SCI 214: MODERN PHYSICS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

2nd SEMESTER S.Y. 2022-2023 COURSE FACILITATOR: DR. MA

VENUS B. LOZADA

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter Outline
1.1 What is modern physics?
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Important discoveries
1.4 Examples
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

Travel through the realms of science and explore fascinating areas of modern physics. This
chapter unravels the essence of modern physics, the branch of science that has changed our
understanding of the universe. From groundbreaking discoveries to influential theories, we trace
the evolution of ideas that have brought us to the forefront of scientific research. The journey
begins with a fundamental question: What is modern physics? We delve into the core concepts
that distinguish modern physics from classical physics and explore Lay the foundation for deeper
exploration of the mysteries. This chapter continues with an introduction to the main principles
and theories that define modern physics. We highlight key discoveries that have shaped the state
of our understanding and draw attention to the brilliant minds whose insights paved the way for
scientific progress. To solidify our exploration, we will use concrete examples to explain the
application of modern physics to unraveling the mysteries of the universe. We demonstrate the
diverse and profound influence of modern physics on our understanding of the natural world,
from the complexity of elementary particles to the vast scope of cosmic phenomena. Join us on
this insightful journey as we navigate the realms of modern physics and unravel the mysteries
that have ushered humanity into a new era of scientific discovery.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.1 Explain the definition of modern physics.
1.2 Describe the importance of discoveries in modern physics; and
1.3 Cite examples of applications of modern physics.
Introduction
The emergence and
development of modern physics was
a giant leap in the history of mankind.
This is because the main theories of
modern physics reshaped our
perception of the universe and caused
an incredible scientific revolution.
Modern physics is a branch of physics
that includes the post-
Newtonian concepts in the world of
physics. It is based on the two major breakthroughs of the twentieth century: relativity and
quantum theory.

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The term modern physics means up-to-date physics. This term refers to the breakthrough that
happened after Newton’s laws, Maxwell’s equations, and thermodynamics, these laws which are
known as “classical” physics.

So modern physics can be considered the most recent step in the history of physics. This history
has roots back to ancient Greece, old India, old China, the Islamic world, and medieval Europe.
Then came the scientific revolution which is based on the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo
Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac Newton, and others.

What are the constituents that make up the world around us and how do they interact?
As physicists, we observe, we experiment, and we build conceptual models. We build
models on many different levels. Models are made by people for people. A model is a
manageable representation of the underlying reality. Models can change as our knowledge
changes, but the underlying reality presumably does not change.
Different physical models have different ranges of applicability, they have been verified
to work on different scales.
Examples of scales:

Cosmic Material Atomic and Nuclear Elementary Particle

The science of Physics is often divided into Classical Physics and Modern Physics.
What is Modern Physics?
Modern physics is a branch of physics that deals
with the post-Newtonian concepts in the world of
physics. It is based on the two major breakthroughs of
the twentieth century:

Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.

Quantum effects typically involve distances related to
atoms. On the other hand, relativistic effects typically involve velocities compared to the speed
of light.
Relativity explains the behavior of objects at a classical level, covering gargantuan
objects like Quasars to everyday objects like a car, the motion of the planets, the collision of
galaxies, and the workings of the ever-expanding Universe.
Quantum mechanics explains the workings of the Quantum world, from the entanglement
of two quantum objects to the fundamental forces of nature and fundamental particles.
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Who is the Father of Modern Physics?

Albert Einstein is known as the father of modern physics. He was a 20th-century
scientist, who came up with the most important ideas. One of the important works of Albert
Einstein is the theory of relativity and the famous equation E=mc . 2

He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1921 for his achievements in theoretical
physics, particularly discovering the laws of photoelectric effect

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Modern physics started to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In the late
19 century, many physicists thought that almost everything was known and that all that was left
th

to do was to calculate the physical constants to more decimal places. This is illustrated by the
famous quote by Albert Michelson at around this time:

While it is never safe to affirm that the future of Physical Science has no marvels in
store even more astonishing than those of the past, it seems probable that most of the grand
underlying principles have been firmly established … the future truths of physical science are
to be looked for in the sixth place of decimals.

Little did he know that brand new branches of physics would be established in the coming years
that would drastically change the way we look at the world.

What is “Modern Physics”?

