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INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM
Magnetism. The most familiar form of the physical phenomenon called magnetism is
the ability of certain objects to attract iron. Such objects are called magnets.
Magnetism is also associated with electric currents. Magnets are widely used. All
electric motors (and the generators that provide power for the motors) contain
magnets, as do telephones, tape recorders, and loudspeakers. The magnetic
compass is a device used for finding direction. The earth itself is a huge magnet.

MAGNET
A magnet (from Greek μαγνήτις λίθος magnḗtis líthos, "Magnesian stone") is a
material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but
is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other
ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.

How Magnets Behave

Each magnet has two poles, at which the attractive force seems greatest. The poles
are called north-seeking, or north (N), and south-seeking, or south (S). (The poles are
so named because, under the influence of the earth's magnetism, a bar-shaped
magnet free to rotate will turn so that one pole points northward and the other
southward.) When a magnet is cut into two or more pieces, each piece becomes a
new magnet.

First Law of Magnetism

Like poles repel; unlike poles attract. When the

N poles of two magnets are brought together,
the magnets will be repelled—that is, they will
move away from each other. The same thing
happens when the S poles are brought together.
When the N pole of one magnet is brought near
the S pole of another, however, the two
magnets will strongly attract each other, and will
move toward each other.

Second Law of Magnetism

The strength of magnetic force between two magnets is inversely varies with
the square of distance “d” between them

The force of magnetic “F” between two magnets varies with the product of
their respective pole strengths “m”
Thus:
m1 m2
F ∝ --------
d2

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MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnets do not have to come into contact to repel or attract each other because
magnetism acts at a distance. The area in which the effect of a magnet can be
detected is called its magnetic field. The field is strongest near the magnet; it
weakens as the distance from the magnet increases. A magnetic field is usually
pictured as a series of lines, called lines of force, extending from the N pole of a
magnet to an S pole, either at the other end of the same magnet or in a nearby
magnet.

Magnetic Flux

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or,

alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of the
magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION
Magnets attract objects made from iron, steel, cobalt, or certain other materials. In
the presence of a magnet, an object made from such magnetic materials will itself
become a magnet. (This process is called magnetic induction.) The magnet attracts
the object because the pole of the magnet closest to the object produces an unlike
pole in the nearest part of the object. For example, the N pole of the magnet will
produce an S pole in the part of the object closest to it. (In this example, the most
distant part of the object would become an N pole.)

Induced Magnetism

Measurements with extremely accurate instruments show that all materials have
some reaction to a magnetic field. The materials usually referred to as nonmagnetic,
such as copper and water, are either paramagnetic (showing a slight tendency to line
up parallel to the lines of force of a field) or diamagnetic (showing a slight tendency
to line up at right angles to the lines of force). Magnetic materials, properly called
ferromagnetic, have a strong tendency to line up parallel to the lines of force.

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PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY MAGNETS

There are two basic kinds of magnets—permanent and temporary. A permanent
magnet retains its magnetic properties for a long time. A temporary magnet acts as a
magnet only as long as it is in the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet
or an electric current. Magnetic materials from which permanent magnets are made
are called hard magnetic materials and those from which temporary magnets are
made are called soft magnetic materials.

Permanent Magnets

A lodestone is a naturally occurring permanent magnet composed of magnetite, an

iron-bearing mineral. Such magnets have been known since ancient times. Virtually
all magnets used commercially today are made from synthetic magnetic materials.
The most common such materials are alnicos—iron alloys containing aluminum,
nickel, and cobalt. Magnetic materials containing such rare-earth elements as
samarium or neodymium form very strong permanent magnets. Ferrites, which
consist of ferric oxide (an oxide of iron) combined with the oxides of one or more
other metals, are widely used in electronic devices. Flexible magnets are made by
combining magnetic materials with plastics.

Loadstone

Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly
attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include
iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare earth metals, and some naturally occurring
minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials
are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered
magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several
other types of magnetism.

Permanent magnets are typically made into U-shaped horseshoe magnets, with the
poles side by side; and bar magnets, with the poles at opposite ends.

Temporary Magnets

Every object that is lifted or moved by a magnet acts as a temporary magnet. Such
an object ordinarily loses its magnetism when the permanent magnet is removed,
although in certain cases it will retain weak magnetic properties.

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An electromagnet is a temporary magnet that is magnetized by the magnetic field

produced by an electric current in a wire. Electromagnets have magnetic properties
only while the current is flowing.

An electromagnet can be made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an
electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops.
Often, an electromagnet is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like
steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

Theory of Magnetism
The effects of magnetism have been known and used for centuries. Yet scientists still
do not know exactly what magnetism is. The theory of magnetism that follows is
based on one proposed by Pierre Weiss, a French physicist, in the early 20th century.

MOLECULAR THEORY
Iron (and other metals which could be magnetized) consisted of molecules which
were themselves permanent magnets. The theory assumes that iron which is un-
magnetized has its magnetic molecules arranged haphazardly, so that they neutralize
each other. When the bar is partly magnetized the majority of the magnetic
molecules have their magnetic axis lined up in nearly the same direction. When the
bar is fully magnetized all the magnetic molecules are fully lined up and the bar is
said to be magnetically saturated.

DOMAIN THEORY
Every magnetic substance contains domains, groups of molecules that act as
magnets. Before a substance is magnetized, these domains are arranged randomly,
so that the magnetism of one is cancelled by the magnetism of another. When the
substance is brought within a magnetic field, the domains line up parallel to the lines
of force, with all the N poles facing in the same direction.

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When the magnetic field is removed, the like poles tend to repel each other. In a
substance that is easily magnetized, the domains turn easily, and will return to
random ordering. In a substance that is difficult to magnetize, the domains will not
have enough force to disarrange themselves and the substance will remain
magnetized. In modern versions of this theory, the magnetism of the domains is
attributed to the spin of electrons.

ELECTRON THEORY

Many people imagine electrons as tiny particles that orbit an atom's nucleus the way
planets orbit a sun. As quantum physicists currently explain it, the movement of
electrons is a little more complicated than that. Essentially, electrons fill an atom's
shell-like orbitals, where they behave as both particles and waves. The electrons
have a charge and a mass, as well as a movement that physicists describe as spin in
an upward or downward direction.

Even though an atom's electrons don't move very far, their movement is enough to
create a tiny magnetic field. Since paired electrons spin in opposite directions, their
magnetic fields cancel one another out. Atoms of ferromagnetic elements, on the
other hand, have several unpaired electrons that have the same spin. Iron, for
example, has four unpaired electrons with the same spin. Because they have no
opposing fields to cancel their effects, these electrons have an orbital magnetic
moment. The magnetic moment is a vector -- it has a magnitude and a direction. It's
related to both the magnetic field strength and the torque that the field exerts. A
whole magnet's magnetic moments come from the moments of all of its atoms.

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In metals like iron, the orbital magnetic moment encourages nearby atoms to align
along the same north-south field lines. Iron and other ferromagnetic materials are
crystalline. As they cool from a molten state, groups of atoms with parallel orbital
spin line up within the crystal structure. This forms the magnetic domains discussed
in the previous section.

EARTH’S MAGNETISM

Scientists believe that Earth’s liquid iron core is instrumental in creating a magnetic
field that surrounds Earth and shields the planet from harmful cosmic rays and the
Sun’s solar wind. The idea that Earth is like a giant magnet was first proposed in 1600
by English physician and natural philosopher William Gilbert. Gilbert proposed the
idea to explain why the magnetized needle in a compass points north. According to
Gilbert, Earth’s magnetic field creates a magnetic north pole and a magnetic south
pole. The magnetic poles do not correspond to the geographic North and South
poles, however. Moreover, the magnetic poles wander and are not always in the
same place. The north magnetic pole is currently close to Ellef Ringnes Island in the
Queen Elizabeth Islands near the boundary of Canada’s Northwest Territories with
Nunavut. The south magnetic pole lies just off the coast of Wilkes Land, Antarctica.

Movement of Earth’s Magnetic Ploes

North Magnetic Pole
(2001) 81°18′N 110°48′W / 81.3°N 110.8°W
(2004 est) 82°18′N 113°24′W / 82.3°N 113.4°W
(2005 est) 82°42′N 114°24′W / 82.7°N 114.4°W
(2010 est) 85°00′N 132°36′W / 85.0°N 132.6°W

South Magnetic Pole

(1998) 64°36′S 138°30′E / 64.6°S 138.5°E
(2004 est) 63°30′S 138°00′E / 63.5°S 138.0°E
(2005 est) 63°06′S 137°30′E / 63.1°S 137.5°E
(2010 est) 64°24′S 137°18′E / 64.4°S 137.3°E

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The Earth's magnetic north pole is drifting from northern Canada towards Siberia
with a presently accelerating rate — 10 km per year at the beginning of the 20th
century, up to 40 km per year in 2003, and since then has only accelerated. In the
last decade magnetic north was shifting roughly one degree every five years.

EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

To understand how a marine magnetic compass is used it is necessary to understand

the basic magnetic field of an ordinary magnet. The analogy of the sheet of iron
filings used in the school physics lab is a good one. When a magnet is placed beneath
the sheet of iron filings, they form themselves into a pattern illustrating the lines of
magnetic force radiating from one pole to the other. The needle of a compass placed
within this field will align itself with the lines of force that surround it.

Now think of the world as the magnet. The lines of force radiate similarly from the
poles and the needle of a compass placed within Earth's field will align itself with
these lines of magnetic force. Since they emanate from north and south poles, the
needle will align itself in the north-south direction. Unfortunately the magnetic poles
are not situated in the same place as the true poles and thus an error occurs in the
true reading of the compass. Therefore, before compass readings can be used for
navigation they must be corrected for such errors.

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Earth's magnetic field (also known as the geomagnetic field) is the magnetic field
that extends from the Earth's inner core to where it meets the solar wind, a stream
of energetic particles emanating from the Sun. It is approximately the field of a
magnetic dipole tilted at an angle of 11 degrees with respect to the rotational axis—
as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the Earth.
However, unlike the field of a bar magnet, Earth's field changes over time because it
is really generated by the motion of molten iron alloys in the Earth's outer core (the
geodynamo). The Magnetic North Pole wanders, fortunately slowly enough that the
compass is useful for navigation. At random intervals (averaging several hundred
thousand years) the Earth's field reverses (the north and south geomagnetic poles
change places with each other). These reversals leave a record in rocks that allow
paleomagnetists to calculate past motions of continents and ocean floors as a result
of plate tectonics. The region above the ionosphere, and extending several tens of
thousands of kilometers into space, is called the magnetosphere. This region
protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays.

The Earth may be regarded as a sphere having a short bar magnet at its centre.

Magnetic Poles: Line of magnetic force of the earth emanate from a region
near South Victoria Land and converge towards a point in the Hudson Bay.
The magnetic needle point the areas and they are called Magnetic Poles.
They are not situated at geography poles and not fixed in their position.

Magnetic Meridian: The vertical plane coinciding with the line of the Earth’s
magnetic force at any place is called the Magnetic Meridian at that place; it
should be considered as a small arc of a great circle.

Magnetic Elements: which determine the nature and intensity of Earth’s
total magnetic field
1. variation
2. dip
3. total field strength or intensity

MAGNETIC ELEMENTS

1. VARIATION
This is the name given to the error caused by the difference in position between the
true and magnetic poles. As its name denotes, it varies from place to place across
the world, but it is accurately tabulated for the navigator's use. It can be described as
follows:
“Variation is the error in the compass caused by the Earth's magnetism. It is always
named E or W according to which direction the card is deflected away from true
north”.

2. DIP
Magnetic dip or magnetic inclination- is the angle made by a compass needle with
the horizontal at any point on the Earth's surface. Positive values of inclination
indicate that the field is pointing downward, into the Earth, at the point of
measurement. The value can be measured with a dip circle.

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Dip at any place is the angle a freely suspended magnetic makes with the horizontal
(sensible horizon) at that place.

3. FIELD STRENGTH

Field Strength (F):- of a magnet at a given point is the force, in dynes, that the
magnet exerts on a unit N pole placed at that point.

Magnetic Field or Field Intensity:- The region where a magnetic force is exerted is
called a Magnetic field. The magnetic field is represented by the lines of magnetic
force.

Magnetic Dip & Magnetic Field

You can measure magnetic fields using instruments like gauss meters, and you can
describe and explain them using numerous equations. Here are some of the basics:

* Magnetic lines of force, or flux, are measured in Webers (Wb). In electromagnetic

systems, the flux relates to the current.
* A field's strength, or the density of the flux, is measured in Tesla (T) or gauss (G).
One Tesla is equal to 10,000 gauss. You can also measure the field strength in
Webers per square meter. In equations, the symbol B represents field strength.

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* The field's magnitude is measured in amperes per meter or oersted. The symbol
H represents it in equations.

HOW MAGNETS ARE MADE

There are four main ways to magnetize a magnetic substance:

(1) bringing the substance near a magnet;
(2) using electric current;
(3) stroking the substance with a magnet; and
(4) striking a blow to the substance while it is in a magnetic field.

A permanent magnet can be made by stroking a magnetic substance with either the
N or the S pole of a magnet. Stroking lines up the domains in the material.

A piece of iron can be magnetized by holding it parallel to a compass needle (along

the lines of force in the earth's field) and hitting the piece of iron with a hammer.
The blow will overcome the resistance of the domains to movement, and they will
line up parallel to the earth's field.

To demagnetize an object, a strong magnetic field is used. In one method, the

magnetic field is made to fluctuate very rapidly. In another method, the magnetized
object is placed so that a line drawn between its poles would be at right angles to
the field. The object is then tapped or hit until its domains are no longer lined up
magnetically.

MAGNETIZING FERROMAGNETS (COMMERCIAL METHOD)

Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

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* Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic
field and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to
the industrial processes used to create permanent magnets.
Substance Curie temp °C
Iron (Fe) 770
Cobalt (Co) 1130
Nickel (Ni) 358
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 622

DEMAGNETIZING FERROMAGNETS

Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the

following ways:

* Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the
alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.

* Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with an intensity above the
material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly
decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial
demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks and
degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.

* Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the

magnet is subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's coercivity.

* Demagnetisation progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields

sufficient to move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of
the B-H curve of the magnetic material (the demagnetisation curve).

* Hammering or jarring: the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the

magnetic domains. Will leave some residual magnetization.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

You may have noticed that the materials that make good magnets are the same as
the materials magnets attract. This is because magnets attract materials that have
unpaired electrons that spin in the same direction. In other words, the quality that
turns a metal into a magnet also attracts the metal to magnets. Many other
elements are diamagnetic -- their unpaired atoms create a field that weakly repels a
magnet. A few materials don't react with magnets at all.

One classification of magnetic materials—into diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and

ferromagnetic—is based on how the material reacts to a magnetic field.

Diamagnetic materials, when placed in a magnetic field, have a magnetic moment

induced in them that opposes the direction of the magnetic field. This property is
now understood to be a result of electric currents that are induced in individual
atoms and molecules. These currents, according to Ampere's law, produce magnetic

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moments in opposition to the applied field. Many materials are diamagnetic; the
strongest ones are metallic bismuth and organic molecules, such as benzene, that
have a cyclic structure, enabling the easy establishment of electric currents. eg. Lead
and zinc

* Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and

ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water,
and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of
diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of a vacuum. All substances not
possessing one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most
substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far
too weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting magnets, diamagnetic
objects such as pieces of lead and even mice can be levitated, so they float in mid-
air. Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly
diamagnetic.

* Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminium, and oxygen, are weakly

attracted to a magnet. This effect is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than the
attraction of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive
instruments or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they
are made of tiny ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes
considered paramagnetic since they cannot be magnetized.

Paramagnetic behavior results when the applied magnetic field lines up all the
existing magnetic moments of the individual atoms or molecules that make up the
material. This results in an overall magnetic moment that adds to the magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials usually contain transition metals or rare earth elements that
possess unpaired electrons. Paramagnetism in nonmetallic substances is usually
characterized by temperature dependence; that is, the size of an induced magnetic
moment varies inversely to the temperature. This is a result of the increasing
difficulty of ordering the magnetic moments of the individual atoms along the
direction of the magnetic field as the temperature is raised. Eg. Tin and alluminium

A ferromagnetic substance is one that, like iron, retains a magnetic moment even
when the external magnetic field is reduced to zero. This effect is a result of a strong
interaction between the magnetic moments of the individual atoms or electrons in
the magnetic substance that causes them to line up parallel to one another. In
ordinary circumstances these ferromagnetic materials are divided into regions called
domains; in each domain, the atomic moments are aligned parallel to one another.
Separate domains have total moments that do not necessarily point in the same
direction. Thus, although an ordinary piece of iron might not have an overall
magnetic moment, magnetization can be induced in it by placing the iron in a
magnetic field, thereby aligning the moments of all the individual domains. The
energy expended in reorienting the domains from the magnetized back to the
demagnetized state manifests itself in a lag in response, known as hysteresis.

Ferromagnetic materials, when heated, eventually lose their magnetic properties.

This loss becomes complete above the Curie temperature, named after the French
physicist Pierre Curie, who discovered it in 1895. (The Curie temperature of metallic
iron is about 770° C/1300° F.)

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Magnetic susceptibility (latin: susceptibilis “receptiveness”) is the degree of

magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field.

Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a

magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is
typically represented by the Greek letter μ.

HARD IRON AND SOFT IRON

Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like

annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and
magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard"
ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special
processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal
microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a
saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold
depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high
coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity.

An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric
current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often,
an electromagnet is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel,
which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

Magnetic north pole – Earth has two magnetic poles that lie at the northern and
southern ends of the magnetic field (at the polar areas of the Northern Hemisphere
and Southern Hemisphere). Theses poles vary slightly in strength and position from
year to year. Compass needles point toward magnetic north, which is separated
from the geographic North Pole by an angle of approximately 11½°.

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Isoclinic Chart ( Lines of equal Dip )

Isogonic Chart ( Lines of equal Variation )

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OOW Course

OOW Course
Magnetism
The most familiar form of the physical
phenomenon called magnetism is the ability of
certain objects to attract iron.
iron Such objects are
called magnets.
magnets

Lodestone is known as Strong natural Magnet

A lodestone is a naturally occurring permanent magnet

composed of magnetite, an iron-bearing mineral. Such
magnets have been known since ancient times.

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Magnetism

WHAT IS A MAGNET?
A magnet
g ((from Greek μμαγνήτις
γ ή ς λίθοςς magnḗtis
g
líthos, "Magnesian stone") is a material or object
that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic
field is invisible but is responsible for the most
notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on
other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and
attracts
tt t or repels l other
th magnets.
t
“The
The earth itself is a huge magnet
magnet”.

OOW Course
Magnetism

THE FIRST LAW OF MAGNETISM

“Like poles repel and unlike poles attract”

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Unlike poles attract

Like poles repel

5

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Line of magnetic force (magnetic flux) emanate from red pole

and converge towards blue pole of a magnet.

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Magnetism
THE FORCE BETWEEN TWO MAGNETS
THE SECOND LAW OF MAGNETISM

The strength of magnetic force

between two magnets is inversely
varies with the square of distance
between them
The force of magnetic between
two magnets varies with the
product of their respective pole
strengths
Thus:
m1 m2 m1 m2
F  -------- F = k ---------- dynes
d2 d2

OOW Course
Magnetism

If a material is magnetic,
g , it has the ability
y to exert forces
on magnets or other magnetic materials. Magnets
attract objects made from iron, steel, cobalt, or certain
other materials. In the presence of a magnet, an object
made from such magnetic materials will itself become a
magnet. This process is called magnetic induction.
A p permanent magnetg is a material that keeps p its
magnetic properties even when it is NOT close to other
magnets.

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Magnetism

Permanent and Temporary Magnets

There are two basic kinds of magnets magnets—
permanent and temporary.
temporary A permanent magnet
retains its magnetic properties for a long time. A
temporary magnet acts as a magnet only as long
as it is in the magnetic field produced by a
permanent magnet or an electric current.
Magnetic materials from which permanent
magnets are made are called hard magnetic
materials (hard iron) and those from which
temporary magnets are made are called soft
magnetic materials (soft iron).

OOW Course
Magnetism

Materials that make good permanent magnets

(hard magnets) are called Hard Iron
Iron.
Steel, which contains iron and carbon, is a
common and inexpensive material used to
create hard magnets.
Materials that lose their magnetism quickly (soft
magnets) are called Soft Iron.
Iron
"Hard Iron" materials have high coercivity,
whereas "soft Iron" materials have low
coercivity.

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Magnetism

Iron (and other metals which could be magnetized) consisted of

molecules which were themselves permanent magnets. The
theory
eo y assu
assumes es that
a iron
o which c iss uun-magnetized
ag e ed has
as its
s
magnetic molecules arranged haphazardly, so that they
neutralize each other. When the bar is partly magnetized the
majority of the magnetic molecules have their magnetic axis
lined up in nearly the same direction. When the bar is fully
magnetized all the magnetic molecules are fully lined up and
the bar is said to be magnetically saturated.

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Magnetism

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Magnetism

Every magnetic substance contains domains, domains groups of

molecules that act as magnets. Before a substance is
magnetized, these domains are arranged randomly, so that
the magnetism of one is cancelled by the magnetism of
another. When the substance is brought within a magnetic
field, the domains line up parallel to the lines of force, with all
the N poles facing in the same direction.

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Magnetism

FREE ELECTRON THEORY

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Magnetism

Even though an atom's electrons don't

move very y far,, their movement is enough
g
to create a tiny magnetic field. Since
paired electrons spin in opposite
directions, their magnetic fields cancel
one another out. Atoms of ferromagnetic
elements on the other hand,
elements, hand have several
unpaired electrons that have the same
spin.

OOW Course
Magnetism

Iron, for example, has four unpaired

electrons with the same spin. p Because
they have no opposing fields to cancel
their effects, these electrons have an
orbital magnetic moment
moment. The magnetic
moment is a vector -- it has a magnitude
and a direction.
direction It
It's
s related to both the
magnetic field strength and the torque that
the field exerts. A whole magnet's
magnetic moments come from the
moments of all of its atoms.

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Magnetism

Each magnet has two poles, at which the

attractive force seems g
greatest. The ppoles
are called north-seeking, or north (N),
(N) and
south-seeking, or south (S).
(S) (The poles are
so named because, under the influence of
the earth's magnetism
magnetism, a bar-shaped
magnet free to rotate will turn so that one
pole points northward and the other
southward.) When a magnet is cut into two
or more pieces, each piece becomes a new
magnet.

OOW Course
EARTH’S Magnetism

A magnet or compass needle's “North" pole is defined as the one

which is attracted to the North magnetic pole of the Earth, in
northern Canada. Since opposite poles attract ("north" to "south")
the North magnetic pole of the Earth is actually the south pole
(BLUE)of the Earth's magnetic field. The compass needle's North
Pole is always marked in some way: with a distinctive color,
luminous paint, or an arrowhead.

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19

20

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North Geographic Pole

North Magnetic Pole

Magnetic north pole – Earth has two magnetic poles that lie at the northern and
southern ends of the magnetic field (at the polar areas of the Northern
Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere). Theses poles vary slightly in strength
and position from year to year. Compass needles point toward magnetic north,
which is separated from the geographic North Pole by an angle of approximately
11½°.

