 x.
The point (2, 4) is on the graph of y = 2 x and the point (4, 2) is on the graph of y = log2 x.
The graph of y = log2 x is the reﬂection of the graph of y = 2 x in the line y = x.

y = log10 x
A table of values for y = log10 x is given below (the values are correct to two decimal places).
Use your calculator to check these values.

x 0.1 1 2 3 4 5
y = log10 x −1 0 ≈ 0.30 ≈ 0.48 ≈ 0.60 ≈ 0.70

y y
y = 10 x
0.8 y=x
0.6
0.4 y = log10 x y = log10 x
1
0.2
0 x x
–0.2 1 2 3 4 5 0 1
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
Domain = +, Range = The graph of y = log10 x is the
–1.0
reflection in the line y = x of
the graph of y = 10 x.

In general
y
Properties of y = a x , a > 1 Properties of y = loga x, a > 1 y = ax
domain = R domain = R+ y=x
y = loga x
range = R+ range = R 1
a0 = 1 loga 1 = 0 x
0 1
as x → −∞, y → 0+ as x → 0+ , y → −∞
y = 0 is an asymptote x = 0 is an asymptote

Graph of y = loga x when 0 < a < 1 y

Consider y = log 1 x. We observe the following:
2 3
log 1 x = y ⇔ ( 12 )y =x 2 y=x
2
⇔ 2−y = x 1
y = 2–x
⇔ log2 x = −y x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
⇔ y = − log2 x –1
So we have log 1 x = − log2 x. –2
2 y = –log2 x = log1 x
2

Inverses
The inverse of a one-to-one function was introduced in Section 5G.
The inverse of f : R → R, f (x) = 2 x is the function f −1 : R+ → R, f −1 (x) = log2 x.
The inverse of f : R → R, f (x) = 10 x is the function f −1 : R+ → R, f −1 (x) = log10 x.
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-52013-4 © Evans et al. 2015 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 1&2 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated May 2021
13G Graphs of logarithm functions 459

Let a ∈ R+ \{1}. The function with rule y = loga x, for x > 0, is the inverse of the function
with rule y = a x , for x ∈ R.

loga (a x ) = x for all x aloga x = x for all positive values of x

Example 27
Find the inverse of:
a f (x) = 102x b g(x) = log10 (2x)

Solution
a Let y = 102x . b Let y = log10 (2x).
Interchanging x and y gives: Interchanging x and y gives:
x = 102y x = log10 (2y)
2y = log10 x 10 x = 2y
y= 1
2 log10 x y= 1
2 × 10 x
Thus f −1 (x) = 1
2 log10 x. Thus g−1 (x) = 1
2 × 10 x .

Example 28
Find the rule for the inverse function of each of the following and state the domain of f −1 :
a f (x) = log2 (x − 2) b f (x) = 5 × 2 x + 3

Solution
a Let y = log2 (x − 2). b Let y = 5 × 2 x + 3.
Interchanging x and y gives: Interchanging x and y gives:
x = log2 (y − 2) x = 5 × 2y + 3
2x = y − 2 x−3
= 2y
y = 2x + 2 5
x − 3
∴ f −1 (x) = 2 x + 2 y = log2
5
x − 3
The domain of f −1 is R. ∴ f −1 (x) = log2
5
The domain of f −1 is (3, ∞).

We observed in Section 13C that all graphs of the form y = a x , where a > 1, are related
to each other by dilations from the y-axis. This can be established by using the fact that
aloga x = x for all x > 0.
For example, if y = 2 x , then
y = 2 x = (10log10 2 ) x = 10(log10 2)x
Therefore the graph of y = 2 x is the image of the graph of y = 10 x under a dilation of
1
factor from the y-axis.
log10 2

Transformations of logarithm graphs

Transformations can be applied to the graphs of logarithm functions. This is shown in the
following example.

Example 29
Sketch the graph of each of the following. Give the maximal domain, the equation of the
asymptote and the axis intercepts.
a f (x) = log2 (x − 3)
b f (x) = log2 (x + 2)
c f (x) = log2 (3x)

Solution Explanation
a f (x) = log2 (x − 3) The graph of y = log2 x is translated 3 units
in the positive direction of the x-axis.
y
Maximal domain: For f (x) = log2 (x − 3) to
x=3 be deﬁned, we need x − 3 > 0, i.e. x > 3.
Asymptote: As x → 3+ , y → −∞.
x
0 4

The maximal domain is (3, ∞).

Equation of asymptote is x = 3.
x-axis intercept: log2 (x − 3) = 0
implies x − 3 = 20 , i.e. x = 4.

b f (x) = log2 (x + 2) The graph of y = log2 x is translated 2 units

in the negative direction of the x-axis.
y
Maximal domain: For f (x) = log2 (x + 2) to
x = –2 be deﬁned, we need x + 2 > 0, i.e. x > −2.
1 Asymptote: As x → −2+ , y → −∞.
x
–1 0

The maximal domain is (−2, ∞).

Equation of asymptote is x = −2.
y-axis intercept: f (0) = log2 (2) = 1.
x-axis intercept: log2 (x + 2) = 0
implies x + 2 = 20 , i.e. x = −1.

c f (x) = log2 (3x) The graph of y = log2 x is dilated by a

factor of 13 from the y-axis.
y
Maximal domain: For f (x) = log2 (3x) to be
deﬁned, we need 3x > 0, i.e. x > 0.
Asymptote: As x → 0+ , y → −∞.
x
0 1
3

x=0
The maximal domain is (0, ∞).
Equation of asymptote is x = 0.
x-axis intercept: log2 (3x) = 0
implies 3x = 20 , i.e. x = 13 .

