UNIT 3

Error Detection,
Correction and
Wireless
Communication
By Pooja saravade
Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted
by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end
is not identical to the message transmitted.

Types Of Errors

Errors can be classified into two categories:

o Single-Bit Error
o Burst Error

Single-Bit Error:
The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is
changed to 1.

Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For example,
Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s and for a
single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s.
Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight wires
are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is
corrupted per byte.

Burst Error:
The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.

The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.

Burst Errors are most likely to occurr in Serial Data Transmission.

The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.

Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

o Two-dimensional parity check/Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

o Vertical Redundancy Check
o Cyclic redundancy check

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

o Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) is also known as 2-D parity check. In this
method, data which the user want to send is organised into tables of rows and
columns. A block of bit is divided into table or matrix of rows and columns. In
order to detect an error, a redundant bit is added to the whole block and this
block is transmitted to receiver. The receiver uses this redundant row to detect
error. After checking the data for errors, receiver accepts the data and discards
the redundant row of bits.
o Example :

If a block of 32 bits is to be transmitted, it is divided into matrix of four rows and

eight columns which as shown in the following figure :

In this matrix of bits, a parity bit (odd or even) is calculated for each column. It
means 32 bits data plus 8 redundant bits are transmitted to receiver. Whenever
data reaches at the destination, receiver uses LRC to detect error in data.

Advantage :

LRC is used to detect burst errors.

Example : Suppose 32 bit data plus LRC that was being transmitted is hit by a
burst error of length 5 and some bits are corrupted as shown in the following
 figure :

The LRC received by the destination does not match with newly corrupted LRC.
The destination comes to know that the data is erroneous, so it discards the data.

Disadvantage :

The main problem with LRC is that, it is not able to detect error if two bits in a
data unit are damaged and two bits in exactly the same position in other data
unit are also damaged.

Example : If data 110011 010101 is changed to 010010110100.

n this example 1st and 6th bit in one data unit is changed . Also the 1st and 6th
bit in second unit is changed.

Vertical Redundancy Check

Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check. In this method, a
redundant bit also called parity bit is added to each data unit. This method
includes even parity and odd parity. Even parity means the total number of 1s in
data is to be even and odd parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be
odd. Example – If the source wants to transmit data unit 1100111 using even
parity to the destination. The source will have to pass through Even Parity
Generator.

Even parity VRC

Parity generator will count number of 1s in data unit and will add parity bit. In the
above example, number of 1s in data unit is 5, parity generator appends a parity
bit 1 to this data unit making the total number of 1s even i.e 6 which is clear from
above figure. Data along with parity bit is then transmitted across the network. In
this case, 11001111 will be transmitted. At the destination, This data is passed to
parity checker at the destination. The number of 1s in data is counted by parity
checker. If the number of 1s count out to be odd, e.g. 5 or 7 then destination will
come to know that there is some error in the data. The receiver then rejects such
an erroneous data unit.

Advantages :
VRC can detect all single bit error.

It can also detect burst errors but only in those cases where number of bits
changed is odd, i.e. 1, 3, 5, 7, …….etc.

VRC is simple to implement and can be easily incorporated into different

communication protocols and systems.

It is efficient in terms of computational complexity and memory requirements.

VRC can help improve the reliability of data transmission and reduce the
likelihood of data corruption or loss due to errors.

VRC can be combined with other error detection and correction techniques to
improve the overall error handling capabilities of a system.

Disadvantages :

The major disadvantage of using this method for error detection is that it is not
able to detect burst error if the number of bits changed is even, i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8,
…….etc.

Example – If the original data is 1100111. After adding VRC, data unit that will be
transmitted is 11001111. Suppose on the way 2 bits are 01011111. When this
data will reach the destination, parity checker will count number of 1s in data and
that comes out to be even i.e. 8. So, in this case, parity is not changed, it is still
even. Destination will assume that there is no error in data even though data is
erroneous.

VRC is not capable of correcting errors, only detecting them. This means that it
can identify errors, but it cannot fix them.

VRC is not suitable for applications that require high levels of error detection and
correction, such as mission-critical systems or safety-critical applications

VRC is limited in its ability to detect and correct errors in large blocks of data, as
the probability of errors increases with the size of the data block.
 VRC requires additional overhead bits to be added to the data stream, which can
increase the bandwidth and storage requirements of the system.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.

Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:

o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n number is less
than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as division which is n+1 bits.
o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is known as
binary division. The remainder generated from this division is known as CRC remainder.
o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the original data. This
newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will treat this
whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the same divisor that was used to find the
CRC remainder.
If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is
accepted.

If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an error.
Therefore, the data is discarded.

Let's understand this concept through an example:

Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.

CRC Generator
o A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are appended at the end
of the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know that the length of the string 0s
to be appended is always one less than the length of the divisor.
o Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the divisor
1001.
o The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder. The
generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.
o CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit, and the
final string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.
CRC Checker
o The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.
o When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC checker performs
the modulo-2 division.
o A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
o In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the data is
accepted.
Error Correction
Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

Error Correction can be handled in two ways:

o Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver requests the
sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting code which
automatically corrects the errors.