“Modern” physics means physics based on the two major breakthroughs of the early
twentieth century: relativity and quantum mechanics.
Physics based on what was known before then (Newton’s laws, Maxwell’s equations,
thermodynamics) is called “classical” physics.
This course traces in some detail just how the new ideas developed. We examine the
experimental and theoretical paradoxes that forced thinking out of the traditional path. This is a
valuable exercise—the classical ideas are in much better accord with common sense (defined by
Einstein as the layer of prejudices in place by age eighteen), so seeing how the new physics came
about is helpful in overcoming that “common sense” and getting a better understanding of
nature.
But this is not just a course on concepts: the lectures and homework are sufficient to give
the student a basic technical grasp of special relativity, and of Schrödinger’s quantum mechanics.
Post-Newtonian
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Newton’s laws of motion and his law of gravity, as
he had stated them, became the basis for the creation of a vast mathematical superstructure that
changed Newtonian mechanics from a set of simple equations that had been designed to analyze
and follow the motion of a single particle acted on by a well-defined force to a sophisticated
complex of partial differential equations designed to study the interactions and motions of many
particles. It is unnecessary to present these equations here in all their forbidding formalism to see
their significance and understand their importance in the development of physics in the post-
Newtonian era; a brief survey emphasizing the highlights.
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The term modern physics means up-to-date physics. This term refers to the breakthrough
that happened after Newton’s laws, Maxwell’s equations, and thermodynamics, these laws which
are known as “classical” physics.
So modern physics can be considered the most recent step in the history of physics. This
history has roots back to ancient Greece, old India, old china, the Islamic world, and medieval
Europe. Then came the scientific revolution which is based on the ideas of Nicolaus
Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac Newton, and others.

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In this article, we are going to look at the history of physics in these ages and the
evolution of the main theories of modern physics. Also, we will discuss some of the most
popular principles of modern physics using the practical experience that is provided by
the modern physics virtual lab from PraxiLabs.
This article will also include brief notes on the two major breakthroughs of modern
physics in the early twentieth century: relativity and quantum physics.
Classical Physics and Before That
Physics is a branch of science whose primary objects of study are matter and energy. And
it is branching today to classical physics and modern physics.
But what about its history? How did physics start?
Before the archaic period in Greece’s history, people were explaining every natural
phenomenon by supernatural, religious, or mythological explanations. This was the prevailing
mindset until it was changed by Thales of Miletus.
Thales of Miletus was a Greek mathematician and astronomer who was called “the father
of science,” who first said that every event had a natural cause. And he suggested that the water
is the building block of all matter. Then Anaximander argued Thales’s Theory and suggested that
another substance called Apeiron is the basic element.
These philosophers were followed by others such
as Heraclitus, Parmenides, Empedocles, Zeno of Elea, and Democritus. They founded the Pre-
Socratic philosophy, an ancient Greek philosophy that existed before Socrates and was not
influenced by him.
And one of the most important achievements of this period was the development of the
theory of atomism that was first suggested by Leucippus and his student Democritus. They
discussed the idea that all the universe matter is composed entirely of various imperishable,
indivisible elements called atoms.
In the classical period in Greece, a genius philosopher left his mark on history. He was
called Aristotle, the one who revealed the importance of
observation and considered it the key to discovering the
laws that control natural phenomena.
Aristotle
Aristotle wrote the first work which refers to that line of
study as “Physics,” in the 4th century BJ Archemids
developed the principles of equilibrium states and the
centers of gravity. These ideas would influence the great
scholars: Galileo and Newton in the future.
Islamic World
Arabic scholars
In the Middle Ages in the Islamic world between the
7th and the 15th centuries, a great scientific revolution
was in action.

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With the great translation movement of the greek and Indian scientists’ books into Arabic,
science became available to the Islamic geniuses to leave their marks on the scientific heritage of
humankind.
One of the most important Arabic scholars in this period was Ibn al-Haytham. He made great
contributions to scientific progress. Ibn al-Haytham was considered “the father of the modern
scientific method” due to his method that was based on the experimental data
and reproducibility of its results.
Ibn al-Haytham
In regard to physics, Ibn al-Haytham is “the father of
optics.” As he suggested that light travels to the eye
in rays from different points on an object.
And there was another well-known genius called Ibn
Sina, who contributed to science with his book
“Book of Healing.” He discussed the theory of
motion, and he suggested that any projectile in a
vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon by
opposite force, which is consistent with Newton’s first law of motion inertia that states that an
object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force.
Another Islamic scholar Abu’l-Barakat discussed the acceleration of a falling body because of its
increasing impetus. And Ibn Bajjah who is known as “Avempace” in Europe explained that there
is always a reaction force for any opposite force. But he did not note that these forces are equal.
This was a forerunner to Newton’s third law of motion which states that for every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction.