Section summary
Let a ∈ R+ \{1}. The functions f : R → R, f (x) = a x and g : R+ → R, g(x) = loga x are
inverse functions. That is, g = f −1 .
loga (a x ) = x for all x
aloga x = x for all positive values of x

Exercise 13G

1 Sketch the graph of each of the following and state the domain and range for each:
a y = log10 (2x) b y = 2 log10 x
c y = log10 12 x d y = 2 log10 (3x)
e y = − log10 x f y = log10 (−x)

Example 27 2 Determine the inverse of each of the following:

a y = 100.5x b y = 3 log10 x
c y = 103x d y = 2 log10 (3x)

Example 28 3 Find the rule for the inverse function of each of the following:
a f (x) = 3 x + 2 b f (x) = log2 (x − 3)
c f (x) = 4 × 3 x + 2 d f (x) = 5 x − 2
x
e f (x) = log2 (3x) f f (x) = log2
3
g f (x) = log2 (x + 3) h f (x) = 5 × 3 − 2
x

Example 29 4 Sketch the graph of each of the following. Give the maximal domain, the equation of
the asymptote and the axis intercepts.
a f (x) = log2 (x − 4) b f (x) = log2 (x + 3) c f (x) = log2 (2x)
x
d f (x) = log2 (x + 2) e f (x) = log2 f f (x) = log2 (−2x)
3
5 Use a calculator to solve each of the following equations correct to two decimal places:
a 2−x = x
b log10 (x) + x = 0

6 Use a calculator to plot the graphs of y = log10 (x2 ) and y = 2 log10 x for x ∈ [−10, 10],
x 0.
√
7 On the same set of axes plot the graphs of y = log10 ( x) and y = 1
2 log10 x for
x ∈ (0, 10].

8 Use a calculator to plot the graphs of y = log10 (2x) + log10 (3x) and y = log10 (6x2 ).

13H Exponential models and applications

Skillsheet In this section we begin by looking at several situations that can be modelled by exponential
functions, and then discuss some examples where data is ﬁtted by an exponential function.

Exponential growth and decay

In the following, we consider a variable A that is subject to exponential change.
Let A be the quantity at time t. Then A = A0 bt , where A0 is the initial quantity and b is a
positive constant.
If b > 1, the model represents growth: If b < 1, the model represents decay:
growth of cells radioactive decay
population growth cooling of materials
continuously compounded interest

Cell growth
Suppose a particular type of bacteria cell divides into two new cells every TD minutes. Let
N0 be the initial number of cells of this type. Then after t minutes the number of cells, N, is
given by the formula
t
N = N0 2 T D
where TD is called the generation time. Here we are only dealing with the type of
reproduction where the cell divides in two. For most known bacteria that can be cultured,
generation times range from about 15 minutes to 1 hour.

Example 30
What is the generation time of a bacterial population that increases from 5000 cells to
100 000 cells in four hours of growth?

Solution
In this example, N0 = 5000 and N = 100 000 when t = 240.
240
Hence 100 000 = 5000 × 2 T D
240
20 = 2 T D
240
Thus TD = ≈ 55.53 (correct to two decimal places).
log2 20
The generation time is approximately 55.53 minutes.

Radioactive decay
Radioactive materials decay so that the amount of radioactive material, A, present at time t (in
years) is given by the formula
A = A0 2−kt
where A0 is the initial amount and k is a positive constant that depends on the type of
material. A radioactive substance is often described in terms of its half-life, which is the time
required for half the material to decay.

Example 31
After 1000 years, a sample of radium-226 has decayed to 64.7% of its original mass. Find
the half-life of radium-226.
Solution
We use the formula A = A0 2−kt . When t = 1000, A = 0.647A0 . Thus
0.647A0 = A0 2−1000k
0.647 = 2−1000k
−1000k = log2 0.647
− log2 0.647
k= ≈ 0.000628
1000
To ﬁnd the half-life, we consider when A = 12 A0 :
A0 2−kt = 12 A0
2−kt = 1
2
−kt = log2 ( 12 )
−kt = −1
1
t = ≈ 1591.95
k
The half-life of radium-226 is approximately 1592 years.

Population growth
It is sometimes possible to model population growth through exponential models.

Example 32
There are approximately ten times as many red kangaroos as grey kangaroos in a certain
area. If the population of grey kangaroos increases at a rate of 11% per annum while that
of the red kangaroos decreases at 5% per annum, ﬁnd how many years must elapse before
the proportions are reversed, assuming the same rates continue to apply.

Solution
Let G0 be the population of grey kangaroos at the start.
Then the number of grey kangaroos after n years is G = G0 (1.11)n , and the number of red
kangaroos after n years is R = 10G0 (0.95)n .
When the proportions are reversed:
G = 10R
G0 (1.11)n = 10 × 10G0 (0.95)n
(1.11)n = 100(0.95)n
Taking log10 of both sides:
log10 (1.11)n = log10 100(0.95)n
n log10 1.11 = log10 100 + n log10 0.95
n log10 1.11 = 2 + n log10 0.95
2
n= ≈ 29.6
log10 1.11 − log10 0.95
i.e. the proportions of the kangaroo populations will be reversed after 30 years.