A single additional bit can detect the error, but cannot correct it.

For correcting the errors, one has to know the exact position of the error. For example, If
we want to calculate a single-bit error, the error correction code will determine which
one of seven bits is in error. To achieve this, we have to add some additional redundant
bits.

Suppose r is the number of redundant bits and d is the total number of the data bits.
The number of redundant bits r can be calculated by using the formula:

2r>=d+r+1

The value of r is calculated by using the above formula. For example, if the value of d is
4, then the possible smallest value that satisfies the above relation would be 3.

To determine the position of the bit which is in error, a technique developed by R.W
Hamming is Hamming code which can be applied to any length of the data unit and
uses the relationship between data units and redundant units.

Hamming Code
Parity bits: The bit which is appended to the original data of binary bits so that the total
number of 1s is even or odd.

Even parity: To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value of
the parity bit is 0. If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the value of the
parity bit is 1.
 Odd Parity: To check for odd parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value of
parity bit is 1. If the total number of 1s is odd, then the value of parity bit is 0.

Algorithm of Hamming code:

o An information of 'd' bits are added to the redundant bits 'r' to form d+r.
o The location of each of the (d+r) digits is assigned a decimal value.
o The 'r' bits are placed in the positions 1,2,.....2k-1.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value of the parity bits
determines the position of an error.

Relationship b/w Error position & binary number.

Let's understand the concept of Hamming code through an example:

Suppose the original data is 1010 which is to be sent.

Total number of data bits 'd' = 4

Number of redundant bits r : 2r >= d+r+1
2r>= 4+r+1
Therefore, the value of r is 3 that satisfies the above relation.
Total number of bits = d+r = 4+3 = 7;

Determining the position of the redundant bits

The number of redundant bits is 3. The three bits are represented by r1, r2, r4. The
position of the redundant bits is calculated with corresponds to the raised power of 2.
Therefore, their corresponding positions are 1, 21, 22.

1. The position of r1 = 1
2. The position of r2 = 2
3. The position of r4 = 4

Representation of Data on the addition of parity bits:

Determining the Parity bits

Determining the r1 bit
The r1 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the first position.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the first
position are 1, 3, 5, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The
total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r1 is even, therefore, the
value of the r1 bit is 0.

Determining r2 bit
The r2 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the second position.
We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the second
position are 2, 3, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The
total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r2 is odd, therefore, the
value of the r2 bit is 1.

Determining r4 bit
The r4 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the third position.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the third
position are 4, 5, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The
total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r4 is even, therefore, the
value of the r4 bit is 0.

Data transferred is given below:

Suppose the 4th bit is changed from 0 to 1 at the receiving end, then parity bits are
recalculated.

R1 bit
The bit positions of the r1 bit are 1,3,5,7

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r1 is 1100. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r1 bit is an even
number. Therefore, the value of r1 is 0.

R2 bit
The bit positions of r2 bit are 2,3,6,7.

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r2 is 1001. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r2 bit is an even
number. Therefore, the value of r2 is 0.

R4 bit
The bit positions of r4 bit are 4,5,6,7.
We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r4 is 1011. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r4 bit is an odd
number. Therefore, the value of r4 is 1.

o The binary representation of redundant bits, i.e., r4r2r1 is 100, and its corresponding
decimal value is 4. Therefore, the error occurs in a 4th bit position. The bit value must be
changed from 1 to 0 to correct the error.

IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It is the largest technical
professional association dedicated to advancing innovation and technological
excellence for the benefit of humanity. It is designed to build industry standards, serve
professionals involved in every aspect of electrical, electronic and computing field. It
also organizes conferences and provides a platform for publications. IEEE has around
1,000 employees to support its activities. The Management council comprises the
Executive Director and senior executives. It manages the IEEE staff operations. As of
January 2017, Karen Bartleson is the President and CEO of IEEE.

History
IEEE was founded in 1963 by the merger of the two institutes, first is Institute of Radio
Engineers (IRE) and second is American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE).

Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) was founded in 1912 and AIEE is founded in 1884. In
the beginning, it had 150,000 members, 140,000 of whom were from the United States.
By 2010, it had more than 395000 members in 160 countries.
Headquarters
IEEE is headquartered in New York in United States of America.

IEEE Standards
o 802 - LAN/MAN
o 802.1 - Media access control (MAC)
o 802.2 - Logical Link Control (LLC)
o 802.3 - Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
o 802.11 - Wireless Networking "WiFi"

IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.

IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model.
The IEEE divides this layer into two sub layers -- the logical link control (LLC) layer
and the media access control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer varies for different
network types and is defined by standards IEEE 802.3 through IEEE 802.5.

IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the
basis of the Ethernet standard.

EEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token passing
mechanism(token bus networks).

IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.

IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network Standards:

802.11 is the collection of standards setup for wireless networking.

Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local
Area Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local
Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path
sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired
equivalent privacy algorithm.

Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building
or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still
connected to the network.

In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable,
while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the
public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that

are connected to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless
routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.

Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of

stations communicating at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories
depending upon mode of operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access
points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Advantages of WLANs
They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.