The Scientific Revolution

Galileo Galilei
The story of the scientific revolution starts
with Copernicanism and the battle
of mechanics and astronomy. Removing Earth from
the center destroyed the doctrine of natural motion
and place, and circular motion of Earth was
incompatible with Aristotelian physics. He gave
strong arguments for the heliocentric model of
the Solar system, ostensibly as a means to render
tables charting planetary motion more accurate and
to simplify
their production.

The second round of the battle started with Galileo

Galilei, the Italian philosopher, astronomer, and
mathematician. He is the one who made fundamental
contributions to the sciences of motion, astronomy, and
to the development of the scientific method. He
discovered four of Jupiter’s moons almost four hundred
years ago. Also, the law of free fall and the parabolic
path of projectile motion were derived by him.
In sequence another star started to shine in the world of
physics. He came with the three laws of motion. These
three laws described the relation between the motion
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and the objects. Also, he initiated the formula of the universal gravitation. This star was the
famous scholar Newton.
The law of universal gravitation applications for describing the motion of planets required the
invention of a completely new branch in math, which is calculus. The invention of calculus was
one of the greatest scientific contributions of Newton.

Newton
In addition to these great contributions,
Newton also built the first functioning reflecting
telescope and developed a theory of color, based on
the observation that a prism decomposes white
light into the many colours forming the visible
spectrum.
He studied the speed of sound and demonstrated
the generalised binomial theorem and developed a
method for approximating the roots of a function.
His work on infinite series was inspired by Simon
Stevin‘s decimals. And by demonstrating the
consistency between Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and his own theory of gravitation,
Newton also removed the last doubts about heliocentrism.
With these contributions of Newton, the scientific community was ready to start a new era of
physics: the modern physics is here.

The Birth of Modern Physics

Despite the achievements of classical physics at the end of the nineteenth century, it
faced a lot of limitations and serious crises that couldn’t be solved using the physics laws of that
time.
Some examples for these limitations were the inability of classical physics to explain certain
physical phenomena, such as the energy distribution in blackbody radiation and the photoelectric
effect.
Radiation Experiments
By the 19th century, scientists started to detect unknown forms of radiation such as X-rays that
had been detected by Wilhelm Rontgen, the electron that had been discovered by J. J. Thomson
and the radioactive elements found by Marie and Pierre Curie.
These discoveries made scientists doubt the supposedly indestructible atom and the nature of
matter.
The classical theory had also failed to
explain Michelson–Morley experiment which
showed that there did not seem to be a
preferred frame of reference, at least with
respect to the hypothetical luminiferous ether,
for describing electromagnetic phenomena.
And it also failed to explain the radiation and
the radioactive decay until Lise
Meitner and Otto Frisch discovered the nuclear
fission which led to the practical exploitation of what came to be called “atomic” energy.
Albert Einstein and Relativity
It is 1905, and a major breakthrough in the history of physics is about to happen, the emergence
of relativity theory by a 26-year old German physicist named Albert Einstein. He argued that the
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measurements of time and space are affected by motion between an observer and what is being
observed.
Einstein
Although the theory of relativity was one of the greatest intellectual achievements of all time, he
came up with more. Einstein also recognized that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant, i.e.,
the same for all observers, and an absolute physical boundary for motion.
He also derived the famous equation, E = mc2, which expresses the equivalence of mass and
energy.