Determining exponential rules

We have looked at determining rules for functions in Chapters 2 to 6. We look at one very
useful case for exponential functions.

Example 33
The points (1, 6) and (5, 96) are known to lie on the curve y = a × b x , where a > 0 and
b > 0. Find the values of a and b.
Solution
We can write
a × b1 = 6 (1)
a × b = 96
5
(2)
1
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1) gives b4 = 16. Thus b = 16 4 = 2, and substituting
into equation (1) gives a = 3.

Using the TI-Nspire

Deﬁne f (x) = a × b x .
Solve for a > 0 and b > 0 using the
simultaneous equations template with
f (1) = 6 and f (5) = 96 as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Deﬁne f (x) = a × b x .
Solve the simultaneous equations f (1) = 6 and
f (5) = 96 for a > 0 and b > 0 as shown.

In many practical situations, the relationship between variables is exponential.

Example 34
Take a rectangular piece of paper approximately 30 cm × 6 cm. Fold the paper in half,
successively, until you have folded it ﬁve times. Tabulate the times folded, f , and the
number of creases in the paper, C.

Solution
Times folded, f 0 1 2 3 4 5
Creases, C 0 1 3 7 15 31

The rule connecting C and f is C

30
C = 2 f − 1, f ∈ N ∪ {0}
25
20
15
10
5

0 1 2 3 4 5 f

Fitting data
Example 35
The table below shows the increase in weight of Somu, an orang-utan born at the Eastern
Plains Zoo. Draw a graph to show Somu’s weight increase for the ﬁrst six months.
Data values
Months, m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Weight (kg), w 1.65 1.7 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.2 4.8

Solution
Plotting these data values:

w (kg)
Graph showing Somu’s
weight increase
4

3
Graph of
2 w = 1.65(1.2) m
1 Note: It is appropriate in this case
to form a continuous line.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 m (months)

On the same set of axes is the graph of the exponential function w = 1.65(1.2)m ,
0 ≤ m ≤ 6. A table of values for this function is shown below.
Values from model
m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
w 1.65 1.98 2.38 2.85 3.42 4.1 4.93

It can be seen from the graphs in Example 35 that the exponential model w = 1.65(1.2)m
approximates the actual weight gain and would be a useful model to predict weight gains for
any future orang-utan births at the zoo. This model describes a growth rate of 20% per month
for the ﬁrst 6 months.
This problem can also be attempted with a CAS calculator.

Using the TI-Nspire

Enter the data either in a Calculator appli-
cation as lists or in a Lists & Spreadsheet
application as shown.

Insert a Calculator page and use menu >

Statistics > Stat Calculations > Exponential
Regression. Complete as shown:
• Use tab to move between ﬁelds.
• Use the selection tool x to open a ﬁeld.
Then use the arrows and to choose
the correct entry, and select this entry
using the selection tool x.

This now gives the values of a and b, and the

equation has been entered in f1 (x).

The curve can be shown in a Graphs

application together with the scatter plot
( menu > Graph Type > Scatter Plot)
using an appropriate window ( menu >
Window/Zoom).

Note: Alternatively, the scatter plot and regression curve can be obtained using the
Data & Statistics application.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In Statistics , enter the data in lists 1 and 2 as shown below on the left.
Select the graph icon G and ensure that you set the graph type to Scatter and the lists
to list 1 and list 2.

Now select Calc > Regression > abExponential Reg. Conﬁrm the settings by
selecting OK .

Section summary
There are many situations in which a varying quantity can be modelled by an exponential
function. Let A be the quantity at time t. Then A = A0 bt , where A0 is the initial quantity
and b is a positive constant.
If b > 1, the model represents growth: If b < 1, the model represents decay:
growth of cells radioactive decay
population growth cooling of materials
continuously compounded interest

Exercise 13H

Example 30 1 A population of 1000 E. coli bacteria doubles every 15 minutes.

a Determine the formula for the number of bacteria at time t minutes.
b How long will it take for the population to reach 10 000? (Give your answer to the
nearest minute.)

Example 31 2 The half-life of plutonium-239 is 24 000 years. If 10 grams are present now, how long
will it take until only 10% of the original sample remains? (Give your answer to the
nearest year.)

3 Carbon-14 is a radioactive substance with a half-life of 5730 years. It is used to

determine the age of ancient objects. A Babylonian cloth fragment now has 40% of the
carbon-14 that it contained originally. How old is the fragment of cloth?

4 The pressure, P, in the Earth’s atmosphere decreases exponentially as you rise above
the surface. The pressure in millibars at a height of h kilometres is given approximately
by the function P(h) = 1000 × 10−0.05428h .
a Find the pressure at a height of 5 km. (Give your answer to the nearest millibar.)
b Find the height at which the pressure is 400 millibars. (Give your answer to the
nearest metre.)

5 A biological culture contains 500 000 bacteria at 12 p.m. on Sunday. The culture
increases by 10% every hour. At what time will the culture exceed 4 million bacteria?

6 When a liquid is placed into a refrigerator, its temperature T ◦ C at time t minutes is

given by the formula T = T 0 10−kt . The temperature is initially 100◦ C and drops to 40◦ C
in 5 minutes. Find the temperature of the liquid after 15 minutes.

7 Iodine-131 is a radioactive isotope used in the treatment of the thyroid gland. It decays
so that, after t days, 1 unit of the isotope is reduced to 0.9174t units. How many days
does it take for the amount to fall to less than 0.2 units?