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Magnetism

Earth’s Magnetism
The Earth may be regarded as a sphere having a short bar
magnet at its centre.
• g
Magnetic Poles: Line of magnetic
g force of the earth
emanate from a region near South Victoria Land and
converge towards a point in the Hudson Bay. The
magnetic needle point the areas and they are called
Magnetic Poles.
• Magnetic Meridian: The vertical plane coinciding with
the line of the Earth’s magnetic force at any place is
called the Magnetic Meridian at that place; it should be
considered as a small arc of a great circle.
• Magnetic Elements: which determine the nature and
intensity of Earth’s total magnetic field
1. variation
2. dip
24
3. total field strength or intensity

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Earth’s Magnetism
Variation or Magnetic Declination

25

26

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Dip and Magnetic Field Intensity

27

Magnetic Elements

28

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Magnetic Field
FIELD STRENGTH

• Field Strength ( ) of a magnet

g (F):- g at a g
given p
point is the force, in dynes,
y
that the magnet exerts on a unit N pole placed at that point.

• Magnetic Field or Field Intensity:- The region where a magnetic force

is exerted is called a Magnetic field. The magnetic field is represented
by the lines of magnetic force.

29

OOW Course
Magnetism
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
1.Diamagnetic,
g ,
2.Paramagnetic, and
3.Ferromagnetic—
The classification is based on how the material reacts to
a magnetic field.
The materials usually referred to as nonmagnetic, such
as copper and water, are either paramagnetic (showing a
slight tendency to line up parallel to the lines of force of
a field) or diamagnetic (showing a slight tendency to line
up at right angles to the lines of force). Magnetic
materials, properly called ferromagnetic, have a strong
tendency to line up parallel to the lines of force.

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Magnetism
* Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the
ones normally thought of as magnetic; they are
attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the
attraction can be felt. These materials are the only
ones that can retain magnetization and become
magnets; a common example is iron, nickel, cobalt,
some alloys of rare earth metals.
Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and
th
the oldest
ld t magnetic ti materials
t i l magnetite
tit and
d
naturally occurring minerals lodestone
lodestone, are similar
to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference
between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related
to their microscopic structure.

OOW Course
Magnetism

* Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum,

aluminium, and oxygen, are weakly attracted
to a magnet. This effect
ff is hundreds off
thousands of times weaker than the attraction
of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be
detected by using sensitive instruments or
using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic
ferrofluids although they are made of tiny
ferrofluids,
ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid,
are sometimes considered paramagnetic
since they cannot be magnetized.

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Magnetism
* Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles.
Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
substances diamagnetic substances,
substances, substances such as
carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even
more weakly repelled by a magnet. The
permeability of diamagnetic materials is less
than the permeability of a vacuum. All
substances not possessing one of the other
types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this
includes most substances.

OOW Course
Magnetism

How Magnets Are Made

There are four main ways to magnetize a
magnetic substance:
1.bringing the substance near a magnet;
2.using electric current;
3.stroking g the substance with a magnet;
g ;
and
4.striking a blow to the substance while
it is in a magnetic field.

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Magnetism

How Magnets Are Made

Appermanent magnet
g can be made byy stroking
g
a magnetic substance with either the N or the
S pole of a magnet. Stroking lines up the
domains in the material.

OOW Course
Magnetism

How Magnets Are Made

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Magnetism

How Magnets Are Made

OOW Course
Magnetism

How Permanent Magnets Are Made

* Heating g the object
j above its Curie temperature,
p ,
allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and hammering
it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is
similar to the industrial processes used to create
permanent magnets.
Substance Curie temp °C
Iron (Fe) 770
Cobalt (Co) 1130
Nickel (Ni) 358
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 622

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Magnetism

INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION
It is degree of magnetisation and describe
as the magnetic moment per unit volume of
a magnet or the number of unit poles per
square centimeter of end area.

Magnetic Field: Regions surrounding a

magnet where another magnet or a moving
electric charge will feel a force of attraction
or repulsion.

OOW Course
Magnetism

FIELD STRENGTH (F)

The Field
Th Fi ld Strength
St th off a given
i point
i t is
i the
th
force, in dynes, that the magnet exerts on a
unit N pole placed at that point.
This force is generally expressed in
oersteds, so one oersted simple means a
force of one dyne per unit pole.

Force (f)= Field Strength (F) X Pole Strength (m)

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Magnetism

FIELD STRENGTH (F)

50 unit 20 cm 50 units P
P1
10 cm
S N

20 cm
30 cm

Find the field strength of a bar magnet 20 cm long

with a pole strength of 50 units at a point 20 cm
from its centre in line with the N-S axis.

OOW Course
Magnetism

FIELD STRENGTH (F)

50 unit 20 cm 50 units P
P1
10 cm
S N

30 cm
m1 X m2
F = --------------
d2
50 X 1
Force exerted by N = ------------ = 0.5 dyne
10 2

50 X 1
Force exerted by S = ------------ = 0.056 dyne
30 2

Resultant force or Field Strength (F

F) at P = 0.444 oersted

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Magnetism
TO FIND HORIZONTAL FIELD STRENGTH (H)

S N

For the Period of oscillation (Time of a complete swing to and fro) of a magnet
placed in a field of strength H oersteds
where I represents the Moment of Inertia and M the Magnetic Moment:

I
Period T = 2   ------------ sec
HxM
Using the same needle in different fields (or in different places), value of I and M
can be considered as constant. Thus-
1
T2 = Constant x -----------
H
“The period squared of a magnetic needle varies inversely as the strength of the field”

OOW Course
Magnetism
TO FIND HORIZONTAL FIELD STRENGTH (H)
A magnetic
g needle has a period of 30 sec at Yangon
g where filed strengthg H is
0.18 oersted and a period of 25 sec at Sit-twe. Find field strength H at Sit-twe.

Since the same needle is used for measurement, value of Inertia and Moment
can be considered as constant therefore “The period squared of a magnetic
needle varies inversely as the strength of the field”.

T12 H2
------- = ---------
T22 H1

(30)2 H2
------- = ------------
(25)2 0.18

H2 = 0.26 oersted = Field strength H at Sit-twe

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Magnetism

PERMEABILITY

bili is
Permeability
P i the
h measure off the
h ability
bili
of a material to support the formation of a
magnetic field within itself. In other
words, it is the degree of magnetization
that a material obtains in response
p to an
applied magnetic field. Magnetic
permeability is typically represented by
the Greek letter μ.

OOW Course
Magnetism

PERMEABILITY
The easiness which line of force can
traverse a material is called the
permeability.

Value of it for iron is 900 and of air is 1.

For paramagnetic
paramagnetic- slightly over 1
For diamagnetic- slightly under 1

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Magnetism

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
M
Magnetic
ti susceptibility
tibilit (l ti
(latin:
susceptibilis “receptiveness”) is
the degree of magnetization of a
material in response to an
applied magnetic field.

OOW Course
Magnetism

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
The same inducing magnetic field produce
different intensity of magnetism in
different material.
This property is called susceptibility
(Capable of accepting or permitting).

For ferro-magnetic material- high

For paramagnetic material- small
For diamagnetic material- negative

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Magnetism
Pole Strength:-
Strength
is measured in unit poles. (Symbol- m)
Unit Pole is one which repels a similar pole with a force
of 1 dyne when situated 1 cm from it.
Magnetic Moment
Moment:-
is the product of the length and strength of one of the
poles. The unit is dyne-cm. (Symbol M)

l l

m m

OOW Course
Magnetism

MAGNETIC MOMENT(M)
Moment-- M is the product of the pole strength (m) and the
Magnetic Moment
distance between the poles ( l ) i.e.
M=mXl

A “short” magnet is one whose length is small compared with the

distance d. Broadside-on

End-on

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Two North poles of strength 40 and 90 units respectively at A and

B, 10 cm apart. A south pole of strength 60 units is placed at C
10 cm from both A and B.
Find the resultant force on the pole at C.
m1 X m2
F = --------------
d2 C
40 X 60
Force between A & C = ------------ = 24 dynes
10 2
90 X 60
Force between C & B = ------------ = 54 dynes
10 2

A B
Resultant= √ (242+542+2x24x54xcos 60°)=69.2 dynes

To find the direction:

Sin α Sin 60
-------- = ---------
24 69.2
24 Sin 60
Sin α = ------------- = 17° 28¾’
69.2 51

OOW Course
Magnetism
Magnetic Flux:-
The total number of lines of force or induction crossing a
given surface area in magnetic field is called the
M
Magnetic
ti flux.
fl
Magnetic Flux Density:-
is defined as the number of lines of flux crossing an area
of one square centimeter. The unit in Gauss.
Coefficient Lambda (λ):-
It is
i the
th ratio
ti between
b t th mean horizontal
the h i t l force
f t
towards
d
magnetic N at the compass position on board (H1) and
the horizontal force ashore (H).
Horizontal force onboard
λ = -----------------------------------
Horizontal force ashore

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Magnetism

The vertical angle contained

between the horizontal and
direction of Earth’s magnetic
field is called “dip”.
Dip is positive when the North
end of freely suspended
magnetized needle dip below
horizontal.
Dip is negative when South
end of dip below horizontal.

OOW Course
Magnetism

• Isogonic Lines-
Lines- shows the lines joining places having
the same value and sign for variation
• Agonic Lines-
Lines- join places where variation is zero
zero.
• Isodynamic lines-
lines- join places of equal magnetic force
(total, horizontal or vertical).
• Isoclinic Lines-
Lines- join places having same value and sign
for dip (also called Magnetic Latitude).
• Aclinic Line
Line--, also known as the magnetic equator,
imaginary line on the surface of the earth approximately
parallel to the geographical equator. On the aclinic line a
magnetic dipping needle does not dip toward one of the
magnetic poles; it remains horizontal.
54

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Magnetism

Agonic Lines
No Variation

55
ISOGONIC CHART

OOW Course
Magnetism

Magnetic Pole

Magnetic Equator

Magnetic Pole

56
ISOCLINIC CHART

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INTRODUCTION
Prior to the introduction of the compass, position, destination, and direction at sea was
primarily determined by the sighting of landmarks, supplemented with the observation
of the position of celestial bodies. Ancient mariners often kept within sight of land. The
invention of the compass enabled the determination of heading when the sky was
overcast or foggy. And, when the sun or other known celestial bodies could be
observed, it enabled the calculation of latitude. This enabled mariners to navigate safely
far from land, increasing sea trade.

COMPASS
A magnetic compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to
the Earth's magnetic poles. It consists of a magnetized pointer (usually marked on the
North end) free to align itself with Earth's magnetic field. The compass greatly improved
the safety and efficiency of travel, especially ocean travel. A compass can be used to
calculate heading, used with a sextant to calculate latitude, and with a marine
chronometer to calculate longitude. It thus provides a much improved navigational
capability that has only been recently supplanted by modern devices such as the Global
Positioning System (GPS). A compass is any magnetically sensitive device capable of
indicating the direction of the magnetic north of a planet's magnetosphere. The face of
the compass generally highlights the cardinal points of north, south, east and west.
Often, compasses are built as a stand alone sealed instrument with a magnetized bar or
needle turning freely upon a pivot, or moving in a fluid, thus able to point in a northerly
and southerly direction. The compass was invented in ancient China around 247 B.C.,
and was used for navigation by the 11th century. The dry compass was invented in
medieval Europe around 1300. This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the
liquid-filled magnetic compass.
Other, more accurate devices have been invented for determining north that do not
depend on the Earth's magnetic field for operation (known in such cases as true north,
as opposed to magnetic north). A gyrocompass or astrocompass can be used to find true
north, while being unaffected by stray magnetic fields, nearby electrical power circuits
or nearby masses of ferrous metals. A recent development is the electronic compass, or
fibre optic gyrocompass, which detects the magnetic directions without potentially
fallible moving parts. This device frequently appears as an optional subsystem built into
GPS receivers. However, magnetic compasses remain popular, especially in remote
areas, as they are relatively inexpensive, durable, and require no electrical power
supply.

Magnetic compasses do not point to true north—that is, the top of the axis around
which Earth rotates, also called the North Pole. Instead, compass arrows point to
magnetic north, the point where Earth’s magnetic field is the most concentrated (see
Magnetic Pole). This point lies in northern Canada at approximately latitude 74° north,

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longitude 101° west—about 1,600 km (about 1,000 mi) from true north. The difference
in direction between true north and magnetic north, called variation, differs from place
to place and year to year because Earth’s magnetic field shifts over time. Most nautical
charts graphically represent the directions to true and magnetic north, plus the local
variation, in the form of a printed compass dial called a compass rose.

How a magnetic compass works

A compass functions as a pointer to "magnetic north" because the magnetized needle at
its heart aligns itself with the lines of the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field
exerts a torque on the needle, pulling one end or pole of the needle toward the Earth's
North magnetic pole, and the other toward the South magnetic pole. The needle is
mounted on a low-friction pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing, so it can
turn easily. When the compass is held level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds
to allow oscillations to die out, one end points toward the North magnetic pole.

A magnet or compass needle's "north" pole is defined as the one which is attracted to
the North magnetic pole of the Earth, in northern Canada. Since opposite poles attract
("north" to "south") the North magnetic pole of the Earth is actually the south pole of
the Earth's magnetic field. The compass needle's North Pole is always marked in some
way: with a distinctive color, luminous paint, or an arrowhead.

Instead of a needle, professional compasses usually have bar magnets glued to the
underside of a disk pivoted in the center so it can turn, called a "compass card", with the
cardinal points and degrees marked on it. Better compasses are "liquid-filled"; the
chamber containing the needle or disk is filled with a liquid whose purpose is to damp
the oscillations of the needle so it will settle down to point to North quicker, and also to
protect the needle or disk from shock.

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In navigation, directions on maps are expressed with reference to geographical or true

north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth.
Since the Earth's magnetic poles are near, but are not at the same locations as its
geographic poles, a compass does not point to true north. The direction a compass
points is called magnetic north, the direction of the North magnetic pole. Depending on
where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between true north
and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely, increasing the farther
one is from the prime meridian of the Earth's magnetic field. The local magnetic
declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a compass
parallel to true north.

In geographic regions near the magnetic poles, in northeastern Canada and Antarctica,
variations in the Earth's magnetic field cause magnetic compasses to have such large
errors that they are useless, so other instruments must be used for navigation.

Dry compass

The dry mariner's compass was invented in Europe around 1300. The dry mariner's
compass consists of three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin enclosed in a little
box with a glass cover and a wind rose, whereby "the wind rose or compass card is
attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner that when placed on a pivot in a box
fastened in line with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the ship changed
direction, indicating always what course the ship was on". Later, compasses were often
fitted into a gimbal mounting to reduce grounding of the needle or card when used on
the pitching and rolling deck of a ship.

While pivoting needles in glass boxes had already been described by the French scholar
Peter Peregrinus in 1269, and by the Egyptian scholar Ibn Simʿūn in 1300, traditionally
Flavio Gioja (fl. 1302), an Italian pilot from Amalfi , has been credited with perfecting the
sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a compass card, thus giving the compass
its familiar appearance. Such a compass with the needle attached to a rotating card is
also described in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy from 1380, while an earlier
source refers to a portable compass in a box (1318), supporting the notion that the dry
compass was known in Europe by then.

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The card base: A light, aluminum ring about 254 mm (10 inches) in diameter is attached
to a brass hub (centre piece) by a silk cord which is threaded in and out through holes in
the ring and the hub. The tight silk cord acts like the spokes of a bicycle wheel. There is
no other connection or support between the ring and the hub. Silk cord is used because
it does not shrink or stretch due to moisture or changes in atmospheric temperature.

The card support: The bottom of the hub has a small cap fitted with a sapphire bearing
surface. This rests on a pivot tipped with iridium which is a hard, non-magnetic metal.
This arrangement provides a practically frictionless support, for the compass card, and
requires no lubrication. The sapphire cap has a polishing effect on the iridium tip. The
smoothness of rotation of the compass card thus improves over the years!

The card: The compass card is made of rice paper because it is very light and unaffected
by changes in temperature. The rice – paper card is divided into several segments and
each is stuck to the aluminium ring and to the silk cords using light, waterproof
adhesive. The reason for the division of the card into segments is that if a drop of water
was to fall on any part of the compass card, only that segment would get distorted while
the rest of the card would remain undistorted. If the card was one single piece of paper,
one drop of water on any part of it would distort the entire card.

The directive element: This consists of three, four or five pairs of needle magnets
suspended, parallel to each other, a few centimeters below the compass card. The
magnets are symmetrically arranged on either side of the centre piece, the longest pair

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closest to the centre, such that the ends of all the magnets form a circle. The ends of the
magnets have holes in them. Silk cord passes through these and through holes in the
bottom of the aluminium ring to support the magnets below the compass card. By this
method, the centre of gravity of the entire compass card, inclusive of the magnets, is
below the tip of the pivot. This ensures that the card is not only North seeking but also
remains horizontal even when the pivot tilts out of the vertical during rolling / pitching.

The compass bowl: The compass card is enclosed in a cylindrical brass bowl having a
transparent glass top and a frosted glass bottom. The glass top is retained in position by
a brass 'verge ring' which is secured to the bowl by equidistant, brass screws along the
circumference. A rubber washer between the verge ring and the top glass ensures
watertightness. The top of the verge ring is grooved to accommodate the azimuth
mirror. The vertical distance between the top of the hub of the card and the top glass is
such that even if the bowl is inverted, the card would not completely disengage from
the pivot so that when the bowl is returned to upright, the card would again rest
properly on the pivot as before. The bottom of the bowl has, attached to it, a glass
hemisphere containing a mixture of alcohol and water, the weight of which lowers the
centre of gravity of the entire bowl to a position well below the compass card.

Suspension of bowl: On the outside of the compass bowl, there are two athwart-ship
projections, called gimbals, at the same level as the compass card. The gimbals are
triangular in cross section, apex downwards. These gimbals rest on 'V' shaped
depressions in a horizontal ring called the 'gimbal ring' which encircles the compass
bowl (see figure 4). The gimbal ring itself is pivoted at its forward and after sides. If the
ship rolls or pitches, the bowl would remain horizontal because its centre of gravity is
well below the gimbals.

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The wet card compass

Necessity: The dry card compass is too sensitive for steering purposes, especially in bad
weather. Even small disturbance causes the dry card to oscillate. In the wet card
compass the oscillations are damped, without loss of accuracy, by immersing the card in
a liquid. The card therefore has a 'dead beat' movement.

The card: The wet card is made of mica and is only about 15 cm in diameter. The
graduations are photographically printed on it. The card is attached to a nickel-silver
float chamber that has a sapphire cap. The cap rests on an iridium tipped pivot. The
sapphire has a polishing effect on the iridium tip. The smoothness of rotation of the
compass card thus improves over the years! Though the weight of the wet card is
considerable, the buoyancy of the float chamber suitably reduces the load on the pivot.
This arrangement is practically frictionless.

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The directive element: This is fitted below the card, enclosed in nickel-silver to avoid
corrosion. In older types it consisted of two cylindrical bar magnets, one on each side of
the float. In modern wet card compasses the directive element is a ring magnet fitted
around the base of the float. The ring magnet offers less resistance to movement and
causes less turbulence.

Most efficient: The ring magnet wet card compass is the most efficient type of marine
magnetic compass.

The liquid: The bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure ethyl alcohol so
that the mixture had the following properties:
(a) Low freezing point – about -300C.

(b) Small coefficient of expansion.

(c) Does not discolour the card.

(d) Low relative density – about 0.93.

• The older style of liquid magnetic compass contained a mixture of two

parts distilled water to one part ethyl alcohol, providing a fluid with low
viscosity and a small coefficient of expansion.

• The idea behind the mix was that the alcohol would reduce the freezing
point of the mixture in cold climates and the water would reduce
evaporation in the warm tropical climates.

• The modern liquid compass employs an oily liquid derived from ‘Bayol’,
which not only provides additional flotation for the card but also lubricates
the pivot and reduces motion on the card.

The bowl: Though the wet card is only about 15 cm in diameter, the diameter of the
bowl is about 23 cm in order to reduce disturbances caused by turbulence in the liquid
during rotation of the card. The top of the bowl is of transparent glass. The bottom is of
frosted glass to diffuse the light coming from the bulb below.

Allowance for expansion: Different methods are adopted for coping with the expansion
and contraction, of the liquid in the bowl, resulting from increase and decrease of
atmospheric temperature. One method is to have a small accordion – like expansion
chamber attached to the bowl, similar to that of an aneroid barometer. The chamber

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increases or decreases in volume, as necessary, as the liquid in the bowl expands or

contracts due to changes in atmospheric temperature.

Suspension: The bowl of the wet card compass is suspended by gimbals just like that of
the dry card compass. This bowl, being considerably heavier than that of the dry card
compass, does not have a glass hemisphere of alcohol and water attached to its
underside. Instead, a ballast weight consisting of a ring of lead, enclosed in brass, is
attached along the circumference of the underside of the bowl to bring its centre of
gravity below the gimbals.

THE BINNACLE :

The binnacle is a cylindrical container made of teak wood and brass. No magnetic
materials are used in its construction. Even the screws are of brass and the nails, copper.
The compass bowl is slung inside the top portion of the binnacle. The middle portion is
accessible by a door and contains an electric bulb. Light from this bulb passes upwards
through a slot, through an orange coloured glass fitted over the slot, through the
bottom of the compass bowl, to illuminate the compass card from below. The orange
colour ensures that the night vision of the observer is not adversely affected. The
intensity of illumination is controlled by means of a mechanical shutter, fitted over the
slot, which is operated by a lever jutting out of the after part of the binnacle. Electrical
dimmers are not fitted because their fluctuating magnetic fields would interfere with
the accuracy of the compass.

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NAVY STANDARD LIQUID COMPASS

The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by
fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducing
wear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir Edmund
Halley at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1690. However, as early liquid compasses
were fairly cumbersome and heavy, and subject to damage, their main advantage was
aboard ship. Protected in a binnacle and normally gimbal-mounted, the liquid inside the
compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive
swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel. The first
liquid mariner's compass believed practicable for limited use was patented by the
Englishman Francis Crow in 1813. Liquid-damped marine compasses for ships and small
boats were occasionally used by the British Royal Navy from the 1830s through 1860,
but the standard Admiralty compass remained a dry-mount type. In the latter year, the
American physicist and inventor Edward Samuel Ritchie patented a greatly improved
liquid marine compass that was adopted in revised form for general use by the U.S.
Navy, and later purchased by the Royal Navy as well.

Despite these advances, the liquid compass was not introduced generally into the Royal
Navy until 1908. An early version developed by RN Captain Creak proved to be
operational under heavy gunfire and seas, but was felt to lack navigational precision
compared with the design by Lord Kelvin:

Captain Creak's first step in the development of the liquid compass was to introduce a
"card mounted on a float, with two thin and relatively short needles, fitted with their
poles at the scientifically correct angular distances, and with the centre of gravity,
centre of buoyancy, and the point of suspension in correct relation to each other...The
compass thus designed rectified the defects of the Admiralty Standard Compass...with
the additional advantage of considerable steadiness under heavy gunfire and in a
seaway... The one defect in the compass as developed by Creak up to 1892 was that "for
manoeuvring purposes it was inferior to Lord Kelvin's compass, owing to comparative

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sluggishness on a large alteration of course through the drag on the card by the liquid in
which it floated.

Typical aircraft-mounted magnetic compass

However, with ship and gun sizes continuously increasing, the advantages of the liquid
compass over the Kelvin compass became unavoidably apparent to the Admiralty, and
after widespread adoption by other navies, the liquid compass was generally adopted by
the Royal Navy as well.

Liquid compasses were next adapted for aircraft. In 1909, Captain F.O. Creagh-Osborne,
Superintendent of Compasses at the British Admiralty, introduced his Creagh-Osborne
aircraft compass, which used a mixture of alcohol and distilled water to damp the
compass card. After the success of this invention, Capt. Creagh-Osborne adapted his
design to a much smaller pocket model for individual use by officers of artillery or
infantry, receiving a patent in 1915.