Special Relativity
In the theory of special relativity,
Einstein explained that the speed
of light was a constant in
all inertial reference frames and
that electromagnetic laws should
remain valid independent of
reference frames.
The special theory of relativity
describes the relationship
between physical observations
and the concepts of space and
time. This theory emerged from the contradictions between electromagnetism and Newtonian
mechanics, and it caused great development in both those areas.
The original historical issue was whether it was meaningful to discuss how electromagnetic
waves propagate in the assumed medium “ether” and its relative motion to other objects.
Einstein destroyed the “ether” concept in his special theory of relativity.
However, his basic formulation does not involve detailed electromagnetic theory.
Special relativity tried to answer the mystery question “What is time?” Newton’s answer, in
the Principia (1686), was “Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own
nature, flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another name is called
duration.” This definition is a base to all classical physics.

Einstein found that this answer was incomplete. He added his relative view.
According to Einstein, each “observer”
necessarily makes use of his or her own
scale of time, and for two observers in
relative motion, their timescales will
differ. This induces a related effect on
position measurements. Space and time
become intertwined concepts,
fundamentally dependent on the
observer. Each observer presides over
his or her own space-time framework or
coordinate system.

General relativity

In 1916, Einstein went further into the nature of motion in our universe. He introduced the
concept of the curvature of space-time, which became the general theory of relativity.
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In the theory of general relativity, Einstein explained the gravitational effect at every point in
space. According to Einstein, gravitational force in the normal sense is a kind of illusion caused
by the geometry of space.
The object’s mass causes a
curvature of space-time around
this mass, and this curvature
dictates the space-time path that
all freely-moving objects must
follow. This new perception of
how gravity works completely
replaced Newton’s universal law
of gravitation.

Quantum Physics
Another modern physics breakthrough tried to look at another world, the world of atoms
and subatomic particles.
The problem of black body radiation experiment ‫ـــ‬this experiment that showed that at shorter
wavelengths, toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, the energy approached zero, but
classical theory predicted it should become infinite‫ ـــ‬was solved by the new theory of quantum
mechanics.
Quantum mechanics is the theory of atoms and subatomic systems. Approximately the first 30
years of the 20th century represent the time of the conception and evolution of the theory. The
basic ideas of quantum theory were introduced in 1900 by Max Planck.
The quantum theory was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries
momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be
seen as behaving as a wave in much the same way as electromagnetic waves behave like
particles (wave–particle duality).

Black Body Radiation

The aim of this experiment is to study the black body radiation and to verify Wien’s law
and the inverse square law using the Heated Filament Method.
The intensity of radiation from a black body varies with the wavelength of the emitted radiation,
which depends on the temperature of the blackbody. Also, the radiation emitted depends
inversely on the square of the distance from the black body.
By measuring the emitted radiation from a heated filament, as a function of the temperature of
the filament, wavelength of the emitted radiation and the distance from the black body, we can
verify the fourth law of radiation, generates Planck’s curves at a different temperature, and the
inverse square law for EM radiation.

Laser Beam Divergence

Laser Beam
The aim of this experiment is to
verify that the profile for a laser beam is
Gaussian and determine its
characteristics using laser photodiode
method.

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Most low-intensity laser sources emit laser beam with gaussian distribution I(r)=Ioe – r2/z2 in
the transverse direction. where 2 zis the beam diameter at which the beam intensity falls
to Io/e 2.
Also, due to the coherent property of the laser, it shouldn’t obey the inverse square law obeyed
by ordinary light.
By measuring the laser beam intensity using a photodiode sensor, as a function of the
distance from the center of the beam in the transverse direction, we obtain the profile for the
laser beam which should be Gaussian. Hence, the beam diameter could be found. plotting the
beam profile at different distances from the source could be done and determine the beam
divergence which proves that the laser does not obey the inverse square law.
Laser Electro-Optic Effect
The aim of the experiment is to Study the electro-optic effect in some crystals using the Kerr
Cell Procedure method.
Monochromatic polarized light (laser) is incident on Lithium niobate crystal that is placed
at 45owith the vertical. Applying an electric field to the crystal, causes it to become birefringent.
The phase shift between the ordinary and the extraordinary light is found to depend on the square
of the electric field.
Lithium niobate crystal is illuminated with a laser beam that is polarized to45owith the
vertical. An electric field is applied to the crystal, which allows some light to come out of the
crystal and is detected by photo-sensor. The amount of light passing through the crystal is
recorded as a function of the electric field using a photosensor, and the half voltage value is
determined.
Michelson’ interferometer
The aim of the experiment is to determine the refractive index of a thin transparent plate
using Michelson’s interferometer procedure.
Monochromatic light beam from a laser source is splitted into two beams. the two beams are
reflected from two mirrors to a screen, where interference pattern is observed. By moving one of
the two mirrors or both, the phase difference between the two beams changes and the fringes
crossing the field of vision changes in number accordingly.
The number of fringes crossing the field of vision is counted as one (or both) of the two mirrors
is moved or by rotating the glass plate stage through angle, hence the wavelength of laser and the
refractive index of the glass plate could be determined.

