MAT 076: CALCULUS 2

Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Lesson Title: Integration Techniques: Integration by Parts (IBP) Materials:

Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: Textbook, scientific calculator
1. Examine the given integral and recognize if integration by
parts is applicable. References:
2. Apply the IBP technique to evaluate definite and indefinite Differential & Integral Calculus
integrals. by Love & Rainville
Calculus by James Stewart
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

Productivity Tip:

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction
In the previous lessons, you learned the fundamentals of integration and the application of the
Substitution Rule (𝑢 − 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)in evaluating not only the indefinite integrals but the definite
integrals as well. In today’s lesson, you will learn a technique for using the basic rules to obtain the
integrals of more complicated integrands. This technique corresponds to the Product Rule of
differentiation and is called the rule for integration by parts (IBP).
In your study on integration techniques, it is expected that you have already acquired sufficient
knowledge not only on the fundamental rules and formulas but more importantly, on their applications.

B. MAIN LESSON

Integration by parts (IBP) is a technique for integrating products of functions. It is frequently used when
the basic integration rules won’t work or when the function to be evaluated is the product of two simpler
functions. It permits integration of products involving algebraic and transcendental functions such
as𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥,𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥,𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 , and 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 to mention a few.
Now, let us consider the product rule for differentiation and derive from it this important integration
technique.
The product rule for differentiation states that if 𝑢(𝑥) and 𝑣(𝑥)are differentiable functions of 𝑥, then
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢.
A little rearrangement gives
𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣𝑑𝑢.
Integrating both sides of the equation
 udv   d uv    vdu.
Gives us
∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.

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This gives us a technique for integration called INTEGRATION by PARTS (IBP), which allows us to
integrate many products of functions of x. We take one factor in this product to be u while the other
factor is taken to be dv. Note that our aim in using IBP is to obtain a simpler integral than the one we
started with, that is, ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 must be easier to evaluate than∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣. The key point here is having correct
choices in assigning a function as 𝑢 and the differential of another function as𝑑𝑣.
The acronym ILATE (which stands for inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, algebraic, trigonometric, and
exponential expressions) can guide us in giving preferences on what function is to be assigned as 𝑢,
i.e., we have to choose 𝑢according to what function comes first in the acronym. For example, to
evaluate∫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 we prefer to assign the algebraic expression 𝑥as𝑢, and the trigonometric
expression 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 as 𝑑𝑣. We then have 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 so that using the IBP formula∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 =
𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢,
∫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶.

Now, assigning the other way around will make the integral more complicated and the integration
process more difficult.

Let's look at the steps involved when using integration by parts.

1. Choose 𝑢 and 𝑑𝑣 correctly (use the acronym ILATE as guide)
2. Obtain the differential of𝑢, that is,𝑑𝑢, and the integral of 𝑑𝑣, that is, 𝑣.
3. Plug𝑢,𝑣, 𝑑𝑢, 𝑑𝑣 into the integration according to the parts formula ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 =
𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 and simplify.

Let's apply these steps to evaluate∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. We know our two functions are 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 and 1. Since the
derivative of 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 is well-known as 𝑑𝑥/𝑥, it would probably be a good idea to let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥. Similarly, the
integral of 1 is well-known as 𝑥 + 𝐶, where 𝐶 is a constant. Thus, we will let 𝑑𝑣 = 1𝑑𝑥. It's important
to note that we don't include the constants when finding different integrals during the solving process.
This is because the constants that would show up throughout will all be taken care of at the end of the
process when we have our final constant.

𝑑𝑥
Assign 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥. So 𝑑𝑢 = and 𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥

At this point, we've actually completed steps 1 and 2, and we have our 𝑢, 𝑑𝑢, 𝑣, and 𝑑𝑣. All we have to
do now is plug the results into our formula and simplify.

𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑥

∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #1

2
∫ 𝑥 5 √𝑥 3 + 1𝑑𝑥
1

Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 5 ,𝑑𝑢 = 5𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 ,𝑑𝑣 = √𝑥 3 + 1𝑑𝑥

However, as with the previous example this won’t work since we can’t easily compute v. This is not an
easy integral to do. However, notice that if we had an 𝑥 2 in the integral along with the root we could
very easily do the integral with a substitution. Also notice that we do have a lot of 𝑥’𝑠 floating around in
the original integral. So instead of putting all the 𝑥’𝑠 (outside of the root) in the 𝑢, let’s split them up as
follows.
3
2
𝑢 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1𝑑𝑥. So that, 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑣 = (𝑥 3 + 1)2
9
Plugging in to the formula ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
3
2𝑥 3 3 3 2 2
= (𝑥 + 1)2 − ∫ (𝑥 3 + 1) 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
9 9

2𝑥 3 3 3 4 3
= (𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 + 1)5/2 |12
9 45

2(2)3 3 3 4 3 2(1)3 3 4 1
= (2 + 1)2 − (2 + 1)5/2 − [ (1 + 1)3/2 − (1 + 1)5/2 ]
9 45 9 45
1188 2
= − (2)3/2
45 45

132 4√2
= −
5 45

= 𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟑

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #2

∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Assigning u=arctanx , dv=dx , so v=x,

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 =
1+𝑥 2

𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
Now, let u=1+x2 so du=2xdx

𝑑𝑢/2
= 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − ∫
𝑢
𝑑𝑢
= 𝑥𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑𝑢/2
= 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − ∫
𝑢

1
= 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑢 + 𝐶
2
𝟏
= 𝒙 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒍𝒏|𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 | + 𝑪
𝟐

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #3

Find ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥6 𝑥 6 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛𝑥 ( )−∫
6 6 𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥6
𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑢 = and 𝑣 =
𝑥 6