In 1933 Tuomas Vohlonen, a surveyor by profession, applied for a patent for a unique
method of filling and sealing a lightweight celluloid compass housing or capsule with a
petroleum distillate to dampen the needle and protect it from shock and wear caused
by excessive motion. Introduced in a wrist-mount model in 1936 as the Suunto Oy
Model M-311, the new capsule design led directly to the lightweight liquid field
compasses of today.

Care and maintenance:

The care and maintenance required for a wet card compass and its binnacle is the same
as that for a dry card compass. The only changes / differences are:
1) The wet compass card, if found defective owing to stickiness of movement, has
to be renewed by the manufacturer or his authorized agent. Hence no spare wet
card is carried. Instead, and entire bowl is carried as a spare.

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2) In rare cases, a bubble may develop in the wet compass bowl. This has to be
removed at the earliest opportunity.

Removal of bubble:
A bubble may form in the bowl owing to the fact that some of the liquid has somehow
escaped from the bowl. This is a rare occurrence and must be remedied by following the
manufacturer's instructions. In most compasses:
1) Tilt the bowl until the 'filler hole' comes uppermost. This hole is provided on the
side of the bowl.

2) Unscrew the stud / screw provided.

3) Top up with ethyl alcohol. If this is not available, distilled water would do.

4) Screw the stud / screw back into place.

5) Gently let the bowl return to upright.

In some modern compasses, a small bubble may be removed as follows:

a) Invert the bowl gently. This would cause the bubble to enter a 'bubble trap'
provided for this purpose.

b) Gently return the bowl to upright. The bubble should have disappeared. If the
bubble is large, it would have to be removed as described in (1) to (5) above.

COMPASS CORRECTION

INDUCED MAGNETISM AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE COMPASS

Induced magnetism varies with the strength of the surrounding field, the mass of metal,
and the alignment of the metal in the field. Since the intensity of the earth’s magnetic
field varies over the earth’s surface, the induced magnetism in a ship will vary with
latitude, heading, and heel of the ship.

With the ship on an even keel, the resultant vertical induced magnetism, if not directed
through the compass itself, will create deviations which plot as a semicircular deviation
curve. This is true because the vertical induction changes magnitude and polarity only
with magnetic latitude and heel, and not with heading of the ship. Therefore, as long as
the ship is in the same magnetic latitude, its vertical induced pole swinging about the
compass will produce the same effect on the compass as a permanent pole swinging
about the compass.

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The earth’s field induction in certain other unsymmetrical arrangements of horizontal

soft iron on ship create a constant deviation. In addition to this magnetic error, there
are constant deviations resulting from:
1. physical misalignments of the compass, pelorus, or gyro;
2. errors in calculating the sun’s azimuth, observing time, or taking bearings.

The nature, magnitude, and polarity of all these induced effects are dependent upon the
1. disposition of metal,
2. the symmetry or asymmetry of the ship,
3. the location of the binnacle,
4. the strength of the earth’s magnetic field, and
5. the angle of dip.

Corrector Magnets

1. Vertical permanent heeling magnet in the central vertical tube.

2. Fore-and-aft B permanent magnets in their trays.
3. Athwartship C permanent magnets in their trays.
4. Vertical soft iron Flinders bar in its external tube.
5. Soft iron quadrantal spheres. Kelvin’s Balls

CORRECTION FOR INDUCED AND PERMANENT MAGNETIC FIELDS

a) Flinders bar. Vertical soft iron corrector. A soft iron vertical bar correcting for
vertical soft iron abaft of the compass. Most common vertical soft iron on the
ship is the funnel.
b) Spheres. Quadrantal Soft Iron Correctors. The flinders bar produces a small
quantity of fore and aft, horizontal and vertical effect on the compass. The soft
iron spheres correct for these errors.
c) Heeling error magnets. Compensated by permanent magnets set vertically in a
bucket beneath the compass.

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d) Horizontal magnets. Permanent fore and aft corrector magnets. Permanent

athwartships corrector magnets.

A binnacle containing a ship's steering compass, with the two iron balls
which correct the effects of ferromagnetic materials

COMPASS ERROR

Variation, also called Magnetic declination, is the angular difference between true north
and the direction of the Earth's magnetic field at any point on the Earth's surface.

The corresponding definition, for Deviation, is the angular difference between magnetic
north and the compass needle. Variation and deviation both influence magnetic
compass needles.

Their combined effect is known as magnetic "Compass error".

In navigation the terminology of geomagnetism is used differently. In particular,

magnetic declination is divided into two parts, namely magnetic variation and magnetic
deviation.

There are also three types of bearings—true, magnetic, and compass—which are related
by the rules:

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* Compass bearing +/- deviation = magnetic bearing

* Magnetic bearing +/- variation = true bearing.

This relationship (finding what the compass should show when the true course is
known) is frequently taught as: Can Dead Man Vote Twice At Election

* T = true course;
* V = variation (of the Earth's magnetic field);
* M = magnetic course (what the course would be in the absence of local
declination);
* D = deviation caused by magnetic material (mostly iron and steel) on the
vessel;
* C = compass course.

It is often combined with "West is Best, East is least" or Compass Best- error West,
Compass Least- error East”; that is to say, add W declinations when going True to
Magnetic to Compass, and subtract E ones.

If one knows the course shown by the compass and wishes to find the course relative to
true north, the steps are inverted and the signs of deviation and variation inverted.

VARIATION

Magnetic variation is the difference between true bearings and magnetic bearings and is
caused by the different locations of the Geographic North Pole and the Magnetic North
Pole plus any local anomalies such as iron deposits. Variation is the same for all
compasses in the same location and is usually stated on good quality maps and charts,
along with the date it was measured.

Variation is named East or + when the N (red) end of a magnetic

needle, placed in the earth’s field only, lies to the right or E of the true
meridian; and West or – when this lies to the left or W of the true
meridian.

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Variation is the name given to the error caused by the difference in position between
the true and magnetic poles. As its name denotes, it varies from place to place across
the world, but it is accurately tabulated for the navigator's use. It can be described as
follows:

Variation is the error in the compass caused by the Earth's magnetism. It is always
named E or W according to which direction the card is deflected away from true north.
Variations in the Earth's magnetic fields caused by variations in the Earth's crust and
mantle and variations caused by mountains, iron ore deposits, etc. vary according to
location, and also vary over time (conditions in the Earth's crust/mantle change over
time.) Generally, they are indicated on maps, so you must take into account the
declination for your current location. In the short term, these changes are predictable,
and maps generally indicate the year in which the deviation was determined, and an
amount to add for each subsequent year, for a period of several years. However, after
that period, the predictions would become increasingly inaccurate.

Variation or Magnetic declination is the angle between magnetic north (the direction
the north end of a compass needle points) and true north. The declination is positive
when the magnetic north is east of true north. The term magnetic variation is a
synonym, and is more often used in navigation. Isogonic lines are where the declination
has the same value, and the lines where the declination is zero are called agonic lines.

Somewhat more formally, Bowditch defines variation as “the angle between the
magnetic and geographic meridians at any place, expressed in degrees and minutes east
or west to indicate the direction of magnetic north from true north.

Compass Rose and Variation

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TO FIND VARIATION ERROR

Variation is indicated on compass rose.

On every chart there are a number of compass roses as described in next paragraph
below. In the centre of each compass rose is listed the variation for that area and the
amount it is likely to change in one year, which is usually fairly small.

Variation is printed inside compass roses on all navigation charts with year and rate of
annual change. It is important that variation should be taken from the compass rose
nearest to current DR position.

THE COMPASS ROSE

The Compass Rose- Since most navigation on a chart involves the use of the compass, a
reproduction of a compass card is printed at strategic points across the face of every
chart. These are termed compass roses and their positioning is such that there is always
one close to hand no matter where on the chart the navigator is working. They are
graduated in three-figure notations from 0° to 360° and contain details of the variations
in force in that area.

Deviation

The second of the two errors which affect the magnetic compass, deviation, is caused by
the magnetic influence of anything near the compass needle. Someone placing a metal
knife alongside the binnacle, for example, will cause a deflection of the compass needle
and result in deviation error. Steel in the construction of the ship, electric circuits,
motors, and so on, can all affect the compass and create a deviation error. It would be
safe to describe this error as follows:

Deviation is the error in the compass caused by the ship's magnetism. It is always named
E or W according to the direction the card is deflected from true north.

Magnetic deviation is the difference between magnetic bearings and compass bearings.
Deviation varies for every compass in the same location and depends on such factors as
the magnetic field of the ship, wristwatches, etc. The value will also vary depending on
the orientation of the ship. Magnets and/or iron masses can be used to correct for
deviation so that a particular compass will accurately give magnetic bearings. More
commonly, however, a correction card will be drawn up listing errors for the compass
which can then be compensated for arithmetically.

Deviation is the magnetic compass error caused by magnetised iron within the structure
of the ship. Any magnet, in the proximity of a compass, will cause the compass needle to
"deviate" from Magnetic North. In the case of big steel or iron structures, such as ships,

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this deviation error can be both large and variable. The problem of analysing and
correcting the magnetic deviation error is complex - because the magnetised iron in
every ship is a combination of iron particles which have become 'permanently'
magnetised and iron particles which contain some "temporary" magnetism that has
been induced by the Earth's magnetic field. Deviation errors vary with the ship's
magnetic heading (the angle the ship makes to magnetic north).

Red Blue Blue

Red

Effect by Earth’s Magnetic Field

Effect by Ship’s Magnetic Field

The deviation errors caused by magnetism in the ship's structure are minimised by
precisely positioning small magnets and iron compensators close to the compass.
However, because the magnetic "signature" of every ship changes slowly with location,
and with time, it is necessary to adjust the compensating magnets, periodically, to keep
the deviation errors to a practical minimum. Magnetic compass adjustment and
correction is one of the subjects in the examination curriculum for a shipmaster's
certificate of competency.

The best way to find the deviation error is to engage a professional compass adjuster
(Certified Compass Engineer) and have him attempt to eliminate the error or, if it cannot
be eliminated, tabulate it on what is known as a deviation card.

The sources of magnetic deviation vary from compass to compass or vessel to vessel.
However, they are independent of location, and thus the compass can be calibrated to
accommodate them.

Non-magnetic methods of taking bearings, such as with gyrocompass, astronomical

observations, satellites (as GPS) or radio navigation, are not subject to magnetic

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deviation. Thus, a comparison of bearings taken with such methods with the bearing
given by a compass can be used to compute local magnetic deviation.
Additionally, some large storms have been known to create altered local magnetic
fields. Studies have shown that these local magnetic field variations can affect compass
readings.

Deviation Card - When a ship is checked for deviation it must be checked on all
headings since, as mentioned, deviation varies according to the course being steered.
The Compass Engineer will swing the ship through the major compass points and
determine the deviation on each point. The Compass Engineer will then list the
deviation error on each heading on a deviation card. Thus the navigator can, by referring
to this card, determine the deviation error on whatever course is being planned.

It is essential to check the performance of magnetic compasses particularly after:

• Carrying cargoes which have magnetic properties;

• Using electromagnetic lifting appliances to load or discharge;
• A casualty in which the ship has been subject to severe contact or electrical
charges; or,
• The ship has been laid up or has been lying idle

- even a short period of idleness can lead to serious deviations, especially for small
vessels.

Compass performance should be monitored by frequently recording deviations in the

compass deviation book.

• Compass errors should be determined after every large alteration of course, and
at least once every watch when there have been no major course alterations.
• Checking the compass deviation regularly may show the need for repair, testing
or adjustment.

WHEN TO ADJUST THE COMPASS

Magnetic Compasses shall be adjusted when:

a) They are first installed or replaced

b) they become unreliable,
c) the ship undergoes structural repairs or alterations that could affect its
permanent and induced magnetism,
d) electrical magnetic equipment close to the compasses is added, removed or
altered,

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e) a maximum period of one (1) year has elapsed since the date of the last
adjustment and record of compass deviations has not been properly maintained
or the record of deviations are excessive or when the compass shows physical
defects,
f) deviation exceeds five (5) degrees taking into account the variation of the place
and the method used.

All magnetic compasses shall be swung and adjusted not less often than every two
years, after dry docking or significant structural work.

SWINGING FOR COMPASS

At sea, a ship's compass must also be corrected for errors, called deviation, caused by
iron and steel in its structure and equipment. The ship is swung, that is rotated about a
fixed point while its heading is noted by alignment with fixed points on the shore. A
compass deviation card is prepared so that the navigator can convert between compass
and magnetic headings. The compass can be corrected in three ways. First the lubber
line can be adjusted so that it is aligned with the direction in which the ship travels, then
the effects of permanent magnets can be corrected for by small magnets fitted within
the case of the compass. The effect of ferromagnetic materials in the compass's
environment can be corrected by two iron balls mounted on either side of the compass
binnacle. The coefficient a0 representing the error in the lubber line, while a1, b1 the
ferromagnetic effects and a2, b2 the non-ferromagnetic component.

A similar process is used to calibrate the compass in light general aviation aircraft, with
the compass deviation card often mounted permanently just above or below the
magnetic compass on the instrument panel. Fluxgate compasses can be calibrated
automatically, and can also be programmed with the correct local compass variation so
as to indicate the true heading.

It sometimes happens that the services of a compass engineer are not available to find
the deviation. When this is the case the navigator must do it by a procedure known as
swinging for compass. Below are the steps that should be followed:

(1) Locate two transit objects (objects in line) and determine their true bearing on
the chart.
(2) Secure the ship at anchor so that these transits are exactly aligned. Swing the
ship's head until it is pointing due north.
(3) Read off the transit bearing on the compass and apply the variation.
(4) The difference between this result and the true transit bearing is the deviation
on this heading. If the true bearing is greater, the deviation is named east; if it is
the lesser, the deviation is named west.
(5) Repeat the procedure taking transit bearings on each of the cardinal points.
(6) From the results, make up a deviation card.

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DEVIATION

The second of the two errors which affect the magnetic compass, deviation, is caused by
the magnetic influence of anything near the compass needle. Someone placing a metal
knife alongside the binnacle, for example, will cause a deflection of the compass needle
and result in deviation error. Steel in the construction of the ship, electric circuits,
motors, and so on, can all affect the compass and create a deviation error. It would be
safe to describe this error as follows:

“Deviation is the error in the compass caused by the ship's magnetism. It is always
named E or W according to the direction the card is deflected from true north”.

TO FIND DEVIATION ERROR

This is not so easy. To begin with, new fittings, new stores or new equipment placed on
the ship can add to the error of deviation. Providing the new products are not too
magnetic and they are kept at least 1 metre away from the compass binnacle, they
should not have too much effect, and this is worth remembering when fitting out a ship.
The deviation can be affected with each change in the ship's direction, which creates
another problem. Finally, the ship itself, particularly if it is of steel construction, will

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have become a magnet in its own right

during its building period and, as can well
be imagined, this will play havoc with the
accuracy of the compass in the binnacle.

The best way to find the deviation error is

to engage a professional compass adjuster
(Certified Compass Engineer) and have
him attempt to eliminate the error or, if it
cannot be eliminated, tabulate it on what
is known as a deviation card.

THE DEVIATION CARD

Deviation Card - When a ship is checked

for deviation it must be checked on all
headings since, as mentioned, deviation
varies according to the course being
steered. The Compass Engineer will swing
the ship through the major compass
points and determine the deviation on
each point. The Compass Engineer will
then list the deviation error on each
heading on a deviation card. Thus the
navigator can, by referring to this card,
determine the deviation error on
whatever course is being planned.

THE COMPASS CARD

For many years the traditional mariner's magnetic compass carried a card on which
were ornately printed the cardinal points of the compass as well as three-figure
notations. Modern magnetic compasses, however, have mostly done away with this
cardinal system and have only three-figure notations (0° - 360°) inscribed on the edge of
the card.
The card commences at 0° (due north) and travels in one-degree units through 090°
(due east), 180° (south), 270° (west) back to 360° or 0° at due north.

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The Compass Points

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THE LUBBER LINE

The lubber line is the term given to the mark on the bowl of the magnetic compass
which represents the centreline of the ship. Thus, when steering a course the card is
swung until the figure representing the course lies against the lubber line. Digital
compass do not have a lubber line but present the ship's heading as a three-figure
readout.

PELORUS
In appearance and use, a pelorus resembles a compass or compass repeater, with
sighting vanes or a sighting telescope attached, but it has no directive properties. That
is, it remains at any relative direction to which it is set. It is generally used by setting
000° at the lubber's line. Relative bearings are then observed. They can be converted to
bearings true, magnetic, grid, etc., by adding the appropriate heading. The direct use of
relative bearings is sometimes of value. A pelorus is useful, for instance, in determining
the moment at which an aid to navigation is broad on the beam. It is also useful in
measuring pairs of relative bearings which can be used to determine distance off and
distance abeam of a navigational aid.

If the true heading is set at the lubber's line, true bearings are observed directly.
Similarly, compass bearings can be observed if the compass heading is set at the
lubber's line, etc. However, the vessel must be on the heading to which the pelorus is
set if accurate results are to be obtained, or else a correction must be applied to the
observed results. Perhaps the easiest way of avoiding error is to have the steersman
indicate when the vessel is on course. This is usually done by calling out "mark, mark,
mark" as long as the vessel is within a specified fraction of a degree of the desired
heading. The observer, who is watching a distant object across the pelorus, selects an
instant when the vessel is steady and is on course. An alternative method is to have the
observer call out "mark" when the relative bearing is steady, and the steersman note

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the heading. If the compass is swinging at the moment of observation, the observation
should be rejected. The number of degrees between the desired and actual headings is
added if the vessel is to the right of the course, and subtracted if to the left. Thus, if the
course is 060° and the heading is 062° at the moment of observation, a correction of 2°
is added to the bearing.

The instrument was named for one Pelorus, said to have been the pilot for Hannibal,
circa 203 BC.

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 COMPASS
COMPASS DEVIATION TABLE

SHIP'S NAME: M.V. YUBA DATE: 8th Mar 2007

POSITION: Lat 36 15 N Long 024 39 W WEATHER: Cloudy, mod sea and swell
Description of Compass: Serial No.:
CARGO: Ballast VARIATION: 8.7 W
REMARKS:

M.Course Deviation
DEVIATION
000 0.8

015 1.8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
000
030 2.8
015
045 3.8
030

060 4.8 045

075 5.5 060

090 6.1 075

090
105 5.8
105
120 5.2
120
135 4.0
135
SHIP'S HEADING

150 2.5 150

165 0.7 165

180
180 -1.0
195
195 -2.1
210
210 -3.1
225
225 -4.0
240

240 -4.8 255

255 -5.3 270

285
270 -5.7
300
285 -5.0
315
300 -4.0
330

315 -3.2 345

330 -2.0 360

345 -0.8
WEST DEVIATION EAST
360 0.8

Chief Officer Master

Visual Obs. Rank: 2nd Officer Visual Obs. Rank: 3rd Officer

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OOW Course

SHIPBOARD COMPASS

OOW Course
Compass

INTRODUCTION
Prior to the introduction of the
compass, position, destination, and
direction at sea was primarily
determined by the sighting of
landmarks, supplemented with the
observation of the position of celestial
bodies. Ancient mariners often kept
within sight of land.

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COMPASS

OOW Course
Compass

INTRODUCTION
The invention of the compass enabled
the determination of heading when the
sky was overcast or foggy. And, when
the sun or other known celestial bodies
could be observed, it enabled the
calculation of latitude. This enabled
mariners to navigate safely far from
land, increasing sea trade.

Shipboard Compasses

Learning Objectives:
Comprehend the basic principles of operation of
the magnetic compass and its advantages and
disadvantages.
Comprehend the reasons for variation and
deviation and how these affect the magnetic
compass.
A l proper procedures
Apply d i converting
in ti from
f t
true
direction to compass direction and vice versa.
Apply correct procedures to determine variation
using navigation charts.

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COMPASS

Shipboard Compasses

Learning Objectives:
Comprehend the basic principles of the
operation of the magnetic & gyro compass and
its advantages and disadvantages.
Apply correct procedures in determining and
correcting for gyrocompass and magnetic
error.
C h d the
Comprehend th differences
diff b t
between t
true,
magnetic, gyrocompass, and relative direction
reference systems, and apply proper
procedures to make conversions from one
system to any other.

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COMPASS

Shipboard Compasses

Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass is one of the oldest
and most reliable navigation instruments
still in use today. It always points magnetic
north, providing navigators with a fixed
reference point. Using a compass and a map
or chart, a skilled, careful navigator can
direct a craft from one destination to
another, even in fog or at night.

Shipboard Compasses

Magnetic Compass
Magnetic compass is a navigational
instrument for determining direction relative
to the Earth's magnetic poles. It consists of a
magnetized pointer (usually marked on the
North end) free to align itself with Earth's
magnetic field.

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COMPASS

Direction
There are three references used in the
measurement of direction:
 Relative Bearing (oR): ship’s longitudinal axis.

 Magnetic Bearing (oM): the magnetic north pole.

 True Bearing (oT): the geographic (true) north

pole.

Ship’s Head
Ship’s head or heading is the direction in
which the ship’s bow is pointing, and it can
be expressed with reference to either
geographic (true) north or magnetic north;
 in the relative bearing system,
system
the ship’s head is always 000 oR.

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COMPASS

THE LUBBER LINE

The lubber line is the term given to the mark
on the bowl of the magnetic compass which
represents the centreline of the ship. Thus,
when steering a course the card is swung
until the figure representing the course lies
against the lubber line. Digital compass do
not have a lubber line but present the ship's
heading as a three-figure readout.

Standard Magnetic Compass

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COMPASS

Compass Points

Compass Points

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COMPASS

Compass Points

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COMPASS

The Magnetic Compass

Fitted on most vessels

smaller coastal vessels may not have a
gyrocompass and will use the magnetic
compass as the primary reference for
direction and course.
On ocean going vessels, the magnetic
compass acts as a backup to the
gyrocompass.

The Magnetic Compass

ADVANTAGES
Si l b
Simple butt effective
ff ti
Self-Contained
No electrical power required
Requires little or no maintenance
Not easily damaged
Only require one magnetic compass to be
installed on monkey island (Compass Deck),

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The Magnetic Compass

Basic Operation: a circular card, with attached

magnets floats in a bowl of liquid.
magnets, liquid The entire
assembly is gimbaled to maintain the compass
horizontal as the ship pitches and rolls.

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

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COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

Expansion diaphragm

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COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

Necessity:
Necessity: The dry card compass is too sensitive for
steering purposes, especially in bad weather. Even
small disturbances causes the dry card to oscillate. In
the wet card compass the oscillations are damped,
without loss of accuracy, by immersing the card in a
liquid. The card therefore has a 'dead beat'
movement.
Suspension:
Suspension: The bowl of the wet card compass is
suspended by gimbals and a ballast weight consisting
of a ring of lead, enclosed in brass, is attached along
the circumference of the underside of the bowl to
bring its centre of gravity below the gimbals.

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COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

The card:
card: The wet card is made of mica and is
only about 15 cm in diameter. The graduations are
photographically
h t hi ll printed
i t d on it.it The
Th card d is
i
attached to a nickel-silver float chamber that has a
sapphire cap. The cap rests on an iridium tipped
pivot. The sapphire has a polishing effect on the
iridium tip. The smoothness of rotation of the
compass card thus improves over the years!
Though the weight of the wet card is considerable,
the buoyancy of the float chamber suitably reduces
the load on the pivot. This arrangement is
practically frictionless.