Millikan Oil Drop

The aim of the experiment is to verify the quantization of the electric charge using the Oil
Drop Method.
Oil drops are sprayed into a region between two plates where an electric field is applied. The oil
drops acquire some charge from an ionizing source. Thus the oil drop’s motion between the
plates is affected by its mass and the amount of charge it has acquired from the ionizing
radiation. The motion of the charge is controlled by the value of the applied electric field and its
polarity, thus it may fall, rise, or even remain stationary between the plates.
By measuring the fall and rise speed of the oil drops in the presence of the electric field for oil
drops, we can determine the amount of charge it has acquired. Hence, it can be proved that the
amount of charge carried by each drop is an integer multiple of the electron charge.

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell (I)

Solar Cells

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The aim of the experiment is to study the I-V characteristics of a solar cell (or PV cell) in dark
and under illumination conditions using Simple circuit to study I-V with a lamp.
Solar cells are generally made from semiconducting materials, which are sensitive to structural
and environmental factors, e.g, the light intensity, which depends on the power delivered by the
solar cell.
solar cell is connected in a series circuit consisting of variable resistance, dc battery,
ammeter and voltmeter that is connected in parallel to the cell. By continuously varying the value
of the load resistance, we can obtain the I-V characteristics at different bias voltage and light
intensity.

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell (II)

The aim of the experiment is to study the illumination dependence and the exposed area
dependence of the I-V characteristics of the solar cell using a simple dc circuit with bias voltage,
solar cell, variable resistance, ammeter, voltmeter, lamp and ac power supply to operate the
lamp, variable area chopper plate.
solar cells are generally made from semiconducting materials, which are sensitive to structural
and environmental factors, e.g, the light intensity, which depends on the power delivered by the
solar cell.
By varying the ac voltage applied to the cell and measuring the short circuit current as a
function of the lamp’ voltage, we can study the effect of the light intensity on the short circuit
current obtained from the cell. In the second part, a chopper plate of controllable area limits the
exposed area of the cell to the light intensity, allowing us to study the dependence of the I-V
characteristics and the cell parameters maybe also studied.

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell (III)

The aim of the experiment is to study the spectral dependence of the incident light and the effect
of parallel and series wiring of few cells using Optical Filters to study dependence of I-V of a
solar cell. Also, connecting two cells in series and in parallel.
Solar cells are generally made from semiconducting materials, which are sensitive to structural
and environmental factors, e.g, the light intensity, which depends on the power delivered by the
solar cell.
Different optical filters can be attached to the opening of the lamp box to study the effect
dependence of the I-V characteristics of a solar cell. In the second part, two solar cells can be
connected in series or in parallel, to study the effect of the connection method and I-V
characteristics and the cell’ parameters.

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Applications of modern physics
Applications of modern physics can be seen in lots of different areas in scientific research
and in daily life. One example of an application of relativity and one of quantum mechanics are
explained below.

Black holes
The effects of general relativity are only noticeable on the largest of scales when masses
are enormous and gravitational fields have incredible strength. One of these situations is when
two black holes collide. Much of what we know about the universe is through studying the
electromagnetic waves that reach the Earth. However, theoretically, general relativity suggests
another way of studying the universe: gravitational waves.
Gravitational waves are ripples that travel through space-time, the fabric that pervades all of
space. They are normally extremely small and impossible to detect on Earth, but when there is a
cataclysmic event in the universe, such as two black holes colliding, the gravitational waves may
be sent toward us, and extremely sensitive equipment can be used to detect them.
There is a large-scale experiment called LIGO (laser interferometer gravitational-wave
observatory) that detects gravitational waves through the use of an interferometer. This is a
special piece of equipment that can detect distortions of space-time. The masses of the black
holes and the location of the collision can be found from the experimental readings.
The LIGO interferometer used to measure gravitational waves. The arms are 4 km in length,
Flickr.