Example 32 8 The populations (in millions), p and q, of two neighbouring American states, P and Q,
over a period of 50 years from 1950 are modelled by functions p = 1.2 × 20.08t and
q = 1.7 × 20.04t , where t is the number of years since 1950.
a Plot the graphs of both functions using a calculator.
b Find when the population of state P is:
i equal to the population of state Q
ii twice the population of state Q.

Example 33 9 Each of the following pairs of points is known to lie on a curve y = a × b x , where a > 0
and b > 0. Find the values of a and b in each case. √
1 15 1 5 6
a (1, 15) and (4, 1875) b (2, 1) and 5, c 1, and ,
8 2 2 2
10 Five kilograms of sugar is gradually dissolved in a vat of water. After t hours, the
amount S kg of undissolved sugar remaining is given by S = 5 × 10−kt .
a Calculate k given that S = 3.2 when t = 2.
b At what time will there be 1 kg of sugar remaining?

11 The number of bacteria, N, in a culture increases exponentially with time according to

the rule N = a × bt , where time t is measured in hours. When observation started, there
were 1000 bacteria, and five hours later there were 10 000 bacteria.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Find, to the nearest minute, when there were 5000 bacteria.
c Find, to the nearest minute, when the number of bacteria first exceeds 1 000 000.
d How many bacteria would there be 12 hours after the first observation?

12 Find a and k such that the graph of y = a10kx passes through the points (2, 6)
and (5, 20).

Example 35 13 Find an exponential model of the form y = ab x to ﬁt the following data:

x 0 2 4 5 10
y 1.5 0.5 0.17 0.09 0.006

14 Find an exponential model of the form p = abt to ﬁt the following data:

t 0 2 4 6 8
p 2.5 4.56 8.3 15.12 27.56

15 A sheet of paper 0.2 mm thick is cut in half, and one piece is stacked on top of the
other.
a If this process is repeated, complete the following table:

Cuts, n Sheets Total thickness, T (mm)

0 1 0.2
1 2 0.4
2 4 0.8
3 8
.. .. ..
. . .
10

b Write down a formula which shows the relationship between T and n.

c Draw a graph of T against n for n ≤ 10.
d What would be the total thickness, T , after 30 cuts?

16 In the initial period of its life a particular species of tree grows in the manner described
by the rule d = d0 10mt , where d is the diameter (in cm) of the tree t years after the
beginning of this period. The diameter is 52 cm after 1 year, and 80 cm after 3 years.
Calculate the values of the constants d0 and m.

13I Logarithmic scales∗

A logarithmic scale is a scale of measurement that uses the logarithm of a quantity. Familiar
examples of logarithmic scales include the Richter scale (earthquakes), decibels (noise) and
pH (acidity). In this section, we will show why such scales are useful and study these three
examples.

Charts with logarithmic scales

In the chart below we show an example for which the vertical axis has equally spaced
increments that are labelled 1 = 50 , 5 = 51 , 25 = 52 , 125 = 53 , . . . instead of 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The major horizontal grid lines, which are equally spaced, are the integer powers of 5.
The straight line is the result of graphing y = 3 × 52x but with the vertical axis having a
logarithmic scale (base 5).
1953125
390625
78125
15625 125
3125
625 25
125
25 5
5
1 1
0 1 2 3 4 0 1

The bottom-left corner of the chart is shown ‘blown up’ on the right.
The horizontal grid lines between 1 and 5 represent 2, 3 and 4. Their positions are
determined by log5 2, log5 3 and log5 4.
The horizontal grid lines between 5 and 25 represent 10, 15 and 20. Their positions are
determined by log5 10, log5 15 and log5 20.
The horizontal grid lines between 25 and 125 represent 50, 75 and 100. Their positions are
determined by log5 50, log5 75 and log5 100.
Notice that there is the same gap between the grid lines for 1 and 2, for 5 and 10, and for 25
and 50. This is because
log5 2 − log5 1 = log5 2 log5 10 − log5 5 = log5 2 log5 50 − log5 25 = log5 2
This is not what we are used to from working with linear scales.
For a linear scale, the change between two values is determined by the diﬀerence between
the values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 is the same as a change from 6 to 7. We use
linear scales to measure temperature (degrees Celsius) and length (metres) and in standard
Cartesian graphs.
For a logarithmic scale, the change between two values is determined by the ratio of the
values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 (ratio of 1:2) would be perceived as the same amount
of increase as a change from 6 to 12 (also a ratio of 1:2).

∗ This section is not required for Mathematical Methods Units 1 & 2.

The logarithm rule

x
loga = loga x − loga y
y
provides the connections between these types of scale.
Presentation of data on a logarithmic scale can be helpful when the data covers a large range
of values. The use of the logarithms of the values rather than the actual values reduces a wide
range to a more manageable size.

Graphing with logarithmic scales

We will see how to sketch the graph of an exponential function using a logarithmic scale for
the vertical axis and a linear scale for the horizontal axis.
Let y = b × amx , where a, b and m are positive real numbers. Then taking logarithms base a of
both sides gives
loga y = loga b + mx
So the graph of loga y against x is a straight line with gradient m and with (loga y)-axis
intercept at (0, loga b).
In the case of the exponential function y = 3 × 52x , the equation 125
for the straight line becomes log5 y = log5 3 + 2x. On the chart,
we have labelled the vertical axis with powers of 5 rather than 25
the logarithm.
5
This straight line has gradient 2. The line through points
(0.5, 15) and (1, 75) on this chart has actual gradient 1
75 0 1
log5 75 − log5 15
= 2 log5 = 2 log5 5 = 2
1 − 0.5 15
Of course any two points on the line will give this result.