The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at a greater ease than wired LANs.

The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network
is not bounded by the length of the cables.

Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.

The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs
Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with
more interference from nearby systems.

Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to
errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.

WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

The 802.11 MAC Sublayer

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency
radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users
connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.

The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the
logical link control sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is
responsible for encapsulating frames and describing frame formats.

MAC Sub layer frame of IEEE 802.11

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −

Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It

contains control information of the frame.

Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame
and its acknowledgement occupy the channel.

Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of
source, immediate destination and final endpoint respectively.

Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.

Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 2312 bytes.
Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.

Avoidance of Collisions by 802.11 MAC Sub layer

In wireless systems, the method of collision detection does not work. It uses a
protocol called carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA).

The method of CSMA/CA is −

When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is
idle or busy.

If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.

If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of
time and then sends the frame.

After sending the frame, it sets a timer.

The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives the
acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.

Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.
Co-ordination Functions in 802.11 MAC Sublayer
IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer uses two co-ordination functions for collision
avoidance before transmission −

 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) −

It is a mandatory function used in CSMA/CA.

It is used in distributed contention-based channel access.

It is deployed in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) as well as

Independent BSS.

 Point Coordination Function (PCF) −

It is an optional function used by 802.11 MAC Sublayer.

It is used in centralized contention-free channel access.

It is deployed in Infrastructure BSS only.

Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth is a network technology that connects mobile devices wirelessly over a
short range to form a personal area network (PAN). They use short-wavelength,
ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio waves within the range 2.400 to 2.485 GHz,
instead of RS-232 data cables of wired PANs.
There are two types of Bluetooth networks −

Piconets
Scatternets

Piconets
Piconets are small Bluetooth networks, formed by at most 8 stations, one of
which is the master node and the rest slave nodes (maximum of 7 slaves).
Master node is the primary station that manages the small network. The slave
stations are secondary stations that are synchronized with the primary station.

Communication can take place between a master node and a slave node in
either one-to-one or one-to-many manner. However, no direct communication
takes place between slaves. Each station, whether master or slave, is
associated with a 48-bit fixed device address.

Besides the seven active slaves, there can be up to 255 numbers of parked
nodes. These are in a low power state for energy conservation. The only work
that they can do is respond to a beacon frame for activation from the master
node.
Scatternodes
A scatternet is an interconnected collection of two or more piconets. They are
formed when a node in a piconet, whether a master or a slave, acts as a slave
in another piconet. This node is called the bridge between the two piconets,
which connects the individual piconets to form the scatternet.
Generations of Wireless Communication
1G
o This is the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile telecommunications,
which was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979.
o The main technological development in this generation that distinguished the First
Generation mobile phones from the previous generation was the use of multiple cell
sites, and the ability to transfer calls from one site to the next site as the user travelled
between cells during a conversation.
o It uses analog signals.
o It allows the voice calls in one country.

Disadvantages
o Poor quality of voice
o Poor life of Battery
o Size of phone was very large
o No security
o Capacity was limited
o Poor handoff reliability
2G
o This is the second generation of mobile telecommunication was launched in Finland in
1991.
o It was based on GSM standard.
o It enables data transmission like as text messaging (SMS - Short Message Service),
transfer or photos or pictures (MMS ? Multimedia Messaging Service), but not videos.
o The later versions of this generation, which were called 2.5G using GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service) and 2.75G using EDGE (Enhanced data rates for GSM Evolution) networks.
o It provides better quality and capacity.

Disadvantages
o Unable to handle complex data such as Video
o Requires strong digital signals

3G
o 3G is the third generation was introduced in early 2000s.
o The transmission of data was increased up to 2Mbits/s, which allows you to sending or
receiving large email messages.
o The main difference between 3G and 2G is the use of packet switching rather than circuit
switching for data transmission.
 o Faster communication
o High speed web or more security
o Video conferencing
o 3D gaming
o TV streaming, Mobile TV, phone calls etc. are the features of 3G.

Disadvantages
o Costly
o Requirement of high bandwidth
o Expensive 3G phones
o Size of cell phones was very large.

4G
o 4G is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunication which was appeared in 2010.
o It was based on LTE (Long Term Evolution) and LTE advanced standards.
o Offer a range of communication services like video calling, real time language translation
and video voice mail.
o It was capable of providing 100 Mbps to 1Gbps speed.
o High QoS (Quality of Service) and High security.
 The basic term used to describe 4G technology is MAGIC. Where :

M - Mobile multiedia

A - Anytime anywhere

G - Global mobility support

I - Integarted wireless solution

C - Customized personal service

Disadvantages
o Uses more battery
o Difficult to implement
o Expensive equipment are required
5G
o It is refered to fifth generation wireless connection which will be probably implemented
by 2020, or even some years earlier.
o Machine to machine communication can be possible in 5G.
o 5G will be able to performs Internet of Things (IoT) for smart home and smart city,
connected cars etc.
o This generation will be based on lower cost, low battery consumption and lower latency
than 4G equipment.
o There will be much fater transmission rate of data to the previous versions. Thus the
speed of 5G will be 1Gbit/s.