Superconductors
A superconductor is a material that has no resistance at low temperatures, meaning that
an extremely high current can run through it. The phenomenon of superconductivity can be
understood through quantum mechanics. The charge carriers pair together in what are
called “Cooper pairs.”
These pairs formed are bosons, which can all fall into the same quantum state. This
means that they all travel around the material as a coherent wave and pass through irregularities
without construction. Superconductors have many uses. For instance, they can create very large
magnetic fields, which are needed in applications such as particle accelerators and MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging) scans.
The Fermilab main ring and main injector seen from above.

Importance of modern physics

Modern physics helps us understand the true nature of the universe. It allows us to probe
right to the extremes: from the edges of black holes down to the inner workings of nuclei.
Modern physics has led to many technological advances on top of the examples mentioned
above. But even these statements don't fully point out the importance of modern physics.
To see the importance of modern physics, we should also remember to mention that
quantum mechanics is the basis for many electrical components such as diodes and transistors.
On the other hand, relativity needs to be considered for satellite-based measurements as the
satellites are moving with respect to Earth. In addition, the different branches of modern physics
often contain the underlying principles for other subjects. For instance, the chemistry of atoms
can be understood through the mathematics behind quantum mechanics.

Modern Physics

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Physics is a natural science that is based on experiments, measurements, and mathematical
analysis. Its purpose is to find the quantitative physical laws for everything from the Nanoworld
to the planets. A branch of science which is dealing with the interaction of matter and energy is
popularly known as physics.
There are two major branches of Physics.
1. Classical Physics and
2. Modern Physics
Modern physics is the branch of physics that deals with the post-Newtonian concepts in the areas
of physics. It is having its based on the two major breakthroughs of the twentieth century. These
are Relativity and Quantum Mechanics. Modern physics mainly involves the advanced
description of nature through some theories which were different from classical Physics. These
are involving the elements of quantum mechanics and Einsteinian relativity. Albert Einstein is
popular as the father of modern physics.

Introduction to Modern Physics

Modern physics is based on the two major inventions of the early 20th century. These are
relativity and quantum mechanics. This kind of Physics is based on what was known before then,
i.e. Newton’s laws, Maxwell’s equations, thermodynamics and termed as classical physics.
Modern physics is presenting the foundations and frontiers of today’s physics. It is focusing on
the domains like quantum mechanics; applications in atomic, nuclear, particle, and also the
condensed-matter physics. Mainly it includes the special relativity, relativistic quantum
mechanics, Dirac equation and the Feynman diagrams, quantum fields with general relativity.
The aim of modern physics is to cover these topics in sufficient depth.

Important Discoveries in Modern Physics

Several experiments have marked the history and development of Modern Physics. Among these,
we may mention those who provided us with a deeper understanding of the structure of matter
and atoms. Some such examples of these important discoveries are as given below:

 In the year 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the existence of X-rays. It is an

invisible type of extremely penetrating radiation.

 After a few years in the year 1900, the German physicist Max Planck proposed that
the energy-charged by the electromagnetic field and having quantized values. It is
the integer multiples of a minimum and constant amount.
 In the year 1905, through his theory of relativity, Albert Einstein explained and
showed that references which move at very high speeds. This speed was close to the
speed of light propagation, experience the passage of time and the measurement of
distances in different ways.
 In the year 1913, Niels Bohr proposed that the energy levels of electrons scattered
around atomic nuclei are quantized. It means, their energy is given by an integer
multiple of a minimum value.
 In the year 1924, the wave-particle duality, which was established by physicist Louis
De’Broglie, showed that anybody can behave like a wave.
 In the year 1926, Quantum Mechanics appeared. It was the result of the work of
physicists like Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schröedinger.

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Famous Scientists and Their Inventions
A scientist is someone who explores the nature of the universe. On the other hand, an
investigator is someone who tries to create useful devices and products. A few people have been
successful in both endeavors. Given below is a list of discoveries that includes 17 famous
scientists and their discoveries.