Example 36
Let y = 4 × 32x , for x ≥ 0.
a If log3 y = mx + c, give the values of m and c.
b Sketch the graph of log3 y against x.
c Sketch the graph of log3 y against x labelling your vertical axis with powers of 3.

Solution
a Take logarithms base 3 of both sides of the equation:
log3 y = log3 (4 × 32x )
log3 y = log3 4 + log3 (32x )
log3 y = 2x + log3 4
Therefore m = 2 and c = log3 4.

b log3 y c y

11 177147
10 59049
9 19683
8 65561
7 2187
6 729
5 243
4 81
3 27
2 9
1 log3 4 3 4
x x
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Note: For part c, using the logarithmic scale on the vertical axis means that the axis
intercept is at 3log3 4 = 4.

Applications
We now look at three uses of logarithmic scales.

Decibels
A decibel is deﬁned as one-tenth of a bel, which is named after Alexander Graham Bell, the
inventor of the telephone.
The decibel is a logarithmic scale for measuring ‘loudness of noise’. The intensity of a sound
in decibels can be deﬁned by
dB = 10 log10 (P × 1016 )
where P is the power of the sound in watt/cm2 .

Example 37
A power mower generates a noise of 96 dB and a conversation in a restaurant generates
noise of 60 dB. Find the power in watt/cm2 for each of these.

Solution

Power mower Conversation

We have 96 = 10 log10 (P × 10 ). 16
We have 60 = 10 log10 (P × 1016 ).
Hence Hence
log10 (P × 1016 ) = 9.6 log10 (P × 1016 ) = 6
P × 1016 = 109.6 P × 1016 = 106
P = 10−6.4 P = 10−10
The power is 10−6.4 watt/cm2 . The power is 10−10 watt/cm2 .

Note: The maximum intensity which the ear can tolerate is about 10−4 watt/cm2 , which
corresponds to a loudness level of about 120 dB.

The Richter scale

Earthquake intensity is often reported on the Richter scale. The formula is
a
R = log10 +B
T
where a is the amplitude of the ground motion, T is the period of the seismic wave, and B is
a term that allows for the weakening of the seismic wave with increasing distance from the
epicentre of the earthquake.

Example 38
Assume that, for a particular earthquake, we have a = 10, T = 1 and B = 6.8. Find the
earthquake’s magnitude on the Richter scale.

Solution
10
R = log10 + 6.8 = 7.8
1

Example 39
Early in the twentieth century an earthquake in San Francisco registered 8.3 on the Richter
scale. In the same year, another earthquake was recorded in South America that was
a
four times stronger. We will take this to mean that the value of for South America is
T
four times that for San Francisco. What was the magnitude of the earthquake in South
America? Assume both were measured at the same distance from the epicentre, and so the
constant B is the same for both.
Solution
For San Francisco:
a
1
8.3 = log10 +B (1)
T1
Hence, for South America:
a
2
R = log10 +B
T2
4a
1
= log10 +B
T1
a
1
= log10 4 + log10 +B
T1
= log10 4 + 8.3 using equation (1)
≈ 8.9
The magnitude was 8.9.

Note: Although the earthquake in South America was four times stronger, the magnitude on
the Richter scale only increased by log10 4 ≈ 0.6.

The pH scale
The pH scale for measuring the acidity of a solution is logarithmic. The pH of a solution is
determined by the concentration of hydronium ions, [H3 O+ ], in the solution. (Concentration
is measured in moles per litre.) The deﬁnition is
1
pH = log10 = − log10 [H3 O+ ]
[H3 O+ ]
Vinegar has pH 3, and bananas have pH in the interval [4.5, 4.7]. The scale goes from 0.1 for
hydrochloric acid up to 14 for sodium hydroxide.

Example 40
The pH of blood normally lies in the interval [7.37, 7.44]. Find the range for the
concentration of hydronium ions.

Solution
For pH 7.37, we have
− log10 [H3 O+ ] = 7.37
log10 [H3 O+ ] = −7.37
[H3 O+ ] = 10−7.37 moles per litre
Now, for pH 7.44, we have
log10 [H3 O+ ] = −7.44
[H3 O+ ] = 10−7.44 moles per litre
So the concentration of hydronium ions lies in the interval [10−7.44 , 10−7.37 ].
We can write this interval as [3.63 × 10−8 , 4.27 × 10−8 ] to three signiﬁcant ﬁgures.

Section summary
Linear scale The change between two values is determined by the diﬀerence between
the values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 is the same as a change from 6 to 7. We use
linear scales for temperature and length.
Logarithmic scale The change between two values is determined by the ratio of the
values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 (ratio of 1:2) is the same as a change from 6 to 12
(also a ratio of 1:2). We use logarithmic scales for noise and acidity.
Consider the exponential function y = b × amx , where a, b and m are positive real
numbers. Taking logarithms base a of both sides gives
loga y = loga b + mx
So the graph of loga y against x is a straight line with gradient m and with (loga y)-axis
intercept at (0, loga b).

Exercise 13I

Example 36 1 Let y = 3 × 42x , for x ≥ 0.

a If log4 y = mx + c, give the values of m and c.
b Sketch the graph of log4 y against x.
c Sketch the graph of log4 y against x labelling your vertical axis with powers of 4.