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

The directive element:
element: This is fitted below the card, enclosed in
nickel -silver to avoid corrosion. In older types it consisted of
two cylindrical bar magnets, one on each side of the float. In
modern wet card compasses the directive element is a ring
magnet fitted around the base of the float. The ring magnet
offers less resistance to movement and causes less turbulence.
Most efficient
efficient: The ring magnet wet card compass is the most
efficient type of marine magnetic compass.
The liquid:
liquid: The bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water
and pure ethyl alcohol so that the mixture had the following
properties:
(a) Low freezing point – about -30̊ C.
(b) Small coefficient of expansion.
(c) Does not discolour the card.
(d) Low relative density – about 0.93.

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COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (wet type)

The bowl:
bowl: Though the wet card is only about 15 cm in
diameter, the diameter of the bowl is about 23 cm in order to
reduce disturbances caused by turbulence in the liquid during
rotation of the card. The top of the bowl is of transparent glass.
The bottom is of frosted glass to diffuse the light coming from
the bulb below.

Allowance for expansion

expansion:: Different methods are adopted for
coping with the expansion and contraction, of the liquid in the
bowl, resulting from increase and decrease of atmospheric
temperature. One method is to have a small accordion-like
expansion chamber attached to the bowl, similar to that of an
aneroid barometer. The chamber increases or decreases in
volume, as necessary, as the liquid in the bowl expands or
contracts due to changes in atmospheric temperature.

Construction of Magnetic Compass (dry type)

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COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (dry type)

Construction of Magnetic Compass (dry type)

The card base
base:: A light, aluminum ring about 254 mm (10
inches) in diameter is attached to a brass hub (centre piece) by
a silk cord which is threaded in and out through holes in the
ring and the hub. The tight silk cord acts like the spokes of a
bicycle wheel. There is no other connection or support between
the ring and the hub. Silk cord is used because it does not
shrink or stretch due to moisture or changes in atmospheric
temperature.
The card support:
support
pp : The bottom of the hub has a small cap p fitted
with a sapphire bearing surface. This rests on a pivot tipped
with iridium which is a hard, non-magnetic metal. This
arrangement provides a practically frictionless support, for the
compass card, and requires no lubrication. The sapphire cap
has a polishing effect on the iridium tip. The smoothness of
rotation of the compass card thus improves over the years!

Page 82 of 260 15
COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (dry type)

The card:
card: The compass card is made of rice paper because it is
very light and unaffected by changes in temperature. The rice
paper card is divided into several segments and each is stuck
to the aluminium ring and to the silk cords using light,
waterproof adhesive. The reason for the division of the card
into segments is that if a drop of water was to fall on any part
of the compass card, only that segment would get distorted
while the rest of the card would remain undistorted. If the
card was one single
g p piece of p
paper,
p , one drop
p of water on anyy
part of it would distort the entire card.

Construction of Magnetic Compass (dry type)

The directive element:
element: This consists of three, four or five pairs
of needle magnets suspended, parallel to each other, a few
centimeters below the compass card. card. The magnets are
symmetrically arranged on either side of the centre piece, the
longest pair closest to the centre, such that the ends of all the
magnets form a circle
circle.. The ends of the magnets have holes in
them.. Silk cord passes through these and through holes in the
them
bottom of the aluminium ring to support the magnets below
the compass
p card.
card. Byy this method,, the centre of ggravity
y of the
entire compass card, inclusive of the magnets, is below the tip
of the pivot.
pivot. This ensures that the card is not only North
seeking but also remains horizontal even when the pivot tilts
out of the vertical during rolling / pitching
pitching..

Page 83 of 260 16
COMPASS

Construction of Magnetic Compass (dry type)

The compass bowl : The compass card is enclosed in a
cylindrical brass bowl having a transparent glass top and a
frosted glass bottom.
bottom The glass top is retained in position by a
brass 'verge ring' which is secured to the bowl by equidistant,
brass screws along the circumference. A rubber washer between
the verge ring and the top glass ensures watertightness. The top
of the verge ring is grooved to accommodate the azimuth mirror.
The vertical distance between the top of the hub of the card and
the top glass is such that even if the bowl is inverted, the card
would not completely disengage from the pivot so that when the
bowl is returned to upright, the card would again rest properly
on the pivot as before. The bottom of the bowl has, attached to it,
a glass hemisphere containing a mixture of alcohol and water, the
weight of which lowers the centre of gravity of the entire bowl to
a position well below the compass card.

The Magnetic Compass

Page 84 of 260 17
COMPASS

OOW Course
Magnetic Compass

ELEMENTARY LAW OF MAGNETISM

“Like poles repel and unlike poles attract”

EARTH AS A MAGNET

Page 85 of 260 18
COMPASS

EARTH AS A MAGNET

EARTH AS A MAGNET

Page 86 of 260 19
COMPASS

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Page 87 of 260 20
COMPASS

Earth’s Magnetism
The magnets tend to align themselves with the
earth’s magnetic lines of force, and can thus be
used to find magnetic north and determine
direction.

Magnetic Compass Errors

If these magnetic lines of force coincided
with the earth’s meridians, a magnetic
compass would always seek true north and
would thus display true direction.
But Magnetic compasses rarely read true
north because of two errors:
north, errors
 variation
 deviation

Page 88 of 260 21
COMPASS

TRUE NORTH
where the meridians
merge

MAGNETIC NORTH
where compass
needles point

LINES OF EQUAL VARIATION OF EARTH MAGNETISM – ISOGONIC CHART

North Magnetic Pole
(2001) 81°18′N 110°48′W / 81.3°N 110.8°W
(2004 est) 82°18′N 113°24′W / 82.3°N 113.4°W
(2005 est) 82°42′N 114°24′W / 82.7°N 114.4°W
(2010 est) 85°00′N 132°36′W / 85.0°N 132.6°W
South Magnetic Pole
(1998) 64°36′S 138°30′E / 64.6°S 138.5°E
(2004 est) 63°30′S 138°00′E / 63.5°S 138.0°E
(2005 est) 63°06′S 137°30′E / 63.1°S 137.5°E
(2010 est) 64°24′S 137°18′E / 64.4°S 137.3°E

Page 89 of 260 22
COMPASS

CHANGE OF EARTH’S VARIATION

Earth’s Magnetism
The Earth may be regarded as a sphere having a short bar
magnet at its centre.
g
 Magnetic Poles: Line of magnetic
g force of the earth
emanate from a region near South Victoria Land and
converge towards a point in the Hudson Bay. The
magnetic needle point the areas and they are called
Magnetic Poles.
 Magnetic Meridian: The vertical plane coinciding with
the line of the Earth’s magnetic force at any place is
called the Magnetic Meridian at that place; it should be
considered as a small arc of a great circle.
 Magnetic Elements:
1. variation
2. dip
3. total field strength or intensity

Page 90 of 260 23
COMPASS

Variation
 Variation: the angle between a magnetic line of force
and a geographic (true) meridian at any location on
the
h earth.
h
 Variation exists because the earth’s magnetic and
geographic poles are not in the same location.
Secular change which is one taking place in the same
direction over a long period of time and is due to the
movement off the
h magnetic i poles
l relative
l i to the
h true
poles. The annual rate is indicated on the compass
roses of navigation charts.
 Magnetic anomalies in the earth’s crust also
contribute to variation.

Variation
GEOGRAPHIC POLE

MERIDIAN

MAGNETIC LINE OF FORCE

Page 91 of 260 24
COMPASS

Variation

Variation is named East or + when the N (red) end of a

magnetic needle, placed in the earth’s field only, lies to the
right or E of the true meridian; and West or – when this lies
to the left or W of the true meridian.

Variation
Variation is expressed in degrees east or west;
if the magnetic meridian is west of the
corresponding true meridian, variation is west,
and vice versa.
Variation changes as we move about the
earth’s surface.

Page 92 of 260 25
COMPASS

Variation
Variation also changes from year to year as the
earth’ss magnetic poles tend to wander.
earth
Variation is printed inside compass roses on all
navigation charts with year.
Always use the compass rose nearest to your
current DR position.

Variation

Page 93 of 260 26
COMPASS

Since variation
changes
annually we
annually,
must also
account for
this in
calculating the
correct value
of variation.
An example
should help….

Variation Example
Variation given on the chart is 14o 15’ W (1992)
with an annual increase of 6’.
 Nineteen years (1992 to 2012) yields a total
change of 20 x 6’ = 120’= 2o
Now our variation for the year 2012 is
14o 15’ +2o = 16o 15’
Variation is normally rounded to the nearest
half degree, so our variation is 16.25o W.

Page 94 of 260 27
COMPASS

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic dip or magnetic inclination- is the angle made by a

compass needle with the horizontal at any point on the Earth's
surface. Positive values of inclination indicate that the field is
pointing downward, into the Earth, at the point of measurement.
The value can be measured with a dip circle.

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Page 95 of 260 28
COMPASS

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Dip
S
H Mag N
Dip
+ve

N
+Z T H= T cos dip
Total Force Z= T sin dip
(Intensity)
Z
= Tan dip
di
H

Dip at any place is the angle a freely suspended

magnetic makes with the horizontal (sensible
sensible
horizon at that place.
horizon)

Page 96 of 260 29
COMPASS

Deviation
Deviation: is the angle between the magnetic
meridian and the north line on the compass
card (compass North).

Deviation error is caused by the permanent

and induced magnetism namely interaction
of the shipship’ss metallic structure and
electrical systems with the earth’s magnetic
field.

Deviation
Induced magnetism varies with;
the strength of the surrounding field,
the mass of metal, and
the alignment of the metal in the field.

Since the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field

varies over the earth’s surface, the induced
magnetism in a ship will vary with latitude,
heading, and heel of the ship.

Page 97 of 260 30
COMPASS

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FLUX & SHIP

Induced magnetism due to soft iron components of ship

SHIP’S MAGNETISM

Page 98 of 260 31
COMPASS

SHIP’S MAGNETISM
 The influence of magnetic forces at compass are;

i. the induction in vertical soft iron

ii. The induction in horizontal soft iron

iii. The three components of the ship’s permanent

magnetic field.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION BY EARTH

Ship on Northerly Course Ship on Easterly Course

Page 99 of 260 32
COMPASS

MAGNETIC INDUCTION BY EARTH

SHIP’S MAGNETISM
The earth’s field induction in certain other
unsymmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft
iron on ship create a constant deviation.
The nature, magnitude, and polarity of all these
induced effects are dependent upon the

1. disposition of metal,
2
2. the symmetry or asymmetry of the ship,
ship
3. the location of the binnacle,
4. the strength of the earth’s magnetic field, and
5. the angle of dip.

Page 100 of 260 33

COMPASS

SHIP’S PERMANENT MAGNETISM

SHIP’S PERMANENT MAGNETISM

Page 101 of 260 34

COMPASS

SHIP’S PERMANENT MAGNETISM

Three components of permanent magnetism

DEVIATION

Page 102 of 260 35

COMPASS

Magnetic Compass Deviation

Deviation is caused by the magnetic influence of any material
near the compass needle.
DEVIATION is HEADING conscious.
Deviation = A + B sin Φ + C cos Φ + D sin 2Φ + E cos 2Φ
(Φ = compass heading)

Magnetic Compass Deviation

Deviation is caused by the magnetic influence of any material
near the compass needle.
DEVIATION is HEADING conscious.
Deviation = A + B sin Φ + C cos Φ + D sin 2Φ + E cos 2Φ
(Φ = compass heading)

Page 103 of 260 36

COMPASS

Magnetic Compass Deviation

Fourier Series-Harmonic Analysis of Total Deviation Curve

COEFFICIENTS
A Coefficient is the maximum deviation
caused byy one or more of the ship’s
p forces
acting at the compass position.
It is deviation measured in degrees or radians.

Page 104 of 260 37

COMPASS

COEFFICIENTS
 Total deviation can be considered as combination
effect of 5 different kind of deviations namely
coefficient
ffi i t A
A, B
B, C
C, D
D, anddE
E.
 These coefficients are actually “Fourier series”.

Harmonic Analysis

Magnetic Compass Deviation

Three principal types of deviation caused by the magnetic forces
(i) Constant deviation which is one havingg the same sign g and
value on all courses. (coefficient A)
(ii) Semicircular deviation which has the same sign over only one
continuous half of the compass courses. That is, it has opposite
signs on opposite compass courses. (coefficient B & C)
(iii) Quadrantal deviation which has the same sign over only one
continuous qquarter of the compass
p courses. That is,, it has
opposite signs in adjacent quarters and the same sign on
opposite compass points. (coefficient D & E)

Page 105 of 260 38

COMPASS

Semicircular Deviation B & C

has the same sign over only one continuous
half of the compass courses.
courses

+B +C

-B -C

E W
W E E W
W E

Quadrantal Deviation D & E

has the same sign over only one continuous
quarter of the compass courses.
courses

+D +E

-D -E

E W
W E E W
W W E E
E W W E E W

Page 106 of 260 39

COMPASS

DEVIATION &
COEFFICIENTS

DEVIATION

Page 107 of 260 40

COMPASS

DEVIATION

Deviation
Varies with ship’s head.
Can changeg as largeg metal objects
j are moved
about the ship.
Semi-permanent magnetism can be induced in
the ship’s hull by long periods pierside (such as
during extensive overhaul or laid up).
D i system also
Degaussing l affects
ff d
deviation.
i i

Page 108 of 260 41

COMPASS

Deviation
 Deviation can be compensated for but never
eliminated.
 A compass table is used, which provides the value of
deviation for every 15 degrees of ship’s head.
 Entering argument for the table is oM and degaussing
on or off (DG ON/DG OFF)
 The data on the table is determined using a process
called swing ship. As the name implies, the ship is
swung through 360 degrees in 15 degree increments,
and the deviation determined at each point.

Azimuth Circle

Page 109 of 260 42

COMPASS

COWL OR HOOD

QUADRANTAL CORRECTOR

CORRECTOR LOCKERS

Binnacle for Standard Magnetic Compass

The binnacle contains the magnetic compass and
associated correctors as well as lighting arrangements.

BINNACLE
Degaussing
Compensating Flinder Bar
Sphere
Coil

Heeling Magnet Tube

Fore & Aft “B”

Magnet Tray
Athwartship “C”
Magnet Trays

Page 110 of 260 43

COMPASS

BINNACLE

BINNACLE

Page 111 of 260 44

COMPASS

BINNACLE - PROJECTOR

BINNACLE

Page 112 of 260 45

COMPASS

BINNACLE
Corrector or Compensating Magnets
11. Vertical permanent heeling magnet in the central vertical tube
tube.
2. Fore-and-aft B permanent magnets in their trays.
3. Athwartship C permanent magnets in their trays.
4. Vertical soft iron Flinders bar in its external tube.
5. Quadrantal Soft iron spheres. Kelvin’s Balls

Correcting the Compass

1. Flinders bar
bar. Vertical soft iron corrector. A soft iron vertical
bar correcting for vertical soft iron abaft of the compass. Most
common vertical
ti l soft
ft iron
i on the
th ship
hi is
i the
th funnel.
f l
2. Spheres
Spheres. Quadrantal Soft Iron Correctors. The flinders bar
produces a small quantity of fore and aft, horizontal and
vertical effect on the compass. The soft iron spheres correct
for these errors.
3. Heeling error magnets.
magnets Compensated by permanent magnets
set vertically in a bucket beneath the compass.
4. Horizontal magnets.
magnets Permanent fore and aft corrector
magnets. Permanent athwartships corrector magnets.

Page 113 of 260 46

COMPASS

SWINGING THE COMPASS

It sometimes happens that the services of a compass
engineer are not available to find the deviation. When
this is the case the Master must do it by a procedure
known as swinging for compass.
The ship is swung, that is rotated about a fixed point
while its heading is noted by transit alignment with
fixed points on the shore. Repeat the procedure taking
transit bearings on each of the cardinal points. Read
off the transit bearing on the compass and apply the
variation.
A compass deviation card is prepared so that the
navigator can convert between Compass, Magnetic
and True headings.

DEVIATION CARD – MAGNETIC COMPASS TABLE

Page 114 of 260 47

COMPASS

Deviation Curve – Compass Heading/ Magnetic Heading

Page 115 of 260 48

COMPASS

Deviation Table Compass

Course

000
Deviation

2E
Magnetic
Course

002
Variation

5E
True
Course

007
015 3E 018 5E 023
030 5E 035 5E 040
045 6E 051 5E 056

060 5E 065 5E 070

075 5E 080 5E 085
090 3E 093 5E 098
105 3E 108 5E 113
120 2E 122 5E 127
135 1W 134 5E 139
150 2W 148 5E 153
165 3W 162 5E 167
180 4W 176 5E 181
195 5W 190 5E 195
210 6W 204 5E 209
225 5W 220 5E 225
240 4W 236 5E 241
255 5W 250 5E 255
270 4W 264 5E 269
285 3W 282 5E 287
300 2W 302 5E 307
315 1W 314 5E 319
330 1E 331 5E 336
345 2E 347 5E 352

When to Adjust Compasses

Magnetic Compasses shall be adjusted when:
 a) They are first installed or replaced
 b) they become unreliable,
unreliable
 c) the ship undergoes structural repairs or alterations that could affect
its permanent and induced magnetism,
 d) electrical magnetic equipment close to the compasses is added,
removed or altered,
 e) a maximum period of one (1) year has elapsed since the date of the
last adjustment and record of compass deviations has not been properly
maintained
i t i d or the
th record d off deviations
d i ti are excessive
i or when
h th
the
compass shows physical defects,
 f) deviation exceeds five (5) degrees taking into account the variation of
the place and the method used.
All magnetic compasses shall be swung and adjusted not less often than
every two years, after dry docking or significant structural work.

Page 116 of 260 49

COMPASS

Operational Checks

 Check the gimbal is moving freely.

 Check the compass card is clear and sharp
sharp. Card
should float freely and rotate without any friction.
 Check the liquid is free of bubbles and clear. No
liquid leaks around seals or filler plugs.
 Check and clean telescopic
p reflector lens and
mirrors.
 Check electric lamp and dimmer

MONITORING COMPASS PERFORMANCE

Compass performance should be

monitored frequently by recording
deviations in the compass deviation book.
Compass errors should be determined
after every large alteration of course, and
at least once every watch when there have
been no major course alterations.
Checking the compass deviation
regularly may show the need for repair,
testing or adjustment.

Page 117 of 260 50

COMPASS

WHEN TO CHECK COMPASS PERFORMANCE

a) Carrying cargoes which have magnetic properties;

b) Using electromagnetic lifting appliances to load or
discharge;
c) A casualty in which the has been subject to severe
contact or electrical charges; or
d) The ship has laid up or has been lying idle – even a
short period of idleness can lead to serious
deviations especially for small vessels.
deviations, vessels
The retentive magnetic field can alter a ship’s magnetism, making
compasses unreliable. However, a large amount of the magnetism
induced by an electromagnetic equipment may subsequently decay;
therefore immediate readjustment is not advised. Every effort
should be made to determine the compass deviation.

Removal of bubble:
A bubble may form in the bowl owing to the fact that some
q
of the liquid has somehow escaped
p from the bowl. This is a
rare occurrence and must be remedied by following the
manufacturer's instructions. In most compasses:

1. Tilt the bowl until the 'filler hole' comes uppermost.

This hole is provided on the side of the bowl.
2. Unscrew the stud / screw provided.
3. Top up with ethyl alcohol. If this is not available,
distilled water would do.
4. Screw the stud / screw back into place.
5. Gently let the bowl return to upright.

Page 118 of 260 51

COMPASS

Removal of bubble:
In some modern compasses, a small bubble may be removed
as follows:

1. Invert the bowl gently. This would cause the bubble to

enter a 'bubble trap' provided for this purpose.
2. Gently return the bowl to upright. The bubble should
have disappeared.

If the bubble is large, it would have to be removed as

described in (1) to (5) previously.

ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID COMPASS OVER DRY COMPASS

 One of the main advantages of the liquid compass over

y card compass
the dry p is that it is not as sensitive.
 Consequently, it makes an excellent steering compass.
 Oscillations of the card are greatly reduced by the
dense liquid within the bowl and any induced
movement is practically eliminated.
 The term ‘dead beat’ applied to the liquid compass
dead beat
means slow moving, with a steady card.
 Undesirable oscillations of the card are kept to a
minimum by the liquid.

Page 119 of 260 52

COMPASS

Maintenance:
The Magnetic compass requires no special
maintenance except that the lenses and the mirror of
projector should be kept free of dust, salt particles,
etc. The top of the objective lens, where dust could
settle, is accessible for cleaning through a door in
the binnacle. The other lenses, and glass screen, in
the tube are sealed airtight and hence would not get
dust on them. The lenses of the condenser should be
wiped clean with a soft non-linty cloth & the helmet
always kept in position to prevent dust, water, spray,
dew, etc from settling or falling on the condenser
lenses.

Compass Error
Once variation and deviation are known,
conversion between true and compass
bearings can be accomplished.
accomplished
The method for this will be illustrated with
some examples…for all, use the following
mnemonic:
Can Dead Men Vote Twice at Elections
C D M V T (+ E )
magnetic deviation magnetic variation true add easterly
compass heading course
course

Page 120 of 260 53

COMPASS

True – 035 ̊ T
Variation 10 ̊ W
Magnetic – 045 ̊ M
Deviation 5̊E
C
Compass – 040 ̊ C
Compass Error 5 ̊ W

Compass Error

True – 075 ̊ T
Variation 10 ̊ W
Magnetic – 085 ̊ M
Deviation 15 ̊ W
C
Compass – 100 ̊ C
Compass Error 25 ̊ W

Page 121 of 260 54

COMPASS

Compass Error
W E
T
C = 034̊ C M
D = 11̊ W C
M = 033̊ M
V = 3̊ W
V 030 ̊
T = 030̊ T D

Required course to steer is 030 ̊ T . Variation found to be 33̊ W and

deviation read from deviation table is 1̊ W.
What will be the compass course to steer?

Compass Error
W E
T
C = 131̊ C M
C
D = 33̊ W
M = 128 M
V = 2̊ E DV

T = 130̊ T
CE = V+D = (2E) + (3W) = 1W
130 ̊

Required course to steer is 130 ̊ T . Variation found

to be 2̊ E and
deviation read from deviation table is 3̊ W.
What will be the compass course to steer?

Page 122 of 260 55

COMPASS

Compass Error

Compass Error

Page 123 of 260 56

COMPASS

Compass Error
Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True
+E, -W
358° 5°E 003° 6°E 009°
120° 1°W 119° 3°E 122°
180° 6°E 186° 8°W 178°
240° 5°W 235° 7°W 228°

+W, -E

Magnetic Compass

Page 124 of 260 57

COMPASS

MAGNETIC COMPASS ADJUSTMENT

Figure lists six different coefficients or types of deviation errors with their causes and corresponding
correctors. A discussion of these coefficients follows: The A error is caused by the miscalculation of
azimuths or by physical misalignments rather than magnetic effects of unsymmetrical arrangements of
horizontal soft iron. Thus, checking the physical alignments at dockside and making careful calculations
will minimize the A error. Where an azimuth or bearing circle is used on a standard compass to
determine deviations, any observed A error will be solely magnetic A error because such readings are
taken on the face of the compass card rather than at the lubber’s line of the compass.

On a steering compass where deviations are obtained by a comparison of the compass lubber’s line
reading with the ship’s magnetic heading, as determined by pelorus or gyro, any observed A error may
be a combination of magnetic A and mechanical A (misalignment). These facts explain the procedure in
which only mechanical A is corrected on the standard compass, by realignment of the binnacle, and both
mechanical A and magnetic A errors are corrected on the steering compass by realignment of the
binnacle. On the standard compass, the mechanical A error may be isolated from the magnetic A error
by making the following observations simultaneously:

1. Record a curve of deviations by using an azimuth (or bearing) circle. Any A error found will be
solely magnetic A.

2. Record a curve of deviations by comparison of the compass lubber’s line reading with the ship’s
magnetic heading as determined by pelorus or by gyro. Any A error found will be a combination
of mechanical A and magnetic A.