Albert Einstein

Photon, also known as light quantum, is a tiny energy packet of

electromagnetic radiation. This concept originated in Albert Einstein’s
explanation of the photoelectric effect, in which he proposed the existence of
discrete energy packets during the transmission of light. Albert Einstein was
best known for his General and Special theory of relativity and the concept of
mass-energy equivalence (E = mc .)
2

J.J Thomson
J.J Thomson, an English physicist and a Nobel Laureate
in Physics, is credited and honoured with the discovery
of the electron, which was the first subatomic particle to
be discovered. Thomson managed to show that cathode
rays were composed of previously unknown negatively
charged particles (electrons), which he calculated and
inferred might have smaller bodies than atoms and a
substantial charge-mass ratio. He is also credited for
finding the first evidence for the existence of isotopes
for stable elements.

Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand chemist is regarded as the “father of

nuclear physics.” He was the first to propose that an atom comprises a
small, charged nucleus surrounded by empty space and is circled by tiny
electrons which later, became known as the Rutherford model. He is
credited with the discovery of protons
and hypothesized the existence of the neutron.

John Dalton
John Dalton’s major contribution was his theory on atoms
which consists of five parts as follows:

 Atoms are made of tiny particles known as atoms

 Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
 Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and chemical properties.
 In a chemical reaction, atoms separate, combine and rearrange
Dalton made a lot of discoveries based on his observations.
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James Chadwick
James Chadwick, a British physicist, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of
the neutron. Bombarding elements with neutrons can result in the penetration and splitting of
nuclei generating an enormous amount of energy. This way, Chadwick’s findings were pivotal to
the discovery of nuclear fission and ultimately, the development of the atomic bomb.

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton’s discoveries created a launchpad for future

developments in science. His most noteworthy innovations were as
follows:

 Newton’s three laws of motion set the foundation for

modern classical mechanics.
 The discovery of gravitational force gave us the ability to
predict the movement of heavenly bodies.
 His discovery of calculus gave us a potent mathematical
tool, aiding the precise analytical treatment of the physical
world.
Isaac Newton is one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists
of all time, and his inventions and discoveries widened the reach of
human thoughts.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb is best known for what now is known
as the Coulomb’s law, which explains electrostatic attraction and
repulsion. He formulated this law to study the law of electrostatic
repulsion put forward by the English scientist Joseph Priestley. He
also extensively worked on the friction of machinery, the elasticity
of metal and silk fibres. The SI unit of electric charge – Coulomb, is
named after him.

Georg Simon Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm, a German Physicist, discovered the law named after
him, known as the “Ohm’s Law” which states that the current flowing a
conductor is directly proportional to
its voltage and inversely proportional
to its resistance.

Michael Faraday
Faraday was a man devoted to discovery through
experimentation. He was famous for never giving up on ideas
that came from scientific intuition. When he thought of an
idea, he would keep experimenting through multiple failures
until he got what was expected. Below is the list of his few noteworthy discoveries:
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 Discovery of Electromagnetic Induction
 Discovery of Benzene
 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
 Gas Liquefication and Refrigeration
Michael Faraday is one of the revered scientists of all time.

Thomas Edison
Thomas Edison made a lot of key inventions and discoveries. Here, we
have listed a few noteworthy ones:

Invented the carbon rheostat


Discovered incandescent light

Invented the motion picture camera

Invented the fluorescent electric lamp

Discovered thermionic emission

Edison has been described as “America’s greatest inventor.” He developed many devices in
fields like mass communication and electric power generation. He was one of the pioneers in
applying the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working
with many researchers and employees.

Henri Becquerel
Henri Becquerel was a French physicist best known for his
work on radioactivity for which he won a Nobel Prize. As a
result, the SI unit of radioactivity Becquerel is named after
him.

Marie Sklodowska-Curie
Marie Sklodowska-Curie was a chemist who conducted pioneering
research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize.
She is most famous for the discovery of the elements Polonium and
Radium.

Max Planck
Max Planck, a German Physicist, is best known for his proposition of the
quantum theory of energy for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. His
work contributed significantly to the atomic and
subatomic processes.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

During his work on electromagnetism, Heinrich reported another
important phenomenon known as the Photoelectric effect. He noticed that
UV rays made the metal lose charges faster than otherwise, which led
him to publish his findings in the journal Annalen der Physik. He did not
investigate this effect further on. Later, in 1905, Albert Einstein proposed
that light came in discrete packets of energy known as the photons. This discovery led to the
development of Quantum mechanics.
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.
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, a German physicist, produced and detected

electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range known as X-rays.
This discovery earned him a Nobel Prize in Physics.

