Database Concepts & Architecture

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Introduction; Database System Concepts and Architecture

Introduction to Database System Concepts and Architecture:

A database is a structured collection of data that is organized and stored in a way that allows for
efficient retrieval, updating, and management. Database systems play a crucial role in various
applications and industries, providing a systematic way to store, organize, and retrieve information.
Understanding the concepts and architecture of a database system is essential for designing,
implementing, and maintaining robust and efficient databases.

Key Concepts:

1. Data:

Data is raw facts and figures that are collected and stored. It can be as simple as a
single piece of information or as complex as a multimedia file.
Databases organize and structure data to make it meaningful and useful.
2. Database Management System (DBMS):

A DBMS is software that facilitates the creation, maintenance, and use of databases.
It provides an interface for users and applications to interact with the database,
ensuring data integrity, security, and efficient management.
3. Database Model:

A database model defines the logical structure of a database and how data is stored,
organized, and manipulated.
Common models include the relational model, hierarchical model, network model, and
object-oriented model.
4. Relational Database:

In a relational database, data is organized into tables with rows and columns.
Relationships between tables are established using keys, providing a flexible and
scalable structure.
5. SQL (Structured Query Language):

SQL is a standardized language used to interact with relational databases.

It allows users to perform operations like querying, updating, inserting, and deleting
data in a database.

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Database Architecture:

1. Three-tier Architecture:

Presentation Tier: The user interface where users interact with the system.
Application (or Business Logic) Tier: Contains the logic for processing user requests
and managing the application's business rules.
Data Tier: The database itself, where data is stored and managed.
2. Components of a Database System:

Storage Manager: Responsible for storing, retrieving, and managing data efficiently on
storage devices.
Query Processor: Translates SQL queries into a series of low-level instructions for the
storage manager.
Transaction Manager: Ensures the consistency and integrity of the database by
managing transactions.
3. ACID Properties:

Transactions in a database system adhere to ACID properties - Atomicity, Consistency,

Isolation, and Durability - ensuring reliable and secure data transactions.
4. Data Independence:

Database systems provide a level of abstraction, allowing changes to the database

structure without affecting the applications using the data.

Understanding these concepts and the architecture of a database system is crucial for database
designers, administrators, and developers to create and maintain effective and reliable databases
that meet the needs of their applications and users.

Data Modeling using the Entity-Relationship Model

Data modeling using the Entity-Relationship (ER) model is a crucial step in designing a database.
The ER model is a graphical representation that helps to identify and define the relationships
between various entities within a system. It provides a clear and visual way to understand the
structure of the data and how different entities are connected. Here are the key components and
steps involved in data modeling using the Entity-Relationship model:

1. Entities:

Entities represent real-world objects or concepts that have data to be stored in the database.
Examples of entities include "Customer," "Product," or "Employee."
Each entity is typically represented by a rectangle in the ER diagram.

2. Attributes:

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 Attributes are properties or characteristics of entities. They describe the data that can be
associated with an entity.
For example, a "Customer" entity might have attributes such as "CustomerID," "Name," and
"Email."

3. Relationships:

Relationships define connections or associations between two or more entities. They

describe how entities are related to each other.
Relationships are represented by diamond shapes connecting related entities in the ER
diagram.
Cardinality and participation constraints specify how many instances of one entity are related
to instances of another entity.

4. Cardinality:

Cardinality expresses the number of instances of one entity that can be associated with the
number of instances of another entity.
Common cardinality notations include "1" (one), "0..1" (zero or one), "0..n" (zero to many),
"1..n" (one to many).

5. Primary Key:

A primary key uniquely identifies each instance of an entity. It is a crucial concept in the ER
model for ensuring the uniqueness of records.
Primary keys are often underlined in the ER diagram.

6. Foreign Key:

A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key of another table. It establishes
a link between two tables and is used to represent relationships.
Foreign keys are important for maintaining referential integrity in the database.

Steps in Data Modeling using ER Model:

1. Identify Entities:

Identify and list all the entities that need to be represented in the database.
2. Define Attributes:

For each entity, define the attributes that describe the data associated with that entity.
3. Identify Relationships:

Identify and define relationships between different entities. Determine the nature of
these relationships (one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many).