3. The mechanical A on the standard compass is then found by subtracting the A found in the first
instance from the total A found in the second instance, and is corrected by rotating the binnacle
in the proper direction by that amount. It is neither convenient nor necessary to isolate the two
types of A on the steering compass and all A found by using the pelorus or gyro may be removed
by rotating the binnacle in the proper direction.

Page 125 of 260

COMPASS

The B error results from both the fore-and-aft permanent magnetic field across the compass and a
resultant unsymmetrical vertical induced effect forward or aft of the compass. The former is corrected
by the use of fore-and-aft B magnets, and the latter is corrected by the use of the Flinders bar forward
or aft of the compass. Because the Flinders bar setting is a dockside adjustment, any remaining B error is
corrected by the use of fore-and-aft B magnets.

The C error results from the athwartship permanent magnetic field across the compass and a resultant
unsymmetrical vertical induced effect athwartship of the compass.

The former is corrected by the use of athwartship C magnets, and the latter by the use of the Flinders
bar to port or starboard of the compass. Because the vertical induced effect is very rare, the C error is
corrected by athwartship C magnets only.

The D error is due only to induction in the symmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft iron, and
requires correction by spheres, generally athwartship of the compass.

E error of appreciable magnitude is rare, since it is caused by induction in the unsymmetrical

arrangements of horizontal soft iron. When this error is appreciable it may be corrected by slewing the
spheres.

As stated previously, the heeling error is adjusted at dockside with a balanced dip needle.

As the above discussion points out, certain errors are rare and others are corrected at dockside.
Therefore, for most ships, only the B, C, and D errors require at sea correction.

These errors are corrected by the fore-and-aft B magnets, athwartship C magnets, and quadrantal
spheres respectively.

B, C, and D deviation effects

Example of typical deviation curve and its components

Deviation = A + B sin Ø + C cos Ø + D sin 2 Ø + E cos 2 Ø

(where Ø represents compass heading)

Page 126 of 260

 headings of"" Magnetic or CmlJlass

"""'"'"' TyJl" devlallo1l curve

maximum
"'b~
ea"""" of...,h em>r.l eorr""tor.; for soch e<ror.i beadJngsOll .... hlch 10
apply rotI'l'Ct<ln

, CI... k method:oi aOO calculations

COMPASS
Human-<'fIU In ca/cuL,JIoos - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~~ ~on"l. Pby>Jcal-<:ompaM. g)'TO.I"'[""" .Ugnmoot _________ Ch«k ailgn"""'''' Any.
Mago"Uc-unsymmetrlcal arrangements of lull. soft Iron. Ra,.. arrangement of soft Iron rods.

B ""''''''''-.
s in~ ""'.
210'
F<n-and-afl rompooeot of permanent magnetlc field _____ Fore-and -aft B magDi'fS
loooced magnetism In LIflSym"""""'" vertical lroo fOl'W3l'd !I' aft F1JOCt>rs bar (forward or all) 090' <r 270',
of COfflJl"Sl'.

C ""''''''''-
COS, .
<ro'
,.,. Athwartshlp componert or I"'fIIL1II"Ot magnetlc fleLd -
Induced magnetlsm In 1llISymmeu1cal vertlcallmn JIOfI or
Athw:utshlp C magneIS
F1JOCt>rs bar (port <r surboard) lKX)' II" ISO',
starboard of cornJl'lSS.

"..,~'" M" Sp""",,, on appropriate axis.

135' IndUC1.'d magnetl5m In all .ymmetJ1cal amlngemelXs of (atItw3nshlp for +0)
D sln2q, . 225' hortwntol soft lroo. (fOl'l' and aft for -0) IJ.IS' ,13S·, 22S'. or31S· ,
3] S' s..e.ketclt~

"". SP_1l1l 3fl!lI'Of'"I:otp ,yk

E
"..,~'"
cos2q, .
""'.
,.,. IndllCt'd magnetism In all uns)'Tllll'll'lrlcai arr:mgemmtll of
hortwntal soft iroo.
(port fwtI.-slb'd for +E)
(SIb' d fwd.-port aft for -E) Inl'. 090", lS(),. or 270' ,
210' s..e.ketcltb

o.cU1at1oft'l wtll roll <ro' } Change In the hor1zon1a1 component of the indoced or I"""""nent H"d llg magnet (must be readjusted for 090' II" 270' wllhdlp .-lie.
or pitch. ISO' roD magneUc fields at the compass due to roIl!ng or pitching of the JaUw. charJlII"). 000' or ISO' whJle roiling.
Heeling
Devlatloll:'l wltio
constlllll!st.
090'
210'
}",1dI
"" .
n",.'.""n •. Dn' n ~ . r n ~'" . n<'n~~ . Dn~~'" • _~nn "". "'nn

.., +r><- "";_6

.0 ,r
Page 127 of 260

" .D (BWd.) ~ r. . . }
-0 -~ " .£

SummaI}' of compass errors and adjustments.

 F...... and-afl arol alhwartshlp magnets QuadrantLal ,phere5 I Fllnclin bar

00 ,.

COMPASS
.. Iy o:J east e,l"fly 00 east Dnlal lon
Deviation
~ no'_rlyoo ~no'"a'tedy 00 E. 00 SF. F. 00 SF.
;> >
,,.,
I
west. w~ . W. 00 SW. W. ooSW. ~ hang. north ~u.\or
~"-
'rom 'rom
Magnet. ",.", andE. 00 NW.
> latitude II" ''''''y

t
(+B 1'fTOI") (·B"rror)

t
W. 00 NW.
(+0 1'fTOI")
(·0 1'fTOI")
"., ~"- '"
."""'" "" ~--""
o ",he...,. OIl ~w...., ~,~
•
No bar In holdef.

I COIlIpas:! or use
Bar fOlWaRl of blnnad ...

~afl~
_. "'
ncrease a."/lOUIlI of bar
''''''''''. ~7'or:':~~"
~amounl,

.~ . Bar all of binnacle.

""'"
;>
l'OO w~'" ""
~.
~ no'

-".
","""Iy
> W. ooE
,,.,
E. 011 S.
. . . ,-",

..
w.oo
E. onE .
W. 00 S.
t
".,
when sa:llng Iowan:! when
~-
,~

-" ~~~
sailing
,~
....-"
Magnet. 001 ",.", blltude II" ''''''y from blltude or ''''''y from

,J, +Cerror)
·C error)
,J,
W. 00 W.
(+E 1'fTOI")
F.oo W.
(-Eenur)
n.~ I .tlon
ch. ng.
with bUl ude
~- '" """" eQlOalor 10
:iOII1b latitude

~~-~'
IIld -
.>toboood I St:IrtJoard
-
.......
aft ~ and .

""
Page 128 of 260

""'~

Mechanics of magnetic compass adjustment.

 COEFFICIENT "A" COEFFICIENT "B" COEFFIENT "C" COEFFICIENT "D" COEFFICIENT "E"
CONSTANT DEVIATION SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION QUADRANTAL DEVIATION QUADRANTAL DEVIATION
COMPASS

VARIATION TYPE

INDUCED MAGNETISM IN H.S.I FORCE "P" FORCE "Q" HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON CAUSED BY INDUCED MAGNETISM
PLACED UNSYMMETIRCAL (PB) - CAUSED BY P , F & A MAGNET OF (PC) - CAUSED BY ATHWARTSHIP COMPONENT (eg. Deck Beams esp in the LIES DIAGONALLY & ALSO CAUSE
RELATIVE TO THE COMPASS. SHIP'S PERMANENT MAGNETISM OF SHIP'S PERMANENT MAGNETISM. accommodation below the compass, BY UNSYMMETRICAL H.S.I LAYING
CAUSE BY (IB) - CAUSED BY INDUCED MAGNETISM (IC) - CAUSED BY INDUCED Deck plating, Fore and Aft members of EITHER ATHWARTSHIP AND FORE
VERTICAL SOFT IRON IN THE FORE AND AFT MAGNETISM BY "Z" the ship's hull) AND AFT.
MAGNETISM
DOES NOT CHANGE WITH THE CHANGES IN LATITUDE (PC) - IS "ZERO" AT THE EQUATOR AND DOES NOT CHANGE WITH THE DOES NOT CHANGE WITH THE
CHANGE IN LATITUDE MINIUM AT EQUATOR MAXIMUM AT THE "POLE" CHANGE IN LATITUDE CHANGE IN LATITUDE
CHANGES SIGN DOES NOT CHANGES EVEN IF TI CHANGES SIGN DOES NOT CHANGE EVEN WHEN CHANGE
HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE.
TAKING MEAN OF DEVIATION ON TAKING MEAN OF DEVIATION ON EAST AND TAKING MEAN OF THE DEVIATION ON "N" AND TAKING MEAN OF DEVIATION ON TAKING MEAN OF DEVIAITON ON
ANY FOUR (EIGHT) POINTS OF THE WEST BY COMPASS AFTER REVERSING THE "S" BY COMPASS AFTER REVERSING THE SIGN "NE,SE,SW & NW" AFTER REVERSING "N,E,S & W" AFTER REVERSING THE
ERROR FOUND WHOLE COMPASS. SIGN OF THE DEVIATION ON WEST OF THE DEVIATION ON "S" THE SIGN OF THE DEVIATION ON "SE" SIGN OF THE DEVIATION OF "E"
& "NW" AND "W".
BY COEF "B" = (Dev "E" - Dev "W") / 2 COEF "C" = (Dev "N" Co. - Dev. "S" Co.) / 2
COEF"D" = (Dev "NE" - "SE" + "SW" COEF "E" = (Dev. "N" - "E" + "S"
- "NW") / 4 "W") / 4
To prevent "Gaussins' Error" - check FOR (PB) - PLACING PERMANENT MAGNET FOR (PC) - PERMANENT MAGNET PLACED COMPENSATED BY THE USE OF SOFT THE SPHERE ARE ROTATED TO SEE
deviation after every alteration of F & A UNDER THE COMPASS BELOW THE COMPASS, ATWARTSHIP IRON SPHERES. WHETHER THE CARD TURNS. THE
course and ship sould be swung FOR (IB) - PLACING THE FLINDERS BARS IN DIRECTION. PERMANENT EFFECT MAY BE
slower F & A DIRECTION OF COMPASS FOR (IC) - CAN BE INGNORED BCZ P&S REMOVED BY HEATING UNTIL THE
CORRECTION STRUCTURE ON THE MERCHANT SHIP ARE THE SPHERES ARE RED HOT.
Present Error and Existing Corrector SAME MOSTLY.
same colour - over correction
diff colour - under correction
"+A" means easterly deviation on all "+B" means E'ly deviation on E'ly courses and "+C" means E'ly deviation on N'ly courses and "+D" means E'ly deviation on NE'ly and "+E" means E'ly deviation on N'ly
course W'ly deviation on W'ly courses W'ly deviation on S'ly courses SW'ly courses and W'ly deviation on and S'ly courses and W'ly deviation
SE'ly and NW'ly courses on E'ly and W'ly courses.
"-A" means westerly deviation on all "-B" means W'ly deviation on E'ly courses and "-C" means W'ly deviation on N'ly courses and
Sign of Error course E'ly deviation on W'ly courses. E'ly deviation on S'ly courses. "-D" means W;ly deviation on NE'ly "-E" means W'ly deviation on N'ly
and SW'ly courses and E'ly deviation and S'ly courses ans E'ly deviation
on SE;ly and NW'ly courses. on E'ly and W'ly courses.

Page 129 of 260

COMPASS

Page 130 of 260

COMPASS

Page 131 of 260

COMPASS

Page 132 of 260

COMPASS

Horizontal Soft Iron

Maximum quadrennial deviation
( Cut fore and aft )
No Dev

Max W'ly Dey Max E'ly Dey

Max E'ly Dey Max W 'ly Dey

No Dev Coefficient +0

No Dev I Cut Athwa rt )

Max E'ly Dey Max Wly Dev

NoDev < :t )f--~-+-W-E----1 t: ( ) NODev

MaxWly Dey Max E'ly Dey

No Dev Coefficie nt -0

Page 133 of 260

COMPASS

Page 134 of 260

COMPASS

Horizontal Diagonal Cut Soft Iron

Maximum quadrennial deviation
(Starboard Bow to Port quarter)
Max E'ly De...

NoDe... NoDe...

NoDe... NoDe...

Max E'ly De... Coefficient +E

(Starboard Bow to Port quarter)

MaxW 'lyDev

NoDev NoDev

Max E'ly Dev <$ ) E

w
E ( $ ) MaxE'IYDeV

NoDev NoDev

Max Wly Dev Coefficient -E

Page 135 of 260

COMPASS

Harmonic analysis of deviation curve

Permanent and induced magnetic effects on compass

Page 136 of 260

COMPASS

COMPASS DEVIATION &

COEFFICIENTS
Designed and prepared by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo

WHY MAGNETIC COMPASS ONBOARD

DOESN’T SHOW MAGNETIC NORTH?

Page 137 of 260 1

COMPASS

SHIP’S MAGNETISM
 The influence of magnetic forces at compass
that cause to deviate from showing g magnetic
g
North are;
i. the induction in vertical
soft iron
ii. The induction in horizontal
soft iron
iii. The three components of
the ship’s permanent magnetic field.
3

SHIP’S MAGNETISM & EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Induction in Horizontal soft iron Induction in Vertical soft iron

Ship’s Permanent Magnetic Field

Page 138 of 260 2

COMPASS

DEVIATION
Deviation: is the angle between the magnetic meridian and
the compass North.

 Deviation is caused by the permanent magnetism of the

ship and induced magnetism namely interaction of the
ship’s metallic structure and electrical systems with the
earth’s magnetic field.

SHIP’S PERMANENT MAGNETISM

Page 139 of 260 3

COMPASS

SHIP’S MAGNETISM & EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

In addition to its permanent magnetism, a ship

acquires induced magnetism amount of which varies
7
as the ship’s heading when placed in the Earth’s
magnetic field known as “the Nine Rods Effect”.

THE NINE RODS

 3 Soft iron rods with effective poles forward and
abaft the compass on ship’s
ship s fore and aft line
a

Page 140 of 260 4

COMPASS

THE NINE RODS

 3 Soft iron rods with effective poles port and
starboard of the compass on athwart ship line

d
9

THE NINE RODS

 3 Soft iron rods with effective poles above and
below the compass on ship’s
ship s fore and aft line

h
g
k

10

Page 141 of 260 5

COMPASS

MAGNETIC COMPASS DEVIATION

Three principal types of deviation caused by the
magnetic
g forces onboard
(i) Constant deviation which is one having the same
sign and value on all courses.
(ii) Semicircular deviation which has the same sign
over only one continuous half of the compass
courses. That is, it has opposite signs on opposite
compass courses.
(iii)Quadrantal deviation which has the same sign
over only one continuous quarter of the compass
courses. That is, it has opposite signs in adjacent
quarters and the same sign on opposite compass
11
points.

MAGNETIC COMPASS DEVIATION

12

Page 142 of 260 6

COMPASS

MAGNETIC COMPASS DEVIATION

Deviation is caused by the magnetic influence of any
p
material near the compass needle.
DEVIATION is HEADING conscious.
Deviation = A + B sin Φ + C cos Φ + D sin 2Φ + E cos 2Φ
(Φ = compass heading)
(A, B, C, D and E are called coefficients.)
Deviation on any particular heading of a ship is due to a
combination of effect from all the coefficients.

13

COEFFICIENT? - symbol multiplying a variable or an

unknown quantity in an algebraic term, as 4 in the term 4x, or x in the term
x(a+b).

 A Coefficient is the maximum deviation caused by one

or more of the ship’s
ship s forces acting at the compass
position.
 It is deviation measured in degrees or radians.

14

Page 143 of 260 7

COMPASS

COEFFICIENTS
 Total deviation can be considered as algebraic sum of
deviations namely coefficient A, B, C, D, and E appears
as the ship’s head changes.
 These coefficients are actually “Fourier series”.

15

Harmonic Analysis

COEFFICIENT “A”
CONSTANT DEVIATION- (SAME ON ALL COURSES)
 The “A
A error”
error is caused by the miscalculation of
azimuths or by physical misalignments rather than
magnetic effects of unsymmetrical arrangements of
horizontal soft iron.

 "+A" means easterly deviation on all courses

 "-A" means westerly deviation on all courses

16

Page 144 of 260 8

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “A”
CONSTANT DEVIATION

-A

E W
17

COEFFICIENT “B”
Coefficient “B” is the maximum semicircular deviation
caused by:
i. The fore and aft component of the ship’s permanent
magnetism (force P).
ii. The induced magnetism in VSI before or abaft the
compass.

 "+B" means E'ly deviation on E'ly courses and W'ly

deviation on W'ly courses
 "-B" means W'ly deviation on E'ly courses and E'ly
deviation on W'ly courses. 18

Page 145 of 260 9

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “B”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

19

COEFFICIENT “B”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

W E
20

Coefficient +B

Page 146 of 260 10

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “B”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

21

COEFFICIENT “B”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

E W
22

Coefficient -B

Page 147 of 260 11

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “C”
Coefficient “C” is the maximum semicircular deviation
caused by:
i. Athwartship component of permanent magnetic
field (force Q).
ii. The induced magnetism in VSI port or starboard of
the compass.

 "+C" means E'ly deviation on N'ly courses and W'ly

deviation on S'ly courses
 "-C" means W'ly deviation on N'ly courses and E'ly
deviation on S'ly courses. 23

COEFFICIENT “C”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

24

Page 148 of 260 12

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “C”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

W
25

Coefficient +C

COEFFICIENT “ -C ”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

26

Page 149 of 260 13

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “-
“-C”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

E
27

Coefficient -C

COEFFICIENT “D”
Coefficient “D” is the maximum quadrantal deviation
caused by:
Induced magnetism in all symmetrical arrangements
of horizontal soft iron.

 "+D" means E'ly deviation on NE'ly & SW’ly courses

and W'ly deviation on SE'ly & NW’ly courses
 "-D" means W'ly deviation on NE'ly & SW’ly courses
and E'ly deviation on SE'ly & NW’ly courses.

28

Page 150 of 260 14

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “D”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

29

COEFFICIENT “D”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

W E

E W
30

Coefficient +D

Page 151 of 260 15

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “-
“-D”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

31

COEFFICIENT “-
“-D”
SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION

E W

W E
32

Coefficient -D

Page 152 of 260 16

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “+D”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

33

COEFFICIENT “-
“-D”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

34

Page 153 of 260 17

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “E”
Coefficient “E” is the maximum quadrantal deviation
caused by:
Induced magnetism in all unsymmetrical
arrangements of horizontal soft iron.

 "+E" means E'ly deviation on N'ly courses and S'ly

courses W’ly deviation on E'ly courses and W'ly courses
 "-E" means W'ly deviation on N'ly courses and S'ly
courses E’ly deviation on E'ly courses and W'ly courses.

(E error of appreciable magnitude is rare.) 35

COEFFICIENT “+E”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

36

Page 154 of 260 18

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “E”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

W W

E 37

Coefficient +E

COEFFICIENT “-
“-E”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

38

Page 155 of 260 19

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “-
“-E”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

E E

W 39

Coefficient -E

COEFFICIENT “E”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

40

Page 156 of 260 20

COMPASS

COEFFICIENT “E”
QUADRANTAL DEVIATION

41

COEFFICIENTS - SUMMARY

A ( constant ) B ( semicircular )

C ( semicircular ) D ( quadrantal )

E ( quadrantal )

42

Page 157 of 260 21

COMPASS

SEMICIRCULAR DEVIATION B & C

 has the same sign over only one continuous half of
the compass courses.

+B +C

-B -C

43
E W
W E E W
W E

QUADRANTAL DEVIATION D & E

 has the same sign over sign over only one continuous
quarter of the compass courses.

+D +E

-D -E

E W
W E E W 44
W W E E
E W W E E W

Page 158 of 260 22

COMPASS

DEVIATION & COEFFICIENTS

45

DEVIATION

46

Page 159 of 260 23

COMPASS

HOW TO FIND THE COEFFICIENTS

By taking 8 deviations at 45 degrees intervals, we can
find the approximate
pp coefficients from these rules:
 A is the mean of the algebraic sum of all the deviations
 B is the mean of deviation at E and the negative of the
deviation at W
 C is the mean of the deviation at N and the negative of
the deviation at S
 D is the mean of the deviations at NE and SW and the
negatives of the deviations at SE and NW
 E is the mean of the deviations at N and S and the
negatives of the deviations at E and W
47

Compass
A B C D E
course
N 2½° W 2½° W 2½° W
NE 1¾° W 1¾° W
E 3½° E 3½° E 3½° W
SE 8° E 8° W
S 5½° E 5½° W 5½° E
SW ¼° W ¼° W
W 2½° W 2½° E 2½° E
NW 2° W 2° E

8) 8
8° E 2) 6
6° E 2) 8
8° W 4) 8
8° W 4) 2
2° E

1° E 3° E 4° W 2° W ½° E
A = +1 B = +3 C=-4 D=-2 E = +½
W E W E 48
E W E W W
E W E E

Page 160 of 260 24

COMPASS

EXERCISE 1
Compute the coefficients, and thence the deviation
on N 50 E when given the following deviations:
deviations:-
Hdg by Compass: N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW
Deviations: 18W, 12W, 3W, 6E, 12E, 18E, 7E, 10W

49

EXERCISE 2
Compute the coefficients, and thence the deviation
on S 30 E when given the following deviations:
deviations:-
Hdg by Compass: N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW
Deviations: 3W, 17E, 20E, 15E, 3E, 10W, 21W, 21W

50

Page 161 of 260 25

COMPASS

EXERCISE 3
 Following bearings were recorded when swinging the
compass. Considering A=0,
A 0, calculate the coefficients B, C,
D, and E. What will be the deviation on course 110° (C).
Hdg by Compass: N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW
True Brgs:075°,075½°,076°,076½°,077°,078°,079°,079½°
Compass Brgs:069°,064°,064°,065°,063°,063½°,071°,077°

51

Compass True Compass

course Brg Brg
Error Var Dev B C D E
N 075 069 6° E 10E 4° W 4° W 4° W
NE 075½ 064 11½° E 10E 1½° E 1½° E
E 076 064 12° E 10E 2° E 2° E 2° W
SE 076½ 065 11½° E 10E 1½° E 1½° W
S 077 063 14° E 10E 4° E 4° W 4° E
SW 078 063½ 14½° E 10E 4½° E 4½° E
W 079 071 8° E 10E 2° W 2° E 2° E
NW 079½ 077 2½° E 10E 7½° W 7½° E

8) 80° E 2) 4° E 2) 8° W 4) 12° E

10° E 2° E 4° W 3° E 0°
B = +2 C=-4 D = +3 E=0

W E W
W E
E W E
52

Page 162 of 260 26

COMPASS

FREE GYROSCOPE

Gyroscope
This gyroscope is designed so that the flywheel and axle are free to point in any direction. Gyroscopes are useful in
navigation because they are “rigid in space;” a spinning gyroscope mounted within a vehicle always points in the same
direction. Thus a gyroscope provides a means to determine a vehicle’s orientation, without relying on visual cues that may
not always be available (in fog or at night, for example).

The word gyroscope was first used by a French scientist, Leon Foucault, in 1852. It is derived
from the Greek words "gyro," meaning revolution, and "skopien," meaning to view.