2 Let y = 2 × 53x , for x ≥ 0.

a If log5 y = mx + c, give the values of m and c.
b Sketch the graph of log5 y against x.
c Sketch the graph of log5 y against x labelling your vertical axis with powers of 5.

Example 37 3 A busy street generates noise of 70 dB and a quiet car generates noise of 50 dB. Find
the power in watt/cm2 for each of these.

4 Use the formula dB = 10 log10 (P × 1016 ) to answer the following:

a If P is increased by a factor of 2, what is the effect on dB?
b If P is increased by a factor of 10, what is the effect on dB?
c If dB is increased by a factor of 3, what is the effect on P?
d For what value of P is dB = 0?
e For what value of P is dB = 100?

5 If dB1 − dB2 = λ, ﬁnd P1 in terms of P2 .

Example 38 6 Find the magnitude on the Richter scale of an earthquake with a = 10, T = 2 and B = 5.

Example 39 7 An earthquake in Turkey registered 7.3 on the Richter scale. In the same year, an
earthquake in Greece had a quarter of this strength. We will take this to mean that
a
the value of for Greece is one-quarter that for Turkey. What was the magnitude of
T
the earthquake in Greece? Assume both were measured at the same distance from the
epicentre, and so the constant B is the same for both.

Example 40 8 The pH of a soft drink normally lies in the interval [2.0, 4.0]. Find the range for the
concentration of hydronium ions.

Review
Chapter summary
Index laws
AS
• To multiply two powers with the same base, add the indices: am × an = am+n
Nrich
• To divide two powers with the same base, subtract the indices: am ÷ an = am−n
• To raise a power to another power, multiply the indices: (am )n = am×n
Rational indices:
1 √ m 1 m
a n = n a and a n = an
Graphs of exponential functions: y y

y = a x, a > 1 y = a x, 0 < a < 1

1 1
x x

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}:
if a x = ay , then x = y
For a ∈ R+ \ {1}:
ax = y is equivalent to loga y = x
Laws of logarithms m
1 loga (mn) = loga m + loga n 2 loga = loga m − loga n
n
3 loga (m p ) = p loga m 4 loga (m−1 ) = − loga m

5 loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

Technology-free questions
1 Simplify each of the following, expressing your answer with positive index:
a6 b8 m3 n4 a3 b2
a 2 b 10 c 5 6 d
a b mn (ab2 )4
6a8 10a7 8(a3 )2 m−1 n2
e f g h
4a2 6a9 (2a)3 (mn−2 )3
(2a−4 )3 6a−1 a4 + a8
i (p−1 q−2 )2 j k l
5a−1 3a−2 a2
2 Use logarithms to solve each of the following equations:
a 2x = 7 b 22x = 7 c 10 x = 2 d 10 x = 3.6
e 10 x = 110 f 10 x = 1010 g 25x = 100 h 2 x = 0.1

Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-52013-4 © Evans et al. 2015 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 1&2 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated May 2021
478 Chapter 13: Exponential functions and logarithms
Review
3 Evaluate each of the following:
a log2 64 b log10 (107 ) c loga (a2 ) d log4 1
1
e log3 27 f log2 g log10 0.001 h log2 16
4
4 Express each of the following as a single logarithm:
a log10 2 + log10 3 b log10 4 + 2 log10 3 − log10 6
c 2 log10 a − log10 b d 2 log10 a − 3 − log10 25
e log10 x + log10 y − log10 x f 2 log10 a + 3 log10 b − log10 c

5 Solve each of the following for x:

a 3 x (3 x − 27) = 0 b (2 x − 8)(2 x − 1) = 0
c 22x − 2 x+1 = 0 d 22x − 12 × 2 x + 32 = 0

6 Sketch the graph of:

a y = 2 × 2x b y = −3 × 2 x c y = 5 × 2−x
d y = 2−x + 1 e y = 2x − 1 f y = 2x + 2

7 Solve the equation log10 x + log10 (2x) − log10 (x + 1) = 0.

xy
8 Given 3 x = 4y = 12z , show that z = .
x+y
9 Evaluate 2 log2 12 + 3 log2 5 − log2 15 − log2 150.

10 a Given that log p 7 + log p k = 0, ﬁnd k.

b Given that 4 logq 3 + 2 logq 2 − logq 144 = 2, ﬁnd q.

11 Solve:
a 2 × 4a+1 = 162a for a b log2 (y2 ) = 4 + log2 (y + 5) for y

Multiple-choice questions
1 8x3 ÷ 4x−3 =
2
A 2 B 2x0 C 2x6 D 2x−1 E
x9
a2 b ab
2 The expression 2 3
÷ simpliﬁes to
(2ab ) 16a0
2 2a2 2 1
A B C 2a2 b6 D E
a b6
2 b6 ab6 128ab5
3 The function f : R → R, f (x) = 3 × 2 x − 1 has range
A R B R \ {−1} C (−1, ∞) D (1, ∞) E [1, ∞)

The function f : R+ → R, where f (x) = log2 (3x), has an inverse function f −1 . The rule

Review
4
for f −1 is given by
2x
A f −1 (x) = 2 x B f −1 (x) = 3 x C f −1 (x) =
x 3
x
−1 −1
D f (x) = 2 3 E f (x) = log2
3
5 If log10 (x − 2) − 3 log10 (2x) = 1 − log10 y, then y is equal to
80x3 8x3 60x 6x x−2
A B 1+ C D 1+ E 1−
x−2 x−2 x−2 x−2 8x3
6 The solution of the equation 5 × 25x = 10 is x equals
1 1 1 1 1
A B C log2 10 D log2 5 E × 25
2 5 5 2 5
7 The equation of the asymptote of y = 3 log2 (5x) + 2 is
A x=0 B x=2 C x=3 D x=5 E y=2