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 4. Determine Cardinality:

Establish the cardinality of each relationship to specify how many instances of one
entity are related to instances of another entity.
5. Define Primary and Foreign Keys:

Designate primary keys for each entity to ensure uniqueness. Identify foreign keys to
establish relationships between entities.
6. Create the ER Diagram:

Use graphical representation to create the ER diagram, including entities, attributes,

relationships, and cardinality.
7. Refine and Normalize:

Refine the model based on feedback and normalize it to eliminate redundancy and
ensure efficient data storage.
8. Document Constraints:

Document any additional constraints or rules that need to be enforced in the database.

Data modeling using the Entity-Relationship model provides a visual and structured approach to
designing databases, helping database designers and developers create a blueprint for the
database system that accurately reflects the real-world relationships and constraints.

The Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) model

The Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) model is an extension of the original Entity-Relationship

(ER) model that incorporates additional concepts and features to represent more complex
relationships, constraints, and data modeling scenarios. The EER model enhances the
expressiveness and flexibility of the ER model, making it suitable for a wider range of database
design situations. Here are some key features of the Enhanced Entity-Relationship model:

1. Subtypes and Supertypes:

In the EER model, entities can be organized into hierarchies using the concepts of
subtypes and supertypes.
A supertype is a generalized entity that represents a higher-level abstraction, while
subtypes are entities that inherit attributes from the supertype.
This allows for a more abstract representation of entities with shared characteristics.

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 2. Specialization and Generalization:

Specialization involves defining subtypes based on some distinguishing characteristics

or attributes.
Generalization is the reverse process, combining multiple subtypes into a more
generalized supertype.
Specialization and generalization are used to model hierarchies and represent entities
at different levels of abstraction.
3. Inheritance:

EER supports the concept of inheritance, where subtypes inherit attributes and
relationships from their supertypes.
Inherited attributes and relationships are supplemented with additional attributes and
relationships specific to the subtype.
4. Union Types:

EER allows the modeling of union types, where entities may belong to more than one
subtype simultaneously.
This is useful when an entity can exhibit characteristics of multiple subtypes.
5. Attribute Inheritance:

In addition to inheriting attributes, subtypes in the EER model can also inherit
constraints and methods from their supertypes.
6. Aggregation:

Aggregation is a modeling concept that allows entities to be grouped together to form a

higher-level entity.
It is represented by a diamond shape in the diagram and is useful for modeling
relationships at different levels of granularity.
7. Recursive Relationships:

The EER model supports recursive relationships, where an entity is related to itself.
This is useful in scenarios where entities have relationships with other instances of the
same entity.
8. Multi-valued Attributes:

Multi-valued attributes, representing attributes that can have multiple values for a single
entity, are explicitly supported in the EER model.
9. Constraints and Specialization/Generalization Hierarchies:

Constraints, such as disjoint or overlapping constraints for specialization/generalization

hierarchies, can be explicitly defined in the EER model.
10. Role Names:

Role names can be assigned to relationships to provide a clearer understanding of the

nature of the relationship between entities.

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The EER model is particularly beneficial when dealing with complex data modeling scenarios,
especially in scenarios where entities have multiple levels of abstraction or inherit properties from
each other. It allows for a more accurate and detailed representation of the real-world relationships
and constraints in a database system.

The Relational Data Model and Relational Database Constraints

The Relational Data Model is a conceptual model for representing data in a structured and
organized manner using tables (relations). This model, proposed by Edgar Codd in 1970, forms
the foundation for relational database management systems (RDBMS), which are widely used for
data storage and retrieval. The Relational Data Model is based on the following key components:

1. Tables (Relations):

In the relational data model, data is organized into tables, also known as relations.
Each table consists of rows and columns.
A table represents a specific entity or concept in the real world.
2. Rows (Tuples):

Each row in a table, also known as a tuple, represents a specific instance of the entity
being modeled.
Rows contain the actual data and are identified by a unique key called the primary key.
3. Columns (Attributes):

Columns, also known as attributes, represent the properties or characteristics of the

entity.
Each column stores a specific type of data, such as integers, strings, dates, etc.
4. Primary Key:

A primary key is a unique identifier for each row in a table. It ensures that each row can
be uniquely identified.
Primary keys can consist of one or more columns.
5. Foreign Key:

A foreign key is a column or a set of columns in a table that refers to the primary key of
another table. It establishes a link between tables.
Foreign keys are used to represent relationships between tables.