𝑥 6 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 1
= − ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
6 6

𝑥 6 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 1 𝑥6
= − ∙ +𝐶
6 6 6

𝑥 6 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑥 6
= − +𝐶
6 36
𝟔
𝒙 𝟏
= (𝒍𝒏 𝒙 − ) + 𝑪
𝟔 𝟔

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It is possible that a particular integral may require repeated applications of integration by parts. This is
illustrated in the following examples.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM #4

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Assign 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 then 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and let 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , so that 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

Using the Integration by Parts formula,

We use integration by parts a second time to evaluate

Assign 𝑢 = 𝑥 then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥; and let 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 then 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

Substituting into equation 1, we get

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #5

Evaluate: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ,

so 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥

Using the formula ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − ∫ −𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

So, it looks like we’ll do integration by parts again. Here are our choices this time

let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 So, ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 +
[𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

Notice that we now have the same integral on both sides and on the right side it’s got a minus sign in
front of it. This means that we can add the integral to both sides to get,

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 Finally, dividing both sides by 2 and simplifying we

obtain,

𝟏 𝒙
∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆 [𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙] + 𝑪
𝟐

Activity 3: Skill-building Activities

Evaluate the following integrals using IBP:

𝜋 𝜋/4
a) ∫ 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)7 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫𝜋/2 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 c) ∫0 𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡𝑑𝑡

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Activity 5: Check for Understanding

4
Solve the following: 1.) ∫2 𝑦 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2.) ∫ 𝑡𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

FAQs

1. When are you going to use integration by parts (IBP)?

IBP is frequently used when the basic integration rules won’t work or when the function to be evaluated
is the product of two simpler functions.

2. How are we going to derive the integration by parts formula? From the differential of a product
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣𝑑𝑢,
then integrating
 udv   d uv    vdu,
gives us the IBP technique
∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.

3. What are the steps involved when using integration by parts?

Steps involved when using integration by parts:
1. Choose 𝑢 and 𝑑𝑣 correctly (use the acronym ILATE as guide)
2. Obtain the differential of𝑢, that is,𝑑𝑢, and the integral of 𝑑𝑣, that is, 𝑣.
3. Plug𝑢,𝑣, 𝑑𝑢, 𝑑𝑣 into the integration according to the parts formula ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 =
𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 and simplify.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

1 𝜋 √2
Activity #3 a) (16𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)8 + 𝐶 b) 𝜋 − 1 c) + 𝑙𝑛 | | = 0.4388
288 4 2

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
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Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Lesson Title: Techniques of Integration: Integration of Trigonometric Materials:

Integrals Textbook, scientific calculator
Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Transform trigonometric integrals into simpler integrals using References:
trigonometric identities. Differential and Integral Calculus
2. Apply basic rules and formulae in solving integration by Love and Rainville
problems involving powers and products of trigonometric Calculus by James Stewart
functions. https://www.math24.net
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu

Productivity Tip:

Keep studying! Practice, practice & more practice. You can surely do it.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction

You should already know that finding the indefinite integral of a function 𝑓(𝑥) means obtaining
𝑑𝐹
a function 𝐹(𝑥) whose derivative is equal to 𝑓(𝑥), so that, for example, we know that ,
𝑑𝑥

 cos xdx  sin x  C .precisely because 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. Integrals of simple functions, that
𝑑

is, those that can be quickly recognized as the derivatives of other functions, can easily be
obtained in this way.
Trigonometric integrals like  sin xdx and  cos 4 x sin 2 xdx are very important throughout
3

science and engineering specifically, in the field of Fourier analysis. Fourier transform and
trigonometric integrals pave way to Myo-Resonance Imaging (MRI), a very well-known medical
procedure.

In this lesson, you will learn several techniques on how to integrate a variety of powers and
products of trigonometric functions. These integrals are called trigonometric integrals. This
lesson will be built heavily on your knowledge of analytical trigonometry (that is, trigonometric
identities), integration using u-Substitution and integration by parts.

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B. MAIN LESSON

Trigonometric integrals are a family of integrals involving trigonometric functions. These functions are
useful as they describe periodic behaviour such as in sound and light waves, the human heartbeat and
even in satellite systems, to mention a few. Some integrals involving trigonometric functions can be
evaluated by using trigonometric identities. These transformations allow the integrand to be written in
an alternative form which can be integrated readily. Since this topic deals with the evaluation of more
complicated trigonometric integrals, it is expected that you already acquired a fairly good working
knowledge of the basic integration rules/formulas as well as the application of the simple substitute (u-
substitution) rule. In particular, this lesson focuses on integrating powers and products of some
trigonometric functions by transforming them using identities.

Below is a list of trigonometric identities we will be using in this topic.

Trigonometric Identities

A. Pythagorean Identities
1  cos 2 x
1) sin x  cos x  1 1) sin  x    sin x
2 2
1) cos x 
2

2
1  cos 2 x
2) tan x  1  sec x 2) cos x   cos x
2 2
2) sin x 
2

2
3) cot x  1  csc x 3) tan  x    tan x
2 2

B. Double-Angle Identities C. Product Identities

1) sin (2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x) 1) sin A cos B 

1
sin  A  B   sin  A  B 
2
2) cos A cos B  cos A  B   cos A  B 
1
2) cos (2x) = cos2(x) – sin2(x)
2
3) sin A sin B   cos A  B   cos A  B 
1
cos (2x) = 1 – 2 sin2(x)
2
cos (2x) = 2 cos2(x) – 1

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Trigonometric Integrals involving powers of sine and cosine

𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼: ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1. If 𝑚 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, then

Use: sin2 𝑥 = 1 − cos 2 