8 Which of the following graphs could be the graph of the function f (x) = 2ax + b, where
a and b are positive?
A y B y C y

x x x
O O
O

D y E y

x x
O O

9 Which one of the following functions has a graph with a vertical asymptote with
equation x = b?
1 1
A y = log2 (x − b) B y= C y= −b
x+b x+b
D y = 2x + b E y = 2 x−b

2mh mh
10 The expression 2 3
÷ is equal to
(3mh ) 81m2
6 6m2 6 1
A B C 6m2 h6 D E
mh6 h6 m2 h6 128mh5

Extended-response questions
1 This problem is based on the so-called ‘Tower of Hanoi’
puzzle. Given a number of diﬀerent sized discs, the
problem is to move a pile of discs to a second location
(if starting at A, then either to B or C) according to the location A
following rules:
Only one disc can be moved at a time.
location B
A total of only three locations (A, B and C) can be location C
used to ‘rest’ the discs.
A larger sized disc cannot be placed on top of a smaller disc.
The task must be completed in the smallest possible number of moves.
a First complete the puzzle using two coins. Repeat with three coins and then with
four coins, and thus complete the following table:

Number of discs, n 1 2 3 4
Minimum number of moves, M 1

b Work out the formula which shows the relationship between M and n. Use your
formula to extend the table of values for n = 5, 6, 7.
c Plot the graph of M against n.
d Investigate, for both n = 3 and n = 4, to ﬁnd whether there is a pattern for the
number of times each particular disc is moved.

2 To control an advanced electronic machine, a total of 2187 different switch positions are
required. There are two kinds of switches available:
Switch 1 These can be set in 9 different positions.
Switch 2 These can be set in 3 different positions.
If n of switch type 1 and n + 1 of switch type 2 are used, calculate the value of n that
gives the required total number of switch positions.

3 Research is being carried out to investigate the durability of paints of diﬀerent

thicknesses. The automatic machine shown in the diagram is proposed for producing a
coat of paint of a particular thickness.

Blade set to reduce

thickness

Thick layer Thin layer

The paint is spread over a plate and a blade sweeps over the plate reducing the thickness
of the paint. The process involves the blade moving at three diﬀerent speeds.
a Operating at the initial setting, the blade reduces the paint thickness to one-eighth
of the original thickness. This happens n times. What fraction of the paint thickness
remains? Express this as a power of 12 .
Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-52013-4 © Evans et al. 2015 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 1&2 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated May 2021
Chapter 13 review 481

Review
b The blade is then reset so that it removes three-quarters of the remaining paint.
This happens (n − 1) times. At the end of this second stage, express the remaining
thickness as a power of 12 .
c The third phase of the process involves the blade being reset to remove half of the
remaining paint. This happens (n − 3) times. At what value of n would the machine
have to be set to reduce a film of paint 8192 units thick to 1 unit thick?

4 A hermit has little opportunity to replenish supplies of tea and so, to eke out supplies
for as long as possible, he dries out the tea leaves after use and then stores the dried tea
in an airtight box. He estimates that after each re-use of the leaves the amount of tannin
in the used tea will be half the previous amount. He also estimates that the amount of
caffeine in the used tea will be one-quarter of the previous amount.
The information on the label of the tea packet states that the tea contains 729 mg of
caffeine and 128 mg of tannin.
a Write down expressions for the amount of caffeine when the tea leaves are re-used
for the first, second, third and nth times.
b Do the same for the amount of tannin remaining.
c Find the number of times he can re-use the tea leaves if a ‘tea’ containing more than
three times as much tannin as caffeine is undrinkable.

5 A new type of red synthetic carpet was produced in two batches. The first batch had
a brightness of 15 units and the second batch 20 units. After a period of time it was
discovered that the first batch was losing its brightness at the rate of 5% per year while
the second was losing brightness at the rate of 6% per year.
a Write down expressions for the brightness of each batch after n years.
b A person bought some carpet from the first batch when it was a year old and some
new carpet from the second batch. How long would it be before the brightness of the
two carpets was the same?

6 The value of shares in Company X increased linearly over a two-year period according
to the model x = 0.8 + 0.17t, where t is the number of months from the beginning of
January 2014 and $x is the value of the shares at time t.
The value of shares in Company Y increased over the same period of time according to
the model y = 100.03t , where $y is the value of these shares at time t months.
The value of shares in Company Z increased over the same period according to the
model z = 1.7 log10 5(t + 1) , where $z is the value of the shares at time t months.

Use a calculator to sketch the graphs of the three functions on the one screen.
a Find the values of the shares in each of the three companies at the end of June 2014.
b Find the values of the shares in the three companies at the end of September 2015.
c During which months were shares in Company X more valuable than shares in
Company Y?
d For how long and during which months were the shares in Company X the most
valuable?