Relational Database Constraints:

Constraints in a relational database are rules that define the allowable relationships and operations
on data. They help maintain data integrity and consistency. The key relational database constraints
include:

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 1. Primary Key Constraint:

Ensures that each row in a table can be uniquely identified. It prevents duplicate and
null values in the primary key column(s).
2. Unique Constraint:

Ensures that values in a specified column or set of columns are unique across all rows
in a table. It allows for null values but ensures uniqueness for non-null values.
3. Foreign Key Constraint:

Ensures referential integrity by defining a relationship between two tables. The foreign
key in one table must match the primary key in another table.
4. Check Constraint:

Specifies a condition that must be true for each row in a table. It restricts the values
that can be inserted or updated in a column based on a logical expression.
5. Not Null Constraint:

Ensures that a column does not contain null values. It requires each value in the
column to be populated with meaningful data.
6. Default Constraint:

Assigns a default value to a column if no value is explicitly provided during an insert

operation.
7. Referential Actions:

Specifies actions to be taken when a referenced row in the parent table is modified or
deleted. Common actions include CASCADE, SET NULL, SET DEFAULT, and NO
ACTION.
8. Entity Integrity:

Ensures that each table has a primary key, and no part of the primary key can be null.
9. Domain Constraints:

Enforces constraints on the data types and values that can be stored in a column.

These constraints collectively help maintain the consistency and accuracy of data in a relational
database, ensuring that data conforms to the specified rules and relationships. They play a crucial
role in preventing data anomalies and preserving the integrity of the database.

ER/EER to Relational Model mapping

Mapping an Entity-Relationship (ER) or Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) model to a relational

model involves translating the conceptual design, represented graphically in ER or EER diagrams,
into a set of relational tables. The process typically involves identifying entities, relationships,

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attributes, and constraints and mapping them to tables, columns, and keys in the relational model.
Here are the general steps for mapping ER/EER models to a relational model:

1. Identify Entities:

Each entity in the ER/EER model becomes a table in the relational model.
Include all attributes of the entity as columns in the table.
The primary key of the table is determined by the primary key attribute(s) of the entity.

2. Identify Relationships:

Represent relationships as foreign keys in the tables corresponding to the related entities.
For binary relationships, the foreign key is placed in the table corresponding to the entity on
the "many" side of the relationship.

3. Handle Composite and Multivalued Attributes:

Represent composite attributes as separate columns in the table.

For multivalued attributes, create a new table with a foreign key referencing the primary key
of the entity to which the multivalued attribute belongs.

4. Handle Subtypes and Supertypes:

For each subtype, create a table that includes attributes specific to that subtype.
Include the primary key of the supertype as a foreign key in each subtype table.
If there is a total specialization, use a single table with attributes for all subtypes and a
discriminant column indicating the subtype.

5. Handle Aggregation:

If an aggregation exists in the ER/EER model, create a table for the aggregate entity.
Include foreign keys referencing the tables corresponding to the aggregated entities.

6. Handle Weak Entities:

Create a table for the weak entity and include the primary key of the owning strong entity as
part of the weak entity's primary key.
Include attributes of the weak entity in the table.

7. Translate Cardinalities:
For one-to-many relationships, the foreign key is placed on the "many" side.
For many-to-many relationships, create a separate table (associative table) with foreign keys
referencing the related entities.

8. Handle Specialization/Generalization:

Represent each entity in the specialization hierarchy as a separate table.

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 Include attributes specific to each entity in their respective tables.
If a total specialization, use a single table for all entities in the hierarchy.

9. Establish Integrity Constraints:

Define primary keys and foreign keys based on the relationships identified.
Enforce entity integrity, referential integrity, and other constraints using primary key, foreign
key, unique, and check constraints.

10. Normalize Tables:

Apply normalization techniques to ensure that the tables are in a normalized form, reducing
redundancy and improving data integrity.

11. Document the Relational Schema:

Clearly document the resulting relational schema, including tables, columns, keys, and
relationships.

The mapping process may involve some trade-offs and considerations based on specific
requirements and constraints. It's important to carefully analyze the structure and relationships in
the ER/EER model to produce an effective relational model that meets the needs of the database
system.

Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus

Relational algebra and relational calculus are two formal query languages used in relational
database management systems (RDBMS) for manipulating and retrieving data from relational
databases.