Neils Bohr & Rutherford

As discussed before, Rutherford described an atom as
consisting of a positive centre mass surrounded by
orbiting electrons. Neils Bohr suspected that electrons
revolved in quantized orbits. Having suspected this,
Bohr worked on Rutherford’s model and proved that
particles couldn’t occupy just any energy level.

Enrico Fermi

Enrico Fermi was an Italian American physicist who created the world’s
first nuclear reactor. He is widely known as the “architect of the nuclear
age” and the “architect of the atomic bomb.” He won a Nobel Prize in
Physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment. He
also made significant contributions in the field of quantum theory,
statistical mechanics and nuclear and particle physics.
Summary

Year Discoveries Scientist Name

1905 Photon Albert Einstein

1897 Electron J.J. Thomson

1919 Proton Ernest Rutherford

1808 Atom John Dalton

1932 Neutron James Chadwick

1687 Law of Motion Isaac Newton

1779 Coulomb Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

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Year Discoveries Scientist Name

1827 Ohm’s Law Georg Simon Ohm

1831 Electromagnetic Michael Faraday

Induction

1880 Thermionic Emission Thomas Edison

1896 Radioactivity Henri Becquerel

1898 Radium Marie Sklodowska-Curie

1900 Quantum theory Max Planck

1905 Photoelectric Effect Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

1895 X-Ray Röntgen

1905 Relativity Albert Einstein

1913 Atomic Structure Neils Bohr & Rutherford

1942 Nuclear Reactor Enrico Fermi

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CHAPTER SUMMARY

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CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

Read and answer the following questions carefully. Write your answer on the line provided
before each number.
______1. Modern physics could best be described as the
combination of which theories?
a. quantum mechanics and Einstein’s theory of relativity
b. quantum mechanics and classical physics
c. Newton’s laws of motion and classical physics
d. Newton’s laws of motion and Einstein’s theory of relativity

______2. Which of the following best describes why knowledge of physics is necessary to
understand all other sciences?
a. Physics explains how energy passes from one object to another.
b. Physics explains how gravity works.
c. Physics explains the motion of objects that can be seen with the
naked eye.
d. Physics explains the fundamental aspects of the universe.

______3. What does radiation therapy, used to treat cancer patients, have to do with physics?
a. Understanding how cells reproduce is mainly about physics.
b. Predictions of the side effects from the radiation therapy are based
on physics.
c. The devices used for generating some kinds of radiation are
based on principles of physics.
d. Predictions of the life expectancy of patients receiving radiation therapy are based on
physics.

______4. Which aspect of the universe is studied by quantum

mechanics?
a. objects at the galactic level
b. objects at the classical level
c. objects at the subatomic level
d. objects at all levels, from subatomic to galactic

______5. As the wavelength of the radiation decreases, the intensity of the black body radiations
____________
a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. First increases then decrease
d. First decreases then increase

_______6. The radiations emitted by hot bodies are called as __________.

a. X-rays
b. Black-body radiation
c. Gamma radiations
d. Visible light

________7. An iron rod is heated. The colors at different temperatures

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are noted. Which of the following colors shows that the iron rod is at the lowest temperature?
a. Red b. Orange c. White d. Blue

________8. Rutherford carried out experiments in which a beam of alpha particles was directed
at a thin piece of metal foil. From these experiments he concluded that:
a. electrons are massive particles.
b. the positively charged parts of atoms are moving about with a velocity approaching the
speed of light.
c. The positively charged parts of atoms are extremely small and extremely heavy
particles.
d. electrons travel in circular orbits around the nucleus.

_______9. The Heisenberg Principle states that _____________.

a. no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
b. two atoms of the same element must have the same number of protons.
c. it is impossible to determine accurately both the position and momentum of an electron
simultaneously.
d. electrons of atoms in their ground states enter energetically equivalent sets of orbitals
singly before they pair up in any orbital of the set.

_______10. Dalton's experiments advanced our understanding of the atom. Without,

a. examining the ratios of elements involved in chemical reactions.
b. testing hypothesis
c. carefully observing and measuring events.
d. discovering the internal structure of the atom.

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