Gyroscope consists a perfectly balanced wheel arranged to spin symmetrically at high speed
about an axis or axle. The wheel, or rotor, spins about its own axis and, by suspending the
mass in a precisely designed gimbals assembly, the unit is friction less and frees to move in
two planes each at right angles to the plane of spin. There are therefore three axes in which
the gyroscope is free to move as following.
1. the spin axis
2. the horizontal axis
3. the vertical axis.

Gyroscopes have two basic properties: rigidity and precession. Those properties are defined
as follows:

1. Rigidity- The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro wheel tends to remain in a fixed
direction in space if no force is applied to it.
2. Precession- The axis of rotation has a tendency to turn at a right angle to the
direction of an applied force.

1. GYROSCOPIC INERTIA OR RIGIDITY IN SPACE:

A free gyroscope possesses certain inherent properties, one of which is inertia, a

phenomenon that can be directly related to one of the basic laws of motion documented by

Page 1 of 23
Page 163 of 260
COMPASS

Sir Isaac Newton. Newton’s first law of motion states that ‘a body will remain in its state of
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a force is applied to change that state’.
Therefore a spinning mass will remain in its plane of rotation unless acted upon by an
external force.

A gyroscope rotor maintains the direction of its plane of rotation unless an external force of
sufficient amplitude to overcome inertia is applied to alter that direction.

By using the characteristic of gyroscopic inertia and applying the force of gravity to cause
precession, the gyroscope can function as a directional indicator or compass. Briefly, if a
gyroscope is considered mounted at the equator of the earth, with its spinning axis lying in
the east-west plane, the gyro will continue to point along this line as the earth rotates,
because of “rigidity in space.” For the same reason, the east end will rise (in relation to the
earth) although it continues to point the same way in space.

2. PRECESSION
Precession is the term used to describe the movement of the axle of a gyroscope under the
influence of an external force. If a force is applied to the rotor by moving one end of its axle,
the gyroscope will be displaced at an angle of 90° from the applied force.

When a force is applied to change alignment of the spin axis of a gyroscope, the resultant
motion is perpendicular to the direction of the force. This tendency is known as precession.
A force applied to the center of gravity of the gyroscope will move the entire system in the
direction of the force. Only a force that tends to change the axis of rotation produces
precession.

Page 2 of 23
Page 164 of 260
COMPASS

THE EFFECT OF EARTH’S ROTATION ON GYROSCOPE

If a gyroscope is placed at the equator with its spin axis pointing east-west, as the earth
turns on its axis, gyroscopic inertia will tend to keep the plane of rotation constant. To the
observer, it is the gyroscope which is seen to rotate, not the earth. This effect is called the
horizontal earth rate, and is maximum at the equator and zero at the poles. At points
between, it is equal to the cosine of the latitude.

If the gyro is placed at a geographic pole with its spin axis horizontal, it will appear to rotate
about its vertical axis. This is the vertical earth rate. At all points between the equator and
the poles, the gyro appears to turn partly about its horizontal and partly about its vertical
axis, being affected by both horizontal and vertical earth rates. In order to visualize these
effects, remember that the gyro, at whatever latitude it is placed, is remaining aligned in
space while the earth moves beneath it.

View from the South Pole. The earth rotates

once every 24 h carrying the gyro with it.
Gyroscopic inertia causes the gyro to maintain
its plane of rotation with respect to the
celestial reference point.

However, in relation to the surface of the

earth the gyro will tilt.

Page 3 of 23
Page 165 of 260
COMPASS

Figures show that gyro drift will be maximum at the poles and zero at the equator, whilst
gyro tilt is the reciprocal of this. At any intermediate latitude the gyro will suffer from both
drift and tilt with the magnitude of each error being proportional to the sine and cosine of
the latitude, respectively.

GYRO STAR

It should be noted that the earth rotates

from west to east at a rate of 15°/h and
completes one revolution in a ‘sidereal day’
which is equivalent to 23 h 56 min 4 s. The
effect of the earth’s rotation beneath the
gyroscope causes an apparent movement of
the mechanism. This is because the spin axis
of the free gyroscope is fixed by inertia to a
celestial reference (star point- Gyrostar) and
not to a terrestrial reference point.

Page 4 of 23
Page 166 of 260
COMPASS

If the free gyro is sitting at the North Pole, with its spin axis horizontal to the earth’s surface,
an apparent clockwise movement of the gyro occurs. The spin axis remains constant but as
the earth rotates in an anticlockwise direction (viewed from the North Pole) beneath it, the
gyro appears to rotate clockwise at a rate of one revolution for each sidereal day.

The reciprocal effect will occur at the South Pole. This phenomenon is known as gyro drift.
Drift of the north end of the spin axis is to the east in the northern hemisphere and to the
west in the southern hemisphere. There will be no vertical or tilting movement of the spin
axis. Maximum gyro tilt occurs if the mechanism is placed with its spin axis horizontal to the
equator. The spin axis will be stabilized in line with a star point because of inertia. As the
earth rotates the eastern end of the spin axis appears to tilt upwards. Tilt of the north end
of the spin axis is upwards if the north end is to the east of the meridian and downwards if it
is to the west of the meridian. The gyro will appear to execute one complete revolution
about the horizontal axis for each sidereal day. No drift in azimuth occurs when the gyro is
directly over the equator.

The free gyroscope, as detailed so far, is of no practical use for navigation since its rotor axis
is influenced by the earth’s rotation and its movement over the earth’s surface. The
stabilized gyroscopic change in position of longitude along a parallel of latitude requires a
correction for the earth’s rotary motion. Movement in latitude along a meridian of
longitude involves rotation about an axis through the centre of the earth at right angles to
its spin axis. Movement of the mechanism in any direction is simply a combination of the
latitudinal and longitudinal motions. The faster the gyroscope moves the greater the rate of
angular movement of the rotor axle attributable to these factors.

THE CONTROLLED GYROSCOPE

It has been stated that a free gyroscope suffers an apparent movement in both azimuth and
tilt of the rotor axis depending upon its latitudinal location. When fitted to a vessel the
latitude is known and consequently the extent of movement in azimuth and tilt is also
known. It is possible therefore to calculate the necessary force required to produce a
reciprocal action to correct the effect of apparent movement. A force can be applied to the
gyro that will cause both azimuth and tilt precession to occur in opposition to the unwanted
force caused by the gyro’s position on the earth. The amplitude of the reciprocal force must
be exactly that of the force producing the unwanted movement, otherwise over or under
correction will occur. If the negative feedback is correctly applied, the gyro will no longer
seek a celestial point but will be terrestrially stabilized and will assume a fixed attitude.

If the gyro is drifting in azimuth at ‘N’ degrees per hour in an anticlockwise direction, an
upward force sufficient to cause clockwise precession at a rate of ‘–N’ degrees per hour
must be applied vertically to the appropriate end of the rotor axle. The result will be that
the gyro drift is cancelled and the instrument points to a fixed point on earth. Gyro tilt
movement can also be cancelled in a similar way by applying an equal and opposite force
horizontally to the appropriate end of the rotor axle.

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Although the gyro is now stabilized to a terrestrial point it is not suitable for use as a
navigating compass for the following reasons.

• It is not north-seeking. Since the recognized compass datum is north, this factor is
the prime reason why such a gyro is not of use for navigation.
• It is liable to be unstable and will drift if the applied reciprocal forces are not precise.
• A complex system of different reciprocal forces needs to be applied due to continual
changes in latitude.
• Because of precessional forces acting upon it through the friction of the gimbal
bearings, the mechanism is liable to drift. This effect is not constant and is therefore
difficult to compensate for.

THE NORTH-SEEKING GYRO

The gyro spin axis can be made meridian-seeking (maintaining the spin axis parallel to the
earth’s spin axis) by the use of a pendulum acting under the influence of earth gravity. The
pendulum causes a force to act upon the gyro assembly causing it to precess. Precession,
the second fundamental property of a gyroscope, enables the instrument to become north-
seeking. As the pendulum swings towards the centre of gravity, a downward force is applied
to the wheel axle, which causes horizontal precession to occur. This gravitational force
acting downward on the spinner axle causes the compass to precess horizontally and
maintain the axle pointing towards true north.

The two main ways of achieving precessional action due to gravity are to make the gyro spin
axis either bottom or top heavy. Bottom-heavy control and a clockwise rotating gyro spinner
are used by some manufacturers, whereas others favour a top-heavy system with an
anticlockwise rotating spinner.

With bottom-heavy control, tilting upwards of the south end produces a downward force on
the other end, which, for this direction of spinner rotation, produces a precession of the
north end to the west. In a top-heavy control system, tilting upwards of the north end of the
gyro produces a downward force on the south end to causes a westerly precession of the
north end. The result, for each arrangement, will be the same.

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Precession of a controlled gyroscope at the equator

EFFECT OF CONTROL FORCE PLUS DAMPING FORCE

To make the gyro seek north, a system of reservoirs filled with mercury, known as mercury
ballistics, is used to apply a force against the spin axis. The ballistics, usually four in number,
are placed so that their centers of gravity exactly coincide with the CG of the gyroscope.
Precession then causes the spin axis to trace an ellipse, one ellipse taking about 84 minutes
to complete. (This is the period of oscillation of a pendulum with an arm equal to the radius
of the earth.) To dampen this oscillation, the force is applied, not in the vertical plane, but
slightly to the east of the vertical plane. This causes the spin axis to trace a spiral instead of
an ellipse and eventually settle on the meridian pointing north.

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DAMPING

The north end of the gyro spin llxis is Initially pointing at p, which is
above the earth's horizontal and to the east of the meridian. The
~avity control therefore extw'ts I torque TH about the gyro's horizontl'
axis and. It the same time, is arrlnged to exert I torque about the
gyro'. vertical axis. Becl"se of the direction of rotation of the spinner,

P
'E
---- ---./ ~~\
~Io"",

torque TH cauMS the gyro to precess towards the west. Because the
north end of the gyro is ellS! of the meridian, Nrth rotation results in
In upward tilt of the gyro but this movement is damped by the
downward precession th"t is due to tor~e TV. The resultant path
treced by the gyro spin axis is thertrfore Pb 8nd not Pb', as would be
the caM without the damping torque TV- Note that the downward
(dafl1)inq) precession becomes more evident as the north end of the
gyro spin axis apprOllches the meridian. Note also that the minor axis
of the ellipse is decreased by the amount bb'

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COMPASS

As the north end of the gyro spin axis passes west of the meridian.
earth rotation causes a downward tilt of the gyro. This movement is
now in sympathy with the downward precession that is due to torque
TV· Torque TH. however, corttinues t~ precess the gyro westwards so
that the gyro spin axis passes through the tMrth's horizontal at H. at
which point torques TH and TV cease. Note that the major 8xis of the
ellipse is considerably decreased.

Earth rotation continues to tilt the gyro downwards. ;md once the
gyro spin axis is below the sarth's horizo~tal the Qravity control again
exerts torques TH and TV. but this time in an opposite dirACtion.
Torque TH now causes precession sastwards. whilst torQue TV causes
precession upwards and thus damps the downward tilt th-.t is due
to earth rotation. The r8."lIltant movement of the gyro causes the north
end of the gyro spin axis to oass through the mAl'idian at a point that
reduces even more the minor axis of the ellipse.

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COMPASS

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COMPASS

GYRO COMPASS
The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly spinning gyroscope
driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on the mechanical laws governing the
dynamics of rotating bodies. When any object is spinning it tends to keep its axis pointed in
the same direction, and if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds by moving
at right angles to the applied force. The gyrocompass consists of a gimbal-mounted spinning
gyroscope made north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As the Earth rotates
gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis of rotation. The
resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to the applied force causes it to
move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis of rotation. A few hours of operation is usually
sufficient to align the gyrocompass with the Earth's axis. Errors that would be introduced by
changing latitudes as when the submarine is steaming towards the north or south are
eliminated through periodic adjustments to compensating systems within the gyrocompass
by the Navigator. An electrical servo mechanism and dial mechanically connected to the
gyrocompass has the points of the mariner's compass marked on it and indicates the
submarine's true course. Repeaters connected to the servo mechanism are located
throughout the submarine to provide true course information where needed.

A gyrocompass consists of a controlled, north seeking gyroscope. It is a compass that can

find true north by using an electrically powered, fast-spinning gyroscope wheel and
frictional or other forces in order to exploit basic physical laws and the rotation of the Earth.
Gyrocompasses are widely used on ships. Marine gyrocompasses have two main advantages
over magnetic compasses:

• they find true north, i.e., the point of the Earth's rotational axis on the Earth's
surface, as opposed to magnetic north, –an extremely important aspect in
navigation, and
• they are unaffected by external magnetic fields which deflect normal compasses,
such as those created by ferrous metals in a ship's hull.

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COMPASS

A gyrocompass is essentially a gyroscope, a spinning wheel mounted on gimbals so that the

wheel's axis is free to orient itself in any way. When it is spun up to speed with its axis
pointing in some direction other than the celestial pole, due to the law of conservation of
angular momentum, such a wheel will normally maintain its original orientation to a fixed
point in outer space (not to a fixed point on Earth). Since the Earth rotates, it appears to a
stationary observer on Earth that a gyroscope's axis is completing a full rotation once every
24 hours. Such a rotating gyroscope cannot ordinarily be used for marine navigation. The
crucial additional ingredient needed for a gyrocompass to seek out true north is some
mechanism that results in an applied torque whenever the compass's axis is not pointing
north.

One method uses friction to apply the needed torque: the gyroscope in a gyrocompass is
not completely free to reorient itself; if for instance a device connected to the axis is
immersed in a viscous fluid, then that fluid will resist reorientation of the axis. This friction
force caused by the fluid results in a torque acting on the axis, causing the axis to turn in a
direction orthogonal to the torque (that is, to precess) towards the north celestial pole
(approximately toward the North Star). Once the axis points toward the celestial pole, it will
appear to be stationary and won't experience any more frictional forces. This is because
true north is the only direction for which the gyroscope can remain on the surface of the
earth and not be required to change. This axis orientation is considered to be a point of
minimum potential energy.

Another, more practical, method is to use weights to force the axis of the compass to
remain horizontal with respect to the Earth's surface, but otherwise allow it to rotate freely
within that plane. In this case, gravity will apply a torque forcing the compass's axis toward
true north. Because the weights will confine the compass's axis to be horizontal with respect
to the Earth's surface, the axis can never align with the Earth's axis (except on the Equator)
and must realign itself as the Earth rotates. But with respect to the Earth's surface, the
compass will appear to be stationary and pointing along the Earth's surface toward the true
North Pole.

Since the operation of a gyrocompass's automatic north-seeking function depends on the

rotation of the Earth to deflect the compass via gyroscopic precession, it will not orient itself
correctly to true north if the platform it's mounted on is moving very fast in an east to west
direction, thus negating the Earth's rotation.

The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly spinning gyroscope
driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on the mechanical laws governing the
dynamics of rotating bodies. When any object is spinning it tends to keep its axis pointed in
the same direction, and if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds by moving
at right angles to the applied force. The gyrocompass consists of a gimbal-mounted spinning
gyroscope made north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As the Earth rotates
gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis of rotation. The
resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to the applied force causes it to
move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis of rotation. A few hours of operation is usually
sufficient to align the gyrocompass with the Earth's axis.

By using the characteristic of gyroscopic inertia and applying the force of gravity to cause
precession, the gyroscope can function as a directional indicator or compass. Briefly, if a
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COMPASS

gyroscope is considered mounted at the equator of the earth, with its spinning axis lying in
the east-west plane, the gyro will continue to point along this line as the earth rotates,
because of “rigidity in space.” For the same reason, the east end will rise (in relation to the
earth) although it continues to point the same way in space. Attaching a tube partially filled
with mercury to the frame of the gyro assembly in such a way that the tube tilts as the gyro
axle tilts, takes advantage of the effect of gravity about the horizontal axis of the gyro. In
other words, the weight of the mercury on the west or low side applies a force about the
horizontal axis of the gyro. The gyro resists this force and precesses about the vertical axis
toward the meridian. In the gyrocompass the controlling forces are applied automatically in
just the right direction and proportion to cause the gyro axle to seek and hold the true
meridian, that is, to point north and south.

Gyrocompasses are used in naval vessels and merchant fleets all over the world. They are
free from the vagaries of the magnetic compass; they indicate true, geographic north rather
than magnetic north, and they have sufficient directive force to make practicable the
operation of accessory equipment such as course recorders, gyropilots, and repeater
compasses. The marine gyropilot has no gyroscope, but picks up electrically any divergence
from the set course reference supplied by the gyrocompass; these signals are amplified and
applied to the steering engine of the ship to cause the rudder to return the ship to its proper
course.

Unaffected by magnetism and pointing to true north, the gyrocompass is not subject to the
inherent errors of deviation and variation of the magnetic compass. It is equipped with
correction devices for easterly drift resulting from the motion of the earth and for speed
and course errors. In most oceangoing vessels the gyrocompass is connected electrically to a
gyropilot, a device that automatically steers the ship, keeping it on course in accordance
with signals from the gyrocompass.

OPERATION

A gyrocompass is essentially a gyroscope, a spinning wheel mounted on gimbals so that the

wheel's axis is free to orient itself in any way. When it is spun up to speed with its axis
pointing in some direction other than the celestial pole, due to the law of conservation of
angular momentum, such a wheel will normally maintain its original orientation to a fixed
point in outer space (not to a fixed point on Earth). Since the Earth rotates, it appears to a
stationary observer on Earth that a gyroscope's axis is completing a full rotation once every
24 hours. Such a rotating gyroscope cannot ordinarily be used for marine navigation. The
crucial additional ingredient needed for a gyrocompass to seek out true north is some
mechanism that results in an applied torque whenever the compass's axis is not pointing
north.

One method uses friction to apply the needed torque: the gyroscope in a gyrocompass is
not completely free to reorient itself; if for instance a device connected to the axis is
immersed in a viscous fluid, then that fluid will resist reorientation of the axis. This friction
force caused by the fluid results in a torque acting on the axis, causing the axis to turn in a
direction orthogonal to the torque (that is, to precess) towards the north celestial pole
(approximately toward the North Star). Once the axis points toward the celestial pole, it will
appear to be stationary and won't experience any more frictional forces. This is because
true north is the only direction for which the gyroscope can remain on the surface of the
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COMPASS

earth and not be required to change. This axis orientation is considered to be a point of
minimum potential energy.

Another, more practical, method is to use weights to force the axis of the compass to
remain horizontal with respect to the Earth's surface, but otherwise allow it to rotate freely
within that plane. In this case, gravity will apply a torque forcing the compass's axis toward
true north. Because the weights will confine the compass's axis to be horizontal with respect
to the Earth's surface, the axis can never align with the Earth's axis (except on the Equator)
and must realign itself as the Earth rotates. But with respect to the Earth's surface, the
compass will appear to be stationary and pointing along the Earth's surface toward the true
North Pole.

Since the operation of a gyrocompass's automatic north-seeking function depends on the

rotation of the Earth to deflect the compass via gyroscopic precession, it will not orient itself
correctly to true north if the platform it's mounted on is moving very fast in an east to west
direction, thus negating the Earth's rotation.

DAMPING IN AZIMUTH

Attaching a tube partially filled with mercury to the frame of the gyro assembly in such a
way that the tube tilts as the gyro axle tilts, takes advantage of the effect of gravity about
the horizontal axis of the gyro. In other words, the weight of the mercury on the west or low
side applies a force about the horizontal axis of the gyro. The gyro resists this force and
precesses about the vertical axis toward the meridian. In the gyrocompass the controlling
forces are applied automatically in just the right direction and proportion to cause the gyro
axle to seek and hold the true meridian, that is, to point north and south.

It is achieved by introducing a torque in a vertical plane ( about Horizontal Axis ), which

causes a precession opposite to the gravity control precession ( about Vertical Axis ) but out
of phase with it, i.e. with a time delay. The resultant precession in a horizontal plane causes
the axis to overshoot the meridian less each time it crosses it until the gyroscope axis
reaches its settling position.
The Arrangement for Damping in Azimuth Method uses the Gravity Control weight liquid
ballast which placed in main gravity control bottles as usual in former Gravity Control. And
additional bottles of smaller sizes known as Damping Bottles are also fitted. The pipe
connections between the damping bottles are specially designed so that
the liquid flow and imbalance of weight between the north and south damping bottles when
the axis tilts will take place only after the time Lag of about ¼ period of oscillation of the
Gyroscope’s Axis. Damping Bottles also cause a smaller precession effect like gravity control
but action is lag behind.
The control precession is produced by a bottom heavy effect while the damping precession
is produced by a top-heavy effect. The resulting precessions would therefore
be in opposite directions. It is done when the control precession is directed away from the
meridian.

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COMPASS

GYRO COMPASS REPEATER

SENSITIVE ELEMENT

A gyro must be mounted so that it has 3 degrees of freedom. This is accomplished in the
Gyro-Compass as described in the following paragraphs.

The gyro wheel is mounted on ball bearings in a case so that the wheel is free to turn about
its SPINNING AXIS. See figure 1. Since the axle of the gyro aligns itself with the meridian we
may speak of the north end and the south end of the axle. Carrying this terminology further,
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COMPASS

we refer to the north and south ends of the gyro rotor case, and the east and west sides of
the case.
The case is provided with studs aligned horizontally on the east and west sides. These studs
rest in bearings in the vertical ring. Refer to figure 2. This provides the gyro and ease with
freedom about the HORIZONTAL AXIS.

Figure 2 Sensitive Element

7 Vertical Ring
8 Compensator Weight
10 Rotor Case
14 Suspension
15 Compensator Weight Frame
17 Case Level
18 Rotor Bearing Housing Plate
21 Horizontal Case Bearing
22 Oil Well Window
23 Follow-up Transformer Armature
24 Armature Bracket
25 Upper and Lower Vertical Ring Guide Bearing Studs
26 3 phase AC Gyro Supply

The vertical ring is provided with ball bearings aligned in the vertical axis of the Compass.
This provides the gyro with freedom about the VERTICAL AXIS. The vertical bearings referred
to do not actually support the vertical ring and hence they are called the (upper and lower)
guide bearings. The actual weight of vertical ring, case and gyro is borne by a group of wires
called a suspension. The reason for this is discussed under PHANTOM ELEMENT.

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COMPASS

From above paragraphs, it can be seen that the gyro is mounted with the necessary 3
degrees of freedom. The gyro wheel, its case, the vertical ring and the suspension constitute
the north-seeking assembly of the Compass and are collectively known as the sensitive
element.

Because the sensitive element is the north-seeking part of the Compass, it must be kept as
free as possible from disturbing forces. The whole Compass is mounted in its binnacle on a
gimbal system so that it may hang undisturbed by the rolling and pitching motion of the
ship. Due to any number of causes the Compass might start swinging on its gimbal supports
and thus be subjected to a disturbing force called the "pendulum effect". This effect arises
from the fact that any weight swinging back and forth as a Pendulum will turn so as to align
its longest axis in the plane of the swing. In order to give the sensitive element the effect of
a sphere so that it has no "longest axis" and thus not be subjected to the disturbing
pendulum effect, certain weights are added to the vertical ring. These weights are called
COMPENSATOR WEIGHTS (see figure 2). They are accurately positioned on assembly at the
factory and from the above it can be seen that THE SETTING OF THE COMPENSATOR
WEIGHTS MUST NOT BE DISTURBED.

PHANTOM ELEMENT

As explained in the preceding, the sensitive element is the north-seeking element of the
Compass. For this reason it must be mounted so as to be free to turn about a vertical axis in
order that the gyro axle may align itself with the meridian. The mounting must also be
arranged so that the sensitive element will not be carried away from the meridian as the
ship turns beneath it. Any bearing friction, while the sensitive element turns (with respect to
the binnacle) about a vertical axis, would cause a
disturbance of the Compass. A practically
frictionless method of mounting the sensitive
element must be used. The method employed in
the Sperry Gyro-Compass is explained in the
following paragraphs.