1. Relational Algebra:

Definition: Relational algebra is a procedural query language that defines a set of operations to
manipulate relations (tables) to obtain desired information.

Operations in Relational Algebra:

1. Selection (σ):

Selects rows from a relation that satisfy a given condition.

Syntax: σ_condition(Relation)
2. Projection (π):

Selects specific columns from a relation.

Syntax: π_{column1, column2, ...}(Relation)

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 3. Union (∪):

Combines two relations to produce a new relation containing all unique rows from both.
Syntax: Relation₁ ∪ Relation₂
4. Intersection (∩):

Returns a relation containing only the rows common to two relations.

Syntax: Relation₁ ∩ Relation₂
5. Difference (-):

Produces a relation containing rows from the first relation that are not present in the
second relation.
Syntax: Relation₁ - Relation₂
6. Cartesian Product (×):

Combines all rows from the first relation with all rows from the second relation.
Syntax: Relation₁ × Relation₂
7. Join (⨝):

Combines rows from two relations based on a common attribute.

Syntax: Relation₁ ⨝_condition Relation₂

Example: Suppose we have two relations, Students and Courses, the join operation could be
expressed as: Students⨝Students.StudentID = Courses.StudentID​Courses

2. Relational Calculus:

Definition: Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language that defines what data to
retrieve rather than how to retrieve it. It provides a declarative way to express queries.

Types of Relational Calculus:

1. Tuple Relational Calculus:

Specifies the desired information by identifying the tuples that satisfy the given
condition.
Uses variables and a formula to express the condition.
Example: {t∣tinRsuch thatt.Age>21}
2. Domain Relational Calculus:

Specifies the desired information by identifying the values for which a condition holds.
Uses variables and a formula to express the condition.
Example: {t.A∣tinRsuch thatt.Age>21}

Key Differences:

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 Relational algebra is procedural, specifying a sequence of operations to obtain the result,
while relational calculus is declarative, specifying what information is desired without
specifying how to retrieve it.
Relational algebra operations produce relations as output, while relational calculus
expressions describe the desired result without explicitly specifying the operations.

Example: For the same scenario, in tuple relational calculus, the expression could be written as:
{t∣tin Studentsandtin Coursesandt.StudentID=t.StudentIDandt.Age>21}

Both relational algebra and relational calculus are used in practice, and database systems typically
use relational algebra internally to process queries expressed in relational calculus or SQL
(Structured Query Language). The choice between them often depends on the specific
requirements and preferences of the user or the database system.

SQL-99: Schema definition, Constraints, Queries, and Views; Security; Introduction to SQL
programming Techniques

SQL-99 (Structured Query Language 1999) is a standard for relational database management
systems (RDBMS) that defines the syntax and semantics of SQL. It introduces several features
and improvements over earlier SQL standards. Below are key aspects of SQL-99, including
schema definition, constraints, queries, views, security, and programming techniques:

1. Schema Definition:

Creating a Table:

sql

CREATE TABLE TableName (

Column1 DataType1,
Column2 DataType2,
...
CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (Column1),
CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE (Column2),
...
);

2. Constraints:

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Primary Key Constraint:

sql

CREATE TABLE TableName (

ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(255)
);

Foreign Key Constraint:

sql

CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID INT PRIMARY KEY,
CustomerID INT,
FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES Customers(CustomerID)
);

Unique Constraint:

sql

CREATE TABLE TableName (

Email VARCHAR(255) UNIQUE,
...
);

3. Queries:

Basic SELECT Statement:

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 sql

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name

SQL-99: Schema definition

In SQL-99, the schema definition involves creating and managing the structure of database
objects, primarily tables. The CREATE TABLE statement is used for this purpose. Below is an
example of how you can define a table with various data types and constraints:

sql

CREATE TABLE Employees (

EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
BirthDate DATE,
DepartmentID INT,
CONSTRAINT FK_Department FOREIGN KEY (DepartmentID) REFERENCES
Departments(DepartmentID)
);

In this example:

Employees is the name of the table.

EmployeeID is an integer column and the primary key of the table.
FirstName and LastName are variable character columns (strings) for storing the first and last
names of employees.
Email is a unique column, ensuring that each email address is unique within the table.
BirthDate is a column for storing the birthdate of employees.
DepartmentID is a foreign key column, referencing the primary key of the Departments table.

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 The CONSTRAINT clause is used to define constraints, such as the primary key, unique, and
foreign key constraints.

You can customize the schema definition based on the specific requirements of your database
design. Additionally, SQL-99 introduced several other features, including support for domains,
user-defined types, and the ability to define check constraints directly within the CREATE TABLE
statement. The exact syntax may vary slightly depending on the specific RDBMS you are using
(e.g., MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server).

Constraints

Constraints in SQL are rules that define certain conditions and restrictions on the data that can be
stored in a database. They help ensure data integrity, enforce business rules, and maintain the
accuracy and consistency of the database. Here are some common constraints used in SQL:

1. Primary Key Constraint:

Ensures that each row in a table can be uniquely identified by a specific column or set of
columns.

The primary key constraint enforces the uniqueness and the non-null property of the
specified column(s).

sql

CREATE TABLE Students (

StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(100),
...
);

2. Unique Constraint:
Ensures that the values in a specific column or set of columns are unique across all rows in a
table.

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 Unlike the primary key constraint, unique constraints can allow null values.

sql

CREATE TABLE Employees (

EmployeeID INT UNIQUE,
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
...
);

3. Foreign Key Constraint:

Establishes a relationship between two tables by referencing the primary key of one table in
another table.

Ensures referential integrity between the related tables.

sql

CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID INT PRIMARY KEY,
CustomerID INT,
FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES Customers(CustomerID)
);

4. Check Constraint:
Defines a condition that must be true for each row in a table.

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 It restricts the values that can be inserted or updated in a column based on a logical
expression.

sql

CREATE TABLE Employees (

Salary DECIMAL(10, 2) CHECK (Salary > 0),
...
);

5. Not Null Constraint:

Ensures that a column does not contain null values.

Requires each value in the column to be populated with meaningful data.

sql

CREATE TABLE Customers (

CustomerID INT NOT NULL,
Name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
...
);

6. Default Constraint:

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 Assigns a default value to a column if no value is explicitly provided during an insert
operation.

sql

CREATE TABLE Products (

ProductID INT PRIMARY KEY,
QuantityInStock INT DEFAULT 0,
...
);

7. Check Constraint (for Date Range):

Ensures that dates fall within a specified range.

sql

CREATE TABLE Events (

EventID INT PRIMARY KEY,
EventDate DATE CHECK (EventDate BETWEEN '2022-01-01' AND '2022-12-31'),
...
);

These constraints collectively help maintain the consistency and integrity of the data in a relational
database, preventing data anomalies and ensuring that the data adheres to the specified rules.

Queries,

Queries in SQL are used to retrieve data from a database. The SELECT statement is the primary
command for querying data. Here are some common SQL queries:

1. Basic SELECT Statement:

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 Retrieves all columns from a table.

sql

SELECT * FROM Employees;

2. SELECT with Specific Columns:

Retrieves specific columns from a table.

sql

SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM Employees;

3. Alias for Columns:

Uses aliases to rename columns in the result set.

sql

SELECT FirstName AS First, LastName AS Last FROM Employees;

4. Filtering Rows with WHERE Clause:

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 Filters rows based on a specified condition.

sql

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate > '2022-01-01';

5. Sorting Results with ORDER BY:

Sorts the result set based on one or more columns.

sql

SELECT ProductName, Price FROM Products ORDER BY Price DESC;

6. Aggregate Functions (e.g., COUNT, SUM, AVG):

Performs calculations on a set of values.

sql

SELECT COUNT(*) AS TotalOrders FROM Orders;

7. GROUP BY Clause:

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 Groups rows based on the values in specified columns.

sql

SELECT DepartmentID, AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY

DepartmentID;

8. HAVING Clause:
Filters the results of a GROUP BY query.

sql

SELECT DepartmentID, AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary FROM Employees GROUP BY

DepartmentID HAVING AVG(Salary) > 50000;

9. JOIN Operations:

Combines rows from two or more tables based on a related column.

sql

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName

FROM Orders
JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;

10. Subqueries:

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 Uses a nested query to retrieve data.

sql

SELECT ProductName, Price

FROM Products
WHERE CategoryID IN (SELECT CategoryID FROM Categories WHERE CategoryName =
'Electronics');

11. LIMIT/OFFSET (or FETCH/FIRST) for Pagination:

Limits the number of rows returned.

sql

SELECT * FROM Customers LIMIT 10 OFFSET 20;

12. UNION Operator:

Combines the result sets of two or more SELECT statements.

sql

SELECT City FROM Customers

UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers;

These examples cover a range of SQL query types. The exact syntax and functionality may vary
depending on the specific relational database management system (RDBMS) being used, as
different databases might have specific features or syntax variations.

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Views; Security

Views:

Views in SQL are virtual tables that are based on the result of a SELECT query. They provide a
way to represent complex queries or subsets of data in a simplified manner. Views can be used for
data abstraction, security, and simplifying complex queries.

1. Creating a View:

sql

CREATE VIEW EmployeeDetails AS

SELECT EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, DepartmentName
FROM Employees
JOIN Departments ON Employees.DepartmentID = Departments.DepartmentID;

2. Querying a View:

sql

SELECT * FROM EmployeeDetails;

3. Updating a View:

Views can be updatable if certain conditions are met, such as the SELECT statement in the view
not using aggregate functions or DISTINCT.

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 sql

CREATE VIEW UpdatableEmployeeDetails AS

SELECT EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName
FROM Employees
WHERE Salary > 50000;

-- This view is updatable, and you can perform updates on the underlying Employees
table through this view.

Security:
Database security involves protecting data and ensuring that only authorized users can access,
modify, or delete it. SQL provides mechanisms to manage security, including user accounts,
privileges, and roles.

1. Creating a User:

sql

CREATE USER 'username'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

2. Granting Privileges:

sql

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON database.table TO 'username'@'localhost';

3. Revoking Privileges:

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 sql

REVOKE INSERT ON database.table FROM 'username'@'localhost';

4. Creating Roles:

sql

CREATE ROLE 'role_name';

5. Granting Privileges to a Role:

sql

GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON database.table TO 'role_name';

6. Assigning Roles to a User:

sql

GRANT 'role_name' TO 'username'@'localhost';

7. Viewing User Privileges:

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 sql

SHOW GRANTS FOR 'username'@'localhost';

8. Revoking a Role:

sql

REVOKE 'role_name' FROM 'username'@'localhost';

9. Setting Passwords:

sql

SET PASSWORD FOR 'username'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('new_password');

10. Audit Logging:

Some database systems provide audit logging features to track and monitor user activities.

Example of Combining Views and Security:

Suppose you have a view that shows sensitive employee information, and you want to restrict
access to it:

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 sql

CREATE VIEW SensitiveEmployeeView AS

SELECT EmployeeID, SocialSecurityNumber, Salary
FROM Employees;

To limit access, you can grant SELECT privileges only to certain users or roles:

sql

-- Granting access to a specific user

GRANT SELECT ON SensitiveEmployeeView TO 'authorized_user'@'localhost';

-- Granting access to a role

CREATE ROLE 'HR';
GRANT SELECT ON SensitiveEmployeeView TO 'HR';

By carefully managing views and assigning appropriate privileges, you can control access to
sensitive information in your database, ensuring security and data integrity.

Introduction to SQL programming Techniques

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a powerful and standardized language used for managing
and manipulating relational databases. SQL programming involves writing queries and statements
to interact with databases. Here's an introduction to SQL programming techniques:

1. Basic SQL Syntax:

SQL statements are written using a specific syntax. Common SQL commands include:

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 SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.

sql

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table WHERE condition;

INSERT: Adds new rows to a table.

sql

INSERT INTO table (column1, column2) VALUES (value1, value2);

UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table.

sql

UPDATE table SET column1 = value1 WHERE condition;

DELETE: Removes rows from a table.

sql

DELETE FROM table WHERE condition;

2. Filtering and Sorting Data:

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Use the WHERE clause to filter data based on specific conditions and the ORDER BY clause to
sort the result set.

sql

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table WHERE condition ORDER BY column1 ASC;

3. Aggregation and Grouping:

Aggregate functions like COUNT, SUM, AVG, MIN, and MAX can be used to perform calculations
on groups of rows.

sql

SELECT department, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department;

4. Joining Tables:

Combine data from multiple tables using JOIN operations.

sql

SELECT employees.name, departments.department_name

FROM employees
JOIN departments ON employees.department_id = departments.department_id;

5. Subqueries:

Use nested queries to retrieve data from one or more tables.

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 sql

SELECT name, salary

FROM employees
WHERE department_id IN (SELECT department_id FROM departments WHERE location = 'New
York');

6. Transactions:
Wrap multiple SQL statements into a transaction to ensure data consistency.

sql

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
-- SQL statements
COMMIT;
-- or ROLLBACK in case of issues

7. Views:
Create virtual tables (views) based on SELECT statements for data abstraction and security.

sql

CREATE VIEW high_salary_employees AS

SELECT name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary > 50000;

8. Stored Procedures:

Reusable set of SQL statements stored in the database.

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 sql

CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployeeDetails(IN empID INT)

BEGIN
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE employee_id = empID;
END;

9. Indexes:
Improve query performance by creating indexes on columns used frequently in WHERE clauses.

sql

CREATE INDEX idx_employee_name ON employees (name);

10. SQL Injection Prevention:

Use parameterized queries to prevent SQL injection attacks.

sql

-- Instead of concatenating values directly

SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = 'admin' AND password = 'password';

-- Use parameterized queries

SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = ? AND password = ?;

11. Database Normalization:

Organize database tables to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity.

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12. Error Handling:
Implement error handling mechanisms to gracefully manage unexpected situations.

sql

BEGIN TRY
-- SQL statements
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
-- Handle errors
END CATCH;

These are fundamental SQL programming techniques. Depending on the database system (e.g.,
MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server), some features and syntax may vary, but the core principles
remain consistent across most relational databases.

Functional dependencies and normalization for relational databases; Relational database design
algorithms and further dependencies.

Functional Dependencies (FDs):

Functional dependencies are constraints that describe the relationships between attributes in a
relational database. They help ensure data integrity and guide the process of normalization. An FD
is denoted as X -> Y, where X and Y are sets of attributes.

1. Full Functional Dependency:

A functional dependency X -> Y is full if removing any attribute from X means the
dependency no longer holds.
2. Partial Functional Dependency:

A functional dependency X -> Y is partial if Y is dependent on a part (a proper subset)

of a candidate key X.
3. Transitive Dependency:

A functional dependency X -> Y is transitive if there is an intermediary set Z such that X

-> Z -> Y.

Normalization for Relational Databases:

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Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and improve
data integrity. Common normal forms include:

1. First Normal Form (1NF):

Eliminate duplicate rows and ensure that each cell contains a single, atomic value.
2. Second Normal Form (2NF):

Meet 1NF requirements and ensure that non-key attributes are fully functionally
dependent on the primary key.
3. Third Normal Form (3NF):

Meet 2NF requirements and ensure that non-key attributes are not transitively
dependent on the primary key.
4. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF):

Meet 3NF requirements and ensure that every determinant is a candidate key.
5. Fourth Normal Form (4NF):

Addresses certain types of multi-valued dependencies.

6. Fifth Normal Form (5NF):

Addresses certain types of join dependencies.

Relational Database Design Algorithms:

1. Decomposition Algorithm:

Decompose relations to achieve a higher normal form.

Steps involve identifying dependencies, choosing a decomposition strategy, and
creating new relations.
2. Synthesis Algorithm:

Construct relations based on functional dependencies.

Combine attributes to create relations that satisfy certain normal forms.
3. Dependency Preservation Algorithm:

Ensure that dependencies are preserved during the decomposition process.

Helps maintain the original set of functional dependencies.

Further Dependencies:

1. Multi-valued Dependencies (MVDs):

Extensions of functional dependencies. Describe relationships between attributes when

there is a multi-valued attribute.

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 2. Join Dependencies (JDs):

Describe dependencies between columns that are part of a join.

3. Functional Dependency Closure:

Calculate the closure of a set of functional dependencies, i.e., the set of all functional
dependencies implied by the given set.
4. Canonical Cover:

Simplifies a set of functional dependencies to its minimal form.

5. Dependency Preservation:

Ensures that functional dependencies are preserved during database design changes.
6. Lossless Join Decomposition:

Ensures that the decomposition of relations does not result in information loss during
joins.

Understanding these concepts is crucial for designing efficient and normalized relational
databases, ensuring data integrity and minimizing redundancy. The normalization process and
algorithms help achieve a database design that meets specific requirements and avoids common
pitfalls.

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