Cambridge Senior Maths AC/VCE ISBN 978-1-107-52013-4 © Evans et al. 2015 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 1&2 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated May 2021
482 Chapter 13: Exponential functions and logarithms
Review
7 In the year 2000, in an African game park it was estimated that there were approx-
imately 700 wildebeest and that their population was increasing at 3% per year. At
the same time, in the park there were approximately 1850 zebras and their population
was decreasing at the rate of 4% per year. Use a calculator to plot the graphs of both
functions.
a After how many years was the number of wildebeest greater than the number of
zebras?
b It is also estimated that there were 1000 antelope and their numbers were increasing
by 50 per year. After how many years was the number of antelope greater than the
number of zebras?

8 Students conducting a science experiment on cooling rates measure the temperature of a

beaker of liquid over a period of time. The following measurements were taken.

Time (minutes) 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Temperature (◦ C) 71.5 59 49 45.5 34 28 23.5

a Find an exponential model to ﬁt the data collected.

b Use this model to estimate:
i the initial temperature of the liquid
ii the temperature of the liquid after 25 minutes.
It is suspected that one of the temperature readings was incorrect.
c Re-calculate the model to ﬁt the data, omitting the incorrect reading.
d Use the new model to estimate:
i the initial temperature of the liquid
ii the temperature of the liquid at t = 12.
e If the room temperature is 15◦ C, ﬁnd the approximate time at which the cooling of
the liquid ceased.

9 The graph of y = ab x passes through the points (1, 1) and (2, 5).
a Find the values of a and b.
b Let b x = 10z .
i Take logarithms of both sides (base 10) to ﬁnd an expression for z in terms of x.
ii Find the values of k and a such that the graph of y = a10kx passes through the
points (1, 1) and (2, 5).

10 a Find an exponential model of the form y = a · b x to ﬁt the following data:

x 0 2 4 5 10
y 2 5 13 20 200

b Express the model you have found in part a in the form y = a10kx .
c Hence ﬁnd an expression for x in terms of y.

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Chapter 13 Exponential Functions and Logarithms

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Chapter 13 Exponential Functions and Logarithms

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13

Thus P deﬁnes a function which has the rule P = 2n , an exponential function.

13A The index laws

Index law 1: Multiplying powers

If m and n are positive integers,

b x 2 y3 × x 4 y = x 2 × x 4 × y 3 × y In part b, the indices of the base-x powers are added,

Using the TI-Nspire

Using the Casio ClassPad

Index law 2: Dividing powers

If m and n are positive integers with m > n, then

The zero index and negative integer indices

Index laws 1 and 2 also hold for negative indices m, n.

Index law 3: Raising the power

Index laws 4 and 5: Products and quotients

If n is a positive integer, then

If n is a positive integer, then

Working with a negative base

Using prime decomposition

Example 1 2 Simplify each of the following:

Example 2 3 Simplify each of the following:

Example 7 8 Simplify the following:

10 Simplify the following:

13B Rational indices

Using this notation for square roots:

Example 8 1 Evaluate each of the following:

3 Simplify each of the following:

13C Graphs of exponential functions

Graph of y = ax when a > 1

x −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 y = 10x

Graph of y = ax when 0 < a < 1

y = a x, a > 1 y = a x, 0 < a < 1

Using the TI-Nspire

Using the Casio ClassPad

When x = 2.1, y = 4.287

b Select Analysis > G-Solve > x-Cal/y-Cal > x-Cal

Transformations of exponential graphs

b y The graph of y = 32x is obtained from

c y The graph of y = −32x + 4 is obtained

y = a x, a > 1 y = a x, 0 < a < 1

13D Solving exponential equations and inequalities

Sometimes solving an exponential equation involves solving a polynomial equation ﬁrst. In

Using the TI-Nspire

Using the Casio ClassPad

Using the TI-Nspire

Using the Casio ClassPad

For example: 2 x+1 > 8 ⇔ 2 x+1 > 23 ⇔ x + 1 > 3 ⇔ x > 2

Example 16 1 Solve for x in each of the following:

Example 17 4 Solve for x:

Example 19 6 Solve for x in each of the following:

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the logarithm function with base a is deﬁned as follows:

Note: To ﬁnd log2 32, we ask ‘What power of 2 gives 32?’

Law 1: Logarithm of a product

Law 2: Logarithm of a quotient

Law 3: Logarithm of a power

Proof Let loga m = x. Then a x = m, and therefore

For example: log2 32 = log2 (25 ) = 5.

loga (m−1 ) = − loga m

Proof Use logarithm law 3 with p = −1.

For example: loga 1

Proof Since a0 = 1, we have loga 1 = 0. Since a1 = a, we have loga a = 1.

c log2 (2x + 1) − log2 (x − 1) = 4 d log3 (x − 1) + log3 (x + 1) = 1

5 loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

Example 20 1 Without using a calculator, evaluate the following:

3 Without using a calculator, evaluate each of the following:

Example 21 4 Without using a calculator, simplify each of the following:

Example 22 5 Solve for x:

6 Solve each of the following for x:

10 Solve each of the following equations for x:

13F Using logarithms to solve exponential equations

Exponential graphs revisited

13G Graphs of logarithm functions

Graph of y = loga x when 0 < a < 1 y

 loga (a x ) = x for all x  aloga x = x for all positive values of x

Transformations of logarithm graphs

 The maximal domain is (3, ∞).

b f (x) = log2 (x + 2) The graph of y = log2 x is translated 2 units

loga (a x ) = x for all x aloga x = x for all positive values of x

The maximal domain is (3, ∞).

The maximal domain is (−2, ∞).

Insert a Calculator page and use menu >

This now gives the values of a and b, and the

The curve can be shown in a Graphs

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