It has already been said that the suspension

supports the sensitive element. The top of the
suspension is secured to the top of the phantom
element (refer to figure 3). As the sensitive
element is turned in azimuth (i.e., about the
vertical axis) it would tend to twist the suspension.
However, the phantom element is also arranged
so that it can turn about the vertical axis and, by
means of the follow-up system, is made to follow
every movement of the sensitive element. This
system of support supplies a practically frictionless
mounting of the sensitive element. The manner in
which the phantom is made to follow the sensitive
element is described under FOLLOW-UP SYSTEM.

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COMPASS

Since the phantom element is kept accurately aligned with the sensitive element, the
former provides a convenient place to mount the compass card. Reference to figure 3 shows
the location of the compass card, at the top of the phantom stem.

The phantom element, which consists primarily of a ring attached to a tubular piece called a
stem, is supported by the spider element (figure 5). Ball bearings, called stem bearings, keep
the 2 elements aligned and permit the former to turn freely with respect to the latter. The
phantom is supported from the hub of the spider on a roller thrust bearing.

MERCURY BALLISTIC

The mercury ballistic (figure 4) is sometimes referred to as the control element.

The ballistic is suspended on horizontal studs

fitted into ball bearings in the phantom ring
and is attached to a bearing on the bottom of
the gyro case by means of an arm called the
link arm. The bearing referred to is called the
link bearing and is offset .170" to the east of
the vertical axis of the case. See Appendix for
a discussion of the principle involved.

As shown in figure 4, the 2 reservoirs in the

east side of the mercury ballistic are
interconnected by stainless steel tubes. The
west pair is similarly connected. Each pair of
reservoirs contains 8 ounces of mercury.

The mercury ballistic is designed to be non-pendulous with respect to the horizontal axis.
(Refer to para. 37 in the Appendix.) The balance weights are mounted on studs on the
reservoir covers. Care must be taken not to alter or interchange these weights.

SPIDER ELEMENT

The spider element (see figure 5) is mounted on the gimbal system of the binnacle on
athwartship trunnions. It carries (a) the azimuth motor which drives the phantom element
to follow the sensitive element (see FOLLOW-UP PANEL), (b) the transmitters for operating
the repeater compasses (see TRANSMISSION SYSTEM), (c) the speed and latitude corrector,
and (d) the lubber ring.

The spider consists of a main frame, designed to bear the weight of the phantom and
sensitive elements. The construction of the frame maybe seen in figure 5. A detachable
lubber ring is carried on the rim of the spider frame. This ring carries an adjustable lubber
line plate which is engraved with a lubber line against which the compass card is read. The
correctors mentioned are mounted on the spider but are connected to the lubber ring so as
to cause the latter to move as required. The corrections in the compass indication, as solved
by the corrector mechanisms, are thus introduced into the Compass by shifting the position

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COMPASS

of the lubber ring. The transmitters for the repeater system, also mounted on the lubber
ring, introduce the compass correction into the repeater compasses automatically.

Figure 5 Spider Element

1 Speed and Latitude Corrector

5 Transmitter
6 Trunnion Bearing
12 Azimuth Motor
43 Azimuth Motor Large Gear
44 Stem Slip Ring Brushes
45 Lubber Ring
57 Speed and Lat. Corrector Setting
Knob
58 Auxillary Lat. Corrector Setting
Knob
60 Cosine Cam Arm

The speed and latitude corrector (figure 5) is designed to compensate both the Master
Compass and the repeater compass for the speed and latitude error. The correction for
speed and latitude error could be set into the compass periodically, except that it varies as
the cosine of the course and inversely as the cosine of the latitude. Therefore, some means
of inserting a correction automatically for all changes in course must be used. A groove
called the cosine cam is cut into the bottom of the azimuth gear on the phantom element.
This cam is designed to move the corrector mechanism the proper amount to correct the
compass readings for all changes in course. Changes of speed ( over 3 knots) and latitude
(over 3°) are set in manually. The corrector mechanism is shown schematically in figure 6.
Roller 59 rides in the cosine cam which is cut into the lower side of the azimuth gear. As the
Compass turns in azimuth, the cam causes arm 60 to move. Arm 60 constitutes a bell crank
which moves arm 62 about adjustable pivot 63. This motion is imparted in turn to arm 64
through pivot 65. Arm 64 moves a pivoted block 66 which is attached to lubber ring 45. Thus
the lubber ring is caused to move, as the ship changes course in a given latitude. It can be
seen, from a study of figure 6, that for a given movement of arm 60, the amplitude of the
resulting movement of the lubber line is determined by the position of pivot 63. The
position of pivot 63 is a function of ship's speed and latitude. This position is determined by
means of a latitude scale which moves across a plate engraved with speed curves as knob 57
is turned.

It will be noted that pivot 66, which shifts the lubber ring, is mounted on a block which may
be translated by means of knob 58. This arrangement permits the correction for the tangent
latitude error to be superimposed on the speed correction. An auxiliary latitude scale
enables this correction to be set in accurately.

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COMPASS

BINNACLE

The binnacle supports and provides a protective housing for the Compass. It is provided
with a gimbal system within which the Compass is suspended so that the Compass may hang
vertically regardless of the ship's motion, within limits of 60° roll and 20° pitch.

To prevent violent swinging of the Compass when the ship is in heavy weather, dampers are
provided on the gimbal system. See page 16 for description and maintenance.

The entire Compass is shock-mounted in the binnacle to absorb ship vibration. This is done
to protect the Compass, moving parts from excessive wear which might result from undue
vibration.

The sides of the binnacle open on hinges to provide convenient access to the Compass. The
top may be removed when necessary.

Two lamps, connected in parallel, are provided in the binnacle for illumination. A switch and
terminals are provided also in the binnacle to connect the lamps to the lighting system of
the Compass compartment.

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COMPASS

FIGURE 7
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW THE REPEATER COMPASSES ARE OPERATED FROM THE MASTER COMPASS

The repeater compass consists of a small d-c step-by-step motor mounted in a casing. The
motor drives a compass card which is read against a lubber line secured to the casing.

A lamp for illuminating the repeater card is mounted under the repeater motor. The
repeater bottom cover may be removed for access to the lamp. A dimmer switch for
controlling the brilliancy of the repeater will be found in the repeater stand.

Figure 7 shows the electrical connections between transmitter and repeater. The leads
marked "Supply Line" are connected to a 70-volt d-c source: The 70-volt supply is obtained
by reducing the ship's 115-volt d-c supply by means of a carbon pile regulator or a series
resistor (see circuit diagram in Control Panel instruction book). If the ship's supply is 220
volts, the 70-volt supply is obtained from a d-c generator which is incorporated in the
compass (220 V.) motor-generator set.

Lead 4 (figure 7) carries the positive leg of the circuit to the transmitter when the circuit
breaker and repeater switches are closed on the compass panel. At the transmitter the
positive leg is directed to lead 1, 2 or 3 depending on the position of the roller carriage. The
circuit then passes back to the panel, through the repeater switch to the correspondingly
numbered coils on the repeater motor. The return to the panel is made through lead 5
which is connected through a fuse and the repeater switch to the common return for the
various compass circuits.

Resistors for loading the transmitter, and condensers for quenching sparking as the roller
carriage passes from segment to segment, are connected in the circuit at the compass
binnacle terminal block. See circuit diagram in the Control Panel instruction book.

FOLLOW-UP SYSTEM

The Gyro-Compass employs the a-c amplifier type of follow-up control. The amplifier panel
used is external to the Compass and is described in detail in a separate pamphlet entitled
"Amplifier Panel". For convenience, the operation will be described briefly here.

A follow-up transformer is mounted on phantom element (figure 3) so as to be normally

aligned with an armature carried by the sensitive element. The transformer has 3 legs; the
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COMPASS

center leg is energized from one phase of the 210 cycle supply to the gyro motor, while the
2 outer legs are connected to the vacuum tube amplifier in such a way that when the
transformer and armature are aligned, there is no signal to the amplifier. When the sensitive
element moves away from the phantom element, the signal to the amplifier corresponds in
direction and amount to the direction and amount of such movement.

The amplifier augments the input signal so as to control 2 rectifier tubes, which energize the
azimuth motor armature. Since the field of this motor is continuously excited from the d-c
supply, the motor drives the phantom element so as to bring the transformer again
opposite the armature on the sensitive element. Then the input to the amplifier ceases and
the motor stops.

Because of the sensitivity of the follow-up control, in actual operation the phantom element
never becomes more than slightly displaced from the vertical ring, and upon being so
displaced is instantly brought back into alignment.

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COMPASS

ERROR

The gyrocompass can be subject to certain errors. These include steaming error, where
rapid changes in course, speed and latitude cause deviation before the gyro can adjust itself.
On most modern ships the GPS or other navigational aids feed data to the gyrocompass
allowing a small computer to apply a correction. Alternatively a design based on an
orthogonal triad of fibre optic or ring laser gyroscopes will eliminate these errors, as they
depend upon no mechanical parts, instead using the principles of optical path difference to
determine rate of rotation.

Although the gyrocompass is a very accurate instrument, it normally has a small error
associated with its readings (normally less than 1̊ is accepted).

Like the magnetic compass, this gyro error is expressed as degrees east or west (or low or
high).

To remember how to correct the gyro error, two memory aids are commonly used:

1) “Gyro is best, error is west. Gyro is least, error is east.”

2) Gyro + East = True (G.E.T.)

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COMPASS

FINDING GYROCOMPASS ERROR

1. Celestial Methods (Amplitude & Azimuth)

2. Observing bearing to charted object(s) while at known location(s). Transit Bearings
3. Comparing ship’s Heading and bearing from chart while made fast at pierside
4. Trial and error adjustment of three or more simultaneous LOPs.
5. Compare to gyrocompass of known error.

Transit Bearing of charted objects from seaward

PROCEDURES FOR GYROCOMPASS FAILURE

a) As soon as detected change over to hand steering and steer by standard compass
b) Inform the Master and also advise duty engineer to send for Electrical Engineer
c) Check compass error book and calculate compass error for present course
d) If Radar is in use change to head up mode because Gyro heading is not usable
e) Bear in mind that all navigation instruments using Gyro heading will need attention
as necessary.

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COMPASS

GYROCOMPASS ADVANTAGES
1. Seeks geographic (true) north instead of magnetic north.
2. Can be used near the earth’s magnetic poles, where magnetic compass is useless.
3. Unaffected by surrounding material.
4. Signal can be fed to other systems such as INS, Radar & ARPA, Inmarsat, AIS,
automatic steering (AutoPilot)

GYROCOMPASS DISADVANTAGES
1. Intricate electronic instrument.
2. Requires a constant source of electrical power and
3. is sensitive to power fluctuations.
4. Requires periodic maintenance by qualified technicians.

A SOUTH ELEVATION SECTIONAL VIEW OF A SPERRY GYRO COMPASS

KEY
1. Stepper transmitter
2. Support ball bearings
3. Ballistic pots
4.Rotor (encased)
5.Rotor case
6. Damping weight
7. Suspension wire
8. Cover
9.Compass card
10.Slip rings
11. Main support frame
12. Phantom ring support assembly
13. Follow-up primary transformer
14. Follow-up secondary transformer
15. Follow-up amplifier
16. Latitude corrector
17. Spring/shock absorber assembly

Page 23 of 23
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COMPASS

OOW Course

COMPASS

OOW Course
GYROCompass

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1
COMPASS

OOW Course
GYROCompass

OOW Course
GYROCompass

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2
COMPASS

OOW Course
GYROCompass

OOW Course
GYROCompass

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GYROCompass

A GYRO COMPASS AND REPEATERS (SOLAS V-

V-19)
All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall,
 2.5.1
2 5 1 a gyro-compass, or other
th means, tto determine
d t i andd di
display
l
their heading by shipborne nonmagnetic means, being clearly
readable by the helmsman at the main steering position. These
means shall also transmit heading information for input to the
equipment referred in paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.4 and 2.5.5;
 2.5.2 a gyro-compass heading repeater, or other means, to supply
headingg information visuallyy at the emergency
g y steering g position
p
if provided;
 2.5.3 a gyro-compass bearing repeater, or other means, to take
bearings, over an arc of the horizon of 360°, using the gyro-
compass or other means referred to in subparagraph .1. However,
ships of less than 1,600 gross tonnage shall be fitted with such
means as far as possible;

EFFECT OF ROTATING BODY

What is “Gyro Effect”?

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COMPASS

FREE GYROSCOPE

A gyroscope consists of a rotor mounted in frictionless

gimbal rings that spin freely about an axis.

FREE GYROSCOPE

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COMPASS

FREE GYROSCOPE

Rotor

WHAT IS A GYROSCOPE?
The word
gyroscope was first
useddb by a F
French
h
scientist, Leon
Foucault, in 1852.
It is derived
from the Greek
words "gyro,"
gyro,
meaning
revolution, and
"skopien," meaning
to view.

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COMPASS

WHAT IS A GYROSCOPE?
Gyroscope consists a perfectly balanced wheel
arranged to spin symmetrically at high speed about
an axis.
i The
Th wheel,
h l or rotor,
t spins
i about
b t its
it own axisi
and, by suspending the mass in a precisely designed
gimbals assembly, the unit is made friction less and
free to move in two planes each at right angles to the
plane of spin. There are therefore three axes in which
the gyroscope is free to move.
1. the spin axis
2. the horizontal axis
3. the vertical axis.

GYRO PROPERTIES

Gyroscopes have two basic properties: rigidity

and precession. Those properties are defined as
follows:
1. RIGIDITY
The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro
wheel tends to remain in a fixed direction in
space if no force is applied to it.
2. PRECESSION
The axis of rotation has a tendency to turn at a
right angle to the direction of an applied force.

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COMPASS

GYROSCOPIC INERTIA - RIGIDITY IN SPACE

The rotor will maintain its

spin axis direction regardless
of the orientation of the outer
frame. The Gyro axis will
remains pointed at a fixed
direction in space no matter
how it move.

Frictionless
F i ti l for f 3 Degrees
D off ffreedom:
d
1. Spinning Axis
2. Vertical Axis
3. Horizontal Axis

FREE GYROSCOPE – RIGIDITY IN SPACE

The gyro spin axis is stabilized irrespective of any

movement of the supporting gimbals.

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PRECESSION

Due to precession the gyro will turn 90° in direction

to applied force (torque).

PRECESSION

Precession is the term used to describe the movement of the

axle of a gyroscope under the influence of an external force. If a
force is applied to the rotor by moving one end of its axle, the
gyroscope will be displaced at an angle of 90° from the applied
force.

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PRECESSION

Precession is a change in
the orientation of the
rotation axis of a
rotating body. It can be
defined as a change in
direction of the rotation
axis in which nutation is
constant.

SPINNING BODY

Reaction arrows
about the output
axis (blue)
correspond to
forces applied
about the input
axis (green), and
vice versa.

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THREE AXES OF GYROSCOPE

PRECESSION OF GYROSCOPE

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OOW Course
GYROCompass

Gyro precession shown as a vector sum of the applied

forces and the momentum

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Precession P
Force F

Resulting precession P occurs at 90° in the direction of spin from the

applied force F.

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GYROCompass

Precession P
Force F

Resulting precession P occurs at 90° in the direction of spin from the

applied force F.

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GYROCompass

Result Precession – Horizontal force

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GYROCompass

Result Precession – Horizontal force

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GYROCompass

Result Precession – Vertical force

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GYROCompass

Result Precession – Vertical force

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GYROCompass

Right-hand rule for determining direction of precession.

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GYROCompass

The direction of axis rotation will attempt to align itself with

the direction of the axis of the applied torque.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

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GYROCompass

Effect of Earth’s Rotation

DRIFT & TILT

OOW Course
GYROCompass

DRIFT & TILT

Maximum Drift At Pole 15°/hr

Rate of Drift = 15° Sin Lat / hr

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GYROCompass

DRIFT & TILT

Gyro axis pointing north

at Equator remains same.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Effect of earth rotation

on the gyro. View from
the South Pole.

The earth rotates once every 24 hr

carrying the gyro with it. Gyroscopic
inertia causes the gyro to maintain
its plane of rotation with respect to
the celestial reference point.
However, in relation to the surface of
the earth the gyro will tilt.
Maximum Tilt at Equator 15°/hr
Rate of Tilt = 15° Cos Lat / hr

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GYROCompass

Gyro axis remains pointed at a fix direction in space causing

apparently drift and tilt.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Rate of Drift and Tilt

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GYROCompass

Gyro axis pointed to

a fix point in space
causing
i upwardd tilt.
tilt

Effectt off steaming

Eff t i North
N th
& South directions along
meridian on the gyro.
View from the Equator.
Gyro axis parallel to deck

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Gyroscopic inertia causes the

gyro to maintain its plane of
rotation with respect to the
Effect of steaming North celestial reference point.
& South directions along However, in relation to the
meridian on the gyro. surface of the earth the gyro
View from the Equator. will tilt.

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GYROCompass

N S

Apparent movement of Celestial Bodies

OOW Course
GYROCompass

GYRO STAR
A line from the Earth to a distant star is a fixed
direction in space. If the spin axis of a spinning
gyro is pointed at a distant star (also known as
Gyrostar), it will remain pointed at the star as
the Earth turns.

W E

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GYROCompass
FREE GYRO SCOPE IS NOT SUITABLE TO USE IN
GYROCOMPASS BECAUSE OF FOLLOWING REASONS.

 It is not north‐seeking.
north seeking Since the recognized compass datum is
north, this factor is the prime reason why such a gyro is not of
use for navigation.
It is liable to be unstable and will drift if the applied reciprocal
forces are not precise.
A complex
p system
y of different reciprocal
p forces needs to be
applied due to continual changes in latitude.
Because of precessional forces acting upon it through the
friction of the gimbal bearings, the mechanism is liable to drift.
This effect is not constant and is therefore difficult to
compensate for.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

GYROCOMPASS
• Uses north-seeking gyroscope & reads bearing
True.
• The gyro spins at a very high velocity, and its spin
axis remains aligned with terrestrial meridians.
• The gyro spinning at high velocity has three axes:
– spin axis
– torque axis
– precession axis

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GYROCompass

Principle of gravity control

The gygyro spin
p axis can be made meridian-seekingg
(maintaining the spin axis parallel to the earth’s spin axis) by
the use of a pendulum acting under the influence of earth
gravity. The pendulum causes a force to act upon the gyro
assembly causing it to precess. Precession, the second
fundamental property of a gyroscope, enables the instrument
to become north-seeking. As the pendulum swings towards the
centre of gravity, a downward force is applied to the wheel
axle, which causes horizontal precession to occur. This
gravitational force acting downward on the spinner axle
causes the compass to precess horizontally and maintain the
axle pointing towards true north.

PROPERTIES OF ROTATING BODY - GYRO

Vertical torque causes horizontal precession.

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PROPERTIES OF ROTATING BODY - GYRO

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GYROCompass

GRAVITY CONTROL
Gyro axis parallel to
Earth’s surface and
liquid level is equal.
No precession occur.

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GYROCompass

GRAVITY CONTROL

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GYROCompass

GRAVITY CONTROL

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GYROCompass

GRAVITY CONTROL
North end tilt up due to
surface movement of
the Earth.

Gravity causes Gyro axis to precess towards Meridian.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Attaching a tube partially filled with mercury to the frame of the

gyro assembly in such a way that the tube tilts as the gyro axle
tilts, takes advantage of the effect of gravity about the horizontal
axis of the gyro. In other words, the weight of the mercury on the
west or low side applies a force about the horizontal axis of the
gyro The gyro resists this force and precesses about the vertical
gyro.
axis toward the meridian. In the gyrocompass the controlling
forces are applied automatically in just the right direction and
proportion to cause the gyro axle to seek and hold the true
meridian, that is, to point north and south.

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GYROCompass

GRAVITY CONTROL

No precession E’ly precession W’ly precession

OOW Course
GYROCompass

P i i l off gravity
Principle it control
t l
The pendulous weight will always seek the centre of gravity and in so doing will
exert a torque about the gyro horizontal axis. Because of the earth’s rotation and
gyro rigidity, the pendulum will cause the gravity control to move away from the
centre of gravity. The spinner is rotating clockwise, when viewed from the south end,
and therefore, precession, caused by the gravitational force exerted on the spin axis,
will cause the northeast end of the spin axis to move to the east when it is below the
horizontal.

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GYROCompass

P i i l off gravity
Principle it control
t l
The spin axis will always appear to tilt with its north end away from the earth (up)
when to the east of the meridian, and its north end towards the earth (down) when to
the west of the meridian.
A reciprocal action will occur causing the northeast end of the spin axis to precess
towards the west when above the horizontal.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Bottom-heavy control and a clockwise

i rotating
i gyro
spinner are used by some manufacturers, whereas
others favour a top-heavy system with an anti-
clockwise rotating spinner.

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OOW Course
GYROCompass

Gravity control causes

Gyro spin axis to
precess in elliptical path.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

DAMPING EFFECT
The north end of the dampedp
gyrocompass will settle in the
meridian reducing time of
pendulum effect.

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GYROCompass

Settling of Gyro axis after gravity control & damping effect

North seeking is achieved by introducing a torque in a vertical

pplane ( about Horizontal Axis )), which causes a pprecession
opposite to the gravity control precession ( about Vertical Axis )
but out of phase with it, i.e. with a time delay. The resultant
precession in a horizontal plane causes the axis to overshoot the
meridian less each time it crosses it until the gyroscope axis
reaches its settling position. In new Gyrocompass, forces are
calculated and applied electrically.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

The tangential velocity at the earth’s surface

(due to the earth’s rotation) interacts with the
precession and torque axes of the gyro, and
they tend to keep the spin axis aligned with the
terrestrial meridian.
The earth’s tangential velocity is a maximum at
the equator (abt 1035 mph),
mph) and zero at the
poles.
Gyrocompass accuracy becomes doubtful
above about 70o latitude, and most become
useless above about 85o.

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COMPASS

Gyro Schematic Diagram

Gyro Schematic Diagram

LEVEL
CONTROL
AMPLIFIER

AZIMUTH
CONTROL
AMPLIFIER

Control System to seek and find North

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COMPASS

Gyro Schematic Diagram

Vertical Earth Rate

Gyro Schematic Diagram

Ship’s Movement

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Gyro Schematic Diagram

Mass Imbalance

OOW Course
GYROCompass

The gyrocompass itself is usually located well

down inside the interior of the ship.
It is connected to gyrocompass repeaters
throughout the ship.
New ships have two gyrocompasses, with
separate and redundant power supplies

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GYROCompass

Master Gyrocompass

OOW Course
GYROCompass

THE GYROCOMPASS CAN BE DIVIDED

INTO FOLLOWING COMPONENTS
COMPONENTS.

1. Sensitive element
2. Phantom element
3
3. Mercury ballistic
4. Spider element
5. Follow-up system

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COMPASS

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GYROCompass
1. Stepper transmitter;
2. Support ball bearings;
3. Ballistic pots;
4.Rotor (encased);
5.Rotor case;
6. Damping weight;
7. Suspension wire;
8. Cover;
9.Compass card;
10.Slip rings;
11. Main support frame;
12. Phantom ring support assembly
(cutaway);
13. Follow-up primary
transformer;
14. Follow-up secondary
transformer;
15. Follow-up amplifier;
16. Latitude corrector;
17. Spring/shock absorber
assembly.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

SENSITIVE ELEMENT

The sensitive element is the

north-seeking part of the
Compass.
It must be kept as free as
possible from disturbing
forces.
forces

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GYROCompass

SENSITIVE ELEMENT

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GYROCompass

SENSITIVE ELEMENT

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GYROCompass

PHANTOM ELEMENT
As the sensitive element is turned in
azimuth (i.e.,
(i e about the vertical axis)
it would tend to twist the suspension.
However, the phantom element is
also arranged so that it can turn about
the vertical axis and, by means of the
follow-up system, is made to follow
every movement of the sensitive
element.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

MERCURY BALLISTIC

The ballistic is
suspended on
horizontal studs
fitted into ball
bearings in the
phantom ring and
is attached to a
bearing on the
bottom of the gyro
case by means of
an arm called the
link arm.

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GYROCompass

SPIDER ELEMENT
It carries
((a)) the
th azimuth
i th motort which
hi h
drives the phantom element
to follow the sensitive
element,
(b) the transmitters for
operating the repeater
compasses,
compasses
(c) the speed and latitude
corrector, and
(d) the lubber ring.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

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COMPASS

Gyrocompass Advantages
Seeks geographic (true) north instead of
magnetic north.
Can be used near the earth’s magnetic poles,
where magnetic compass is useless.
Unaffected by surrounding material.
Signal can be fed to other systems (INS, Radar
& ARPA, Inmarsat, AIS, automatic steering)

Gyrocompass Disadvantages
Intricate electronic instrument.
Requires a constant source of electrical power
and is sensitive to power fluctuations.
Requires periodic maintenance by qualified
technicians.

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GYROCompass

Bearing

True and Relative Bearings

OOW Course
GYROCompass

Bearing

True and Relative Bearings

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GYROCompass

Gyro Compass Error

The gyrocompass can be subject to certain
errors. These include steaming error, where
rapid changes in course, speed and latitude
cause deviation before the gyro can adjust
itself On most modern ships the GPS or other
itself.
navigational aids feed data to the gyrocompass
allowing a small computer to apply a
correction.

Gyro Compass Error

Although the gyrocompass is a very accurate
instrument, it normally has a small error
associated with its readings. (normally less
than 1o)
Like the magnetic compass,
compass this gyro error is
expressed as degrees east or west ( Low or
High).

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COMPASS

Gyro Compass Error

Gyro Compass Error

To remember how to correct the gyro error, two
memory aids are commonly used:

1) “Gyrocompass is best, error is west.

Gyrocompass is least, error is east.”

2) Gyro + East = True (G.E.T.)

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COMPASS

Applying Gyro Error

Correcting (Gyro Compass to True)
+E / -W
G E T
#1 015 1.0E 016
#2 335 1.0E 336
#3 265 1.0E
1 0E 266

Gyro Compass best = Error West

Gyro Compass least = Error East

Applying Gyro Error

Correcting (Gyro Compass to True)
+E / -W
G E T
#4 015 1.5W 013.5
#5 335 1.5W 333.5
#6 265 1 5W
1.5W 263.5
263 5

Gyro Compass best = Error West

Gyro Compass least = Error East

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COMPASS

Determining Gyro Error

Celestial Methods (Amplitude & Azimuth)
Observing bearing to charted object(s) while at
known location(s). Transit Bearings
Comparing Ship’s Heading and bearing from
chart while made fast at pierside
Trial and error adjustment
j of three or more
simultaneous LOPs.
Compare to gyrocompass of known error.

Gyro Compass Error

Amplitude

Bearing of Celestial body on Horizon

Sine Amplitude = Sine Declination X Secant Latitude

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COMPASS

Gyro Compass Error

1. At DR Position 12° 23’ N 60° 30’ W sunset was observed
by gyro compass as 278.5°. Declination of the sun at sunset
was 8°
8 45
45’N
N. Find the gyro error
error.
If course to steer is 135°T calculate course to steer by gyro
allowing 5° leeway for N’ly strong wind.

2. A transit bearing shown on the chart as 310° T was

observed by gyrocompass as 309°. The vessel’s course was
220°T but
b experienced
i d a strong setting
i to south.
h Calculate
l l new
course to steer by gyro.

Transit bearing

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COMPASS

Gyro Compass Failure

 As soon as detected change over to hand steering and
steer by standard compass
 Inform the Master and also advise duty engineer to
send for Electrical Engineer
 Check compass error book and calculate compass
error for present course
 If Radar is in use change to head up mode because
Gyro heading is not usable
 Bear in mind that all navigation instruments using
Gyro heading will need attention as necessary.

Gyro Compass Associated Equipment

AIS

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COMPASS

Autopilot
Automatic Pilot is a control device that keeps a
shipp steeringg automaticallyy on a ggiven course.
The automatic pilot contains a set of gyroscopes
that provide references for the ship's course.
Sensors detect when the ship deviates from this
course and send signals to the control surfaces
the rudder to take the appropriate action.
action Most
ships cruise on automatic pilot, also called
autopilot, for much of the time at high sea.

OOW Course
GYROCompass

STEERING COLUMN-
COLUMN- AUTOPILOT

NFU Steering

Mode Switches

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COMPASS

Autopilot

Non-Follow up lever

Autopilot

Rudder rate and sensitivity

control switches inside

Mode Switch
Gyro-Hand-NFU
System Switch
No.1 - Off - No.2 Weather
Switch

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COMPASS

OOW Course
GYROCompass

STEERING COLUMN-
COLUMN- AUTOPILOT

High Technology Today

Page 237 of 260

49
COMPASS

Fiber Optic Gyro Compass

Solid state electronic gyrocompass

OOW Course
GYROCompass

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS

Whereas the conventional magnetic compass has been a standard navigational and
steering instrument for hundreds of years, the fluxgate compass was not invented until
1982 (by KVH Industries).The basic fluxgate compass is a simple electromagnetic device
that employs two or more small coils of wire around a core of highly permeable
magnetic material, to directly sense the direction of the horizontal component of the
earth's magnetic field. The advantages of this mechanism over a magnetic compass are
that the reading is in electronic form and can be digitised and transmitted easily,
displayed remotely, and used by an electronic autopilot for course correction.

The typical fluxgate magnetometer consists of a "sense" (secondary) coil surrounding an

inner "drive" (primary) coil that is wound around permeable core material. Each sensor
has magnetic core elements that can be viewed as two carefully matched halves. An
alternating current is applied to the drive winding, which drives the core into plus and
minus saturation. The instantaneous drive current in each core half is driven in opposite

Page 239 of 260

COMPASS

polarity with respect to any external magnetic field. In the absence of any external
magnetic field, the flux in one core half cancels that in the other and the total flux seen
by the sense coil is zero. If an external magnetic field is now applied, it will, at a given
instance in time, aid the flux in one core half and oppose flux in the other. This causes a
net flux imbalance between the halves, so that they no longer cancel one another.
Current pulses are now induced in the sense winding on every drive current phase
reversal (or at the 2nd, and all even harmonics). This results in a signal that is dependent
on both the external field magnitude and polarity.
The basic flux gate consists of two thin wires of mumetal or permalloy, each contained
in a glass tube around which is wound a coil. Two such assemblies are used. They are
mounted side by side and parallel to each other. The two coils are connected in series so
that their magnetic fields are in opposition when a low frequency a.c. (typically 2 Hz) is
applied. Mumetal is used for the wire cores because of its property of magnetically
saturating at very low levels of magnetic flux. (Mumetal magnetically saturates at a field
strength of approximately 8 ampere turns per metre compared to 250 000 ampere turns
per metre for steel wire.) A secondary coil, wound around the whole assembly, provides
a mutually induced e.m.f. as the output voltage.

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To avoid inaccuracies created by the vertical component of the field, the fluxgate array
must be kept as flat as possible by mounting it on gimbals or using a fluid suspension
system. All the same, inertial errors are inevitable when the vessel is turning sharply or
being tossed about by rough seas. To ensure directional readings that are adequately
stable, marine fluxgate compasses always incorporate either fluid or electronic
damping. An alternative is to use a 3-axis fluxgate magnetometer to provide a 3D flux
vector, and the magnetic heading is derived from the flux on a plane perpendicular to
gravity, thus providing immunity from pitching, and rolling.

Fluxgate compasses and gyros complement one another nicely. The fluxgate provides a
directional reference that's stable over the long term, apart from changing magnetic
disturbances, and the gyro is accurate over the short-term, even against acceleration
and heeling effects. At high latitudes, where the Earth's magnetic field dips downward
toward the magnetic poles, the gyro data can be used to correct for roll-induced
heading errors in the fluxgate output. It can also be used to correct for the roll and heel-
induced errors that often plague fluxgate compasses installed on steel vessels.
Many fluxgate compasses are equipped with rate gyros (stabilizer), an accessory.
Whereas the basic fluxgate provides a directional reference that's stable over the long
term, the rate gyro adds short-term corrections for acceleration and roll-induced
heading errors, improving compass performance and accuracy. Despite this, some
fluxgate compasses are afflicted with inertial errors under extreme conditions, such as
when the vessel is turning sharply or being tossed about by rough seas.

The fluxgate compass is indeed a magnetic compass -- but it’s an electro-magnetic

compass. The typical fluxgate is a simple device that employs a microprocessor and two
small donut shaped coils of wire around two bars of a ferrite alloy such as iron and
nickel. These components, enclosed in a plastic housing, represent the sensing unit.
Applying a signal to one wire will result in a voltage in the other wire. The signal
undergoes a phase shift due to the Earth's magnetic field; the phase shift is indicative of
the coil angle relative to the magnetic North Pole, and the result is displayed digitally as
the orientation of the compass.

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In other words, when charged with electricity, the wire coils sense the horizontal
component of the Earth's magnetic field, and they sense angular changes in the field as
the compass moves with the ship.
So instead of a round marked card that moves within its binnacle - - the familiar face of
a traditional magnetic compass - - the fluxgate compass uses a stationary electronic
sensor mounted below deck on the boat’s longitudinal axis (or parallel to it), preferably
near the pitch/roll center of the vessel. The sensor detects minute changes in electrical
voltage caused by a deflection of its North/South orientation.

ADVANTAGES OF A FLUXGATE COMPASS

The advantages of this mechanism over a standard magnetic compass are that the
fluxgate system senses changes in the ship’s heading instantly, computes the digitized
heading data instantly as it changes, and displays the changing data at multiple on-
board locations instantly using repeaters. A “real time” display of this sort is a great aid
for racing sailors when beating to weather, primed for the next lift or header. The
digitized fluxgate compass headings can also be fed to other on-board instruments, such
as autopilots for accurate steering adjustments as the boat’s heading changes. The
fluxgate digital data output is usually NMEA standard, compatible with virtually any
onboard navigation, radar, autopilot, or plotting system.

SWINGING THE SHIP (i.e., calibrating the fluxgate)

Compared to compensating the standard or conventional magnetic steering compass,
compensating the fluxgate compass is a breeze.
Calibrating the compass, or “swinging the ship,” should be performed upon initial
installation, and from time to time thereafter if you suspect the compass may no longer
be accurate. Calibration takes only a few minutes.
Best results are obtained in calm water, at a speed of 1-2 knots, where there is no other
marine traffic in the area. First, power up all the ship’s electronics, including the
autopilot. Then turn the ship (manually, using the wheel) slowly in a wide circle. The
360-degree turn should be completed in about 2-3 minutes. Make this turn at least once
to correct gross errors, then once or twice more to correct subtle errors. While turning,
the fluxgate will read the difference between the Earth’s constant magnetic pull and the
magnetic forces on board. The fluxgate software will automatically correct for these
deviation errors.
Next, to confirm accuracy, drive the boat slowly along a specific known course, such as a
navigation range between two fixed objects. The fluxgate compass display of your
heading should align with the known heading as indicated on a chart, chart-plotter, or
GPS receiver. If there’s a discrepancy, use the data entry keys on the fluxgate to enter
corrections (usually, no more than a few degrees plus or minus). To verify accuracy, ride
the reciprocal range. It should be remembered to allow for leeway, if any, in doing this,
due to current or wind.

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ADVANTAGES OF FLUXGATE COMPASS

The advantages of this mechanism over a standard magnetic compass are that:

1. the fluxgate system senses changes in the ship’s heading instantly,

2. computes the digitized heading data instantly as it changes, and
3. displays the changing data at multiple on-board locations instantly using
repeaters

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF FLUXGATE COMPASS

1. Fluxgate compass is a carefully engineered and highly sensitive electro-magnetic

mechanism, it requires diligence and attention if it is to perform well.
2. Fluxgate compass sensor should be mounted in an area where stray magnetic
fields, such as those generated by electric motors and iron engine blocks, are at a
minimum.
3. fluxgate compass requires a reliable source of power
4. transient voltage drops in the power supply may cause the fluxgate to reset

The electronic compasses such as the digital flux gate magnetic compass and the ring
laser gyrocompass have the following advantages:

1. Solid state electronics, no moving parts

2. Operation at very low power
3. Easy backup power from independent sources
4. Standardized digital output
5. Zero friction, drift, or wear
6. Compact, lightweight, and inexpensive
7. Rapid start-up and self-alignment
8. Low sensitivity to vibration, shock, and temperature changes
9. Self-correcting

The Flux Gate Compass

The most widely used sensor for digital compasses is the flux-gate magnetometer,
developed around 1928. Initially it was used for detecting submarines, for geophysical
prospecting, and airborne mapping of earth’s magnetic fields.
The most common type, called the second harmonic device, incorporates two coils, a
primary and a secondary, both wrapped around a single highly permeable ferromagnetic
core. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the core’s magnetic induction
changes. A signal applied to the primary winding causes the core to oscillate.
The secondary winding emits a signal that is induced through the core from the primary
winding. This induced signal is affected by changes in the permeability of the core and

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appears as an amplitude variation in the output of the sensing coil. The signal is then
demodulated with a phase sensitive detector and filtered to retrieve the magnetic field
value. After being converted to a standardized digital format, the data can be output to
numerous remote devices, including steering compasses, bearing compasses,
emergency steering stations, and autopilots.
Since the influence of a ship’s inherent magnetism is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance to the compass, it is logical that if the compass could be located
at some distance from the ship, the influence of the ship’s magnetic field could be
greatly reduced. One advantage of the flux gate compass is that the sensor can be
located remotely from the readout device, allowing it to be placed at a position as far as
possible from the hull and its contents, such as high up on a mast, the ideal place on
most vessels.
A further advantage is that the digital signal can be processed mathematically, and
algorithms written which can correct for observed deviation once the deviation table
has been determined. Further, the “table,” in digital format, can be found by merely
steering the vessel in a full circle.
Algorithms then determine and apply corrections that effectively flatten the usual sine
wave pattern of deviation.
The theoretical result is zero observed compass deviation. Should there be an index
error (which has the effect of skewing the entire sine wave below or above the zero
degree axis of the deviation curve) this can be corrected with an index correction
applied to all the readings. This problem is largely confined to asymmetric installations
such as aircraft carriers. Similarly, a correction for variation can be applied, and with GPS
input (so the system knows where it is with respect to the isogonic map) the variation
correction can be applied automatically, thus rendering the output in true degrees,
corrected for both deviation and variation.
It is important to remember that a flux gate compass is still a magnetic compass, and
that it will be influenced by large changes to the ship’s magnetic field. Compensation
should be accomplished after every such change.
Fortunately, as noted, compensation involves merely steering the vessel in a circle in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Flux-gate compasses from different manufacturers share some similar operational

modes. Most of them will have the following:

SET COURSE MODE: A course can be set and “remembered” by the system, which then
provides the helmsman a graphic steering aid, enabling him to see if the ship’s head is
right or left of the set course, as if on a digital “highway.” Normal compass operation
continues in the background.
DISPLAY RESPONSE DAMPING: In this mode, a switch is used to change the rate of
damping and update of the display in response to changes in sea condition and vessel
speed.
AUTO-COMPENSATION: This mode is used to determine the deviation curve for the
vessel as it steams in a complete circle. The system will then automatically compute

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correction factors to apply around the entire compass, resulting in zero deviation at any
given heading.
This should be done after every significant change in the magnetic signature of the ship,
and within 24 hours of entering restricted waters.
CONTINUOUS AUTO-COMPENSATION: This mode, which should normally be turned
OFF in restricted waters and ON at sea, runs the compensation algorithm each time the
ship completes a 360 degree turn in two minutes. A warning will flash on the display in
the OFF mode.
PRE-SET VARIATION: In effect an index correction, pre-set variation allows the
application of magnetic variation to the heading, resulting in a true output (assuming
the unit has been properly compensated and aligned). Since variation changes according
to one’s location on the earth, it must be changed periodically to agree with the charted
variation unless GPS input is provided. The GPS position input is used in an algorithm
which computes the variation for the area and automatically corrects the readout.

Deviation (errors mainly caused by shipboard environment) can be automatically

corrected by swinging the boat over full 360 degrees. Variation (errors subject to
geographical location) can also be automatically corrected when interfaced with a GPS
navigator.

Fiber Optic or Ring Laser Gyro Compass

The ring laser gyrocompass (RLG) operates by measuring laser-generated light waves
traveling around a fiber-optic ring. A beam splitter divides a beam of light into two
counter-rotating waves, which then travel around the fiber-optic ring in opposite
directions. The beams are then recombined and sent to an output detector. In the
absence of rotation, the path lengths will be the same and the beams will recombine in
phase. If the device has rotated, there will be a difference in the length of the paths of
the two beams, resulting in a detectable phase difference in the combined signal. The
signal will vary in amplitude depending on the amount of the phase shift. The amplitude
is thus a measurement of the phase shift, and consequently, the rotation rate. This
signal is processed into a digital readout in degrees. This readout, being digital, can then
be sent to a variety of devices which need heading information, such as helm, autopilot,
and electronic chart systems.

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A single ring laser gyroscope can be used to provide a one-dimensional rotational

reference, exactly what a compass needs. The usefulness of ring laser gyrocompasses
stems from that fact that they share many of the same characteristics of flux gate
compasses. They are compact, light, inexpensive, accurate, dependable, and robust. The
ring laser device is also quite immune to magnetic influences which would send a
traditional compass spinning hopelessly, and might adversely affect even the remotely
mounted flux gate compass.
Ring laser gyroscopes can also serve as the stable elements in an inertial guidance
system, using three gyros to represent the three degrees of freedom, thus providing
both directional and position information. The principle of operation is the same as for
mechanical inertial navigation devices, in that a single gyro can measure any rotation
about its own axis. This implies that its orientation in space about its own axis will be
known at all times. Three gyros arranged along three axes each at 90 degrees to the
others can measure accelerations in three dimensional space, and thus track movement
over time.
Inertial navigation systems based on ring lasers have been used in aircraft for a number
of years, and are becoming increasingly common in maritime applications.
Uses include navigation, radar and fire control systems, precise weapons stabilization,
and stabilization of directional sensors such as satellite antennas.

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OOW COURSE
ELECTRONIC
COMPASSES

ELECTRONIC COMPASSES
Presently there are two kind of Electronic Compasses:
 Fluxgate Compass

 Ring Laser Gyrocompass

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS
LIMITATION OF MAGNETIC COMPASS

 The magnetic compass has serious limitations,

y that of being
chiefly g unable to isolate the
earth’s magnetic field from all others close
enough to influence it.
 It also indicates magnetic north, whereas the
mariner is most interested in true north.
 Most of the work involved with compensating
a traditional magnetic compass involves
neutralizing magnetic influences other than
the earth’s, a complicated and inexact process
often involving more art than science.
 Residual error is almost always present even
after compensation. 4

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS

LIMITATION OF GYRO COMPASS

 It is a large, expensive, heavy, sensitive

device that must be mounted according to
rather strict limitations.
 It requires a stable and uninterrupted
supply of electrical power;
 it is sensitive to shock, vibration, and
environmental changes; and
 it needs several hours to settle after being
turned on. 5

FLUXGATE COMPASS
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC COMPASSES

 Solid state electronics, no moving parts

 Operation at very low power
 Easy backup power from independent sources
 Standardized digital output (usually NMEA standard)
 Zero friction, drift, or wear
 Compact,
p , lightweight,
g g , and inexpensive
p
 Rapid start-up and self-alignment
 Low sensitivity to vibration, shock, and temperature
changes 6

 Self-correcting

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS

 The fluxgate compass is indeed a magnetic

compass ‐‐ but it it’ss an electro‐magnetic
electro magnetic compass.
compass
The typical fluxgate is a simple device that employs
a microprocessor and two small donut shaped coils
of wire around two bars of a ferrite alloy such as
iron and nickel. These components, enclosed in a
plastic housing,
p g, represent
p the sensingg unit.

FLUXGATE COMPASS

 Applying a signal to one wire will result in a voltage

in the other wire.
wire The signal undergoes a phase shift
due to the Earth's magnetic field; the phase shift is
indicative of the coil angle relative to the magnetic
North Pole, and the result is displayed digitally as
the orientation of the compass.

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS

 Inother words, when charged with electricity, the

wire coils sense the horizontal component of the
Earth's magnetic field, and they sense angular
changes in the field as the compass moves with the
ship.

FLUXGATE COMPASS
FLUXGATE ELEMENT

10

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS
FLUXGATE PRINCIPLE – SINGLE AXIS

11

FLUXGATE COMPASS
Transmitting Magnetic Compass TMC

12

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS
DUAL AXIS FLUXGATE

13

FLUXGATE COMPASS
FLUXGATE SENSOR

14

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS
FLUXGATE SENSOR

15

FLUXGATE COMPASS

 So instead of a round marked card that moves

within its binnacle ‐ ‐ the familiar face of a
traditional magnetic compass ‐ ‐ the fluxgate
compass uses a stationary electronic sensor
mounted below deck on the ship’s longitudinal
axis (or parallel to it), preferably near the
pitch/roll
p / center of the vessel. The sensor
detects minute changes in electrical voltage
caused by a deflection of its North/South
orientation.
16

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS
FLUXGATE SENSOR

17

FLUXGATE COMPASS

 Becausea fluxgate compass is a carefully

engineered and highly sensitive electro-
electro
magnetic mechanism, it requires diligence
and attention if it is to perform well on
ships.

18

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS

 For example, the fluxgate compass sensor

should be mounted in an area where stray
magnetic fields, such as those generated
by electric motors and iron engine blocks,
are at a minimum.
 The sensor should be absolutely clear of
electrical interference.
interference That means no
cables - - other than its own - - in close
proximity to the sensing unit.
19

FLUXGATE COMPASS

20

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COMPASS

FLUXGATE COMPASS

21

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

22

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COMPASS

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

23

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

Using carefully aligned mirrors, two laser
beams travel around a closed circuit (or “ring”)
in opposite directions until they meet at a
special detector. If the vessel in which the gyro
is mounted is stationary, the two beams will
arrive at the sensor simultaneously and with no
difference in the laser frequency. But if the
vessel is turning, there will be a shift in
frequency caused by the resultant differences in
travel time around the ring.

24

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COMPASS

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

The Ring Laser Gyrocompass (RLG) operates
by measuring laser-generated light waves
traveling around a fiber
fiber-optic
optic ring.
A beam splitter divides a beam of light into two
counter-rotating waves, which then travel
around the fiber-optic ring in opposite
directions.
The beams are then recombined and sent to an
output detector.

25

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

In the absence of rotation, the path lengths will
be the same and the beams will recombine in
phase. If the device has rotated, there will be a
difference in the length of the paths of the two
beams, resulting in a detectable phase
difference in the combined signal.

26

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COMPASS

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

The signal will vary in amplitude depending on
the amount of the phase shift. The amplitude
is thus a measurement of the phase shift,
shift and
consequently, the rotation rate
rate. This signal is
processed into a digital readout in degrees.
This readout, being digital, can then be sent to
a variety of devices which need heading
information,, such as helm,, autopilot,
p , and
electronic chart systems.

Page 260 of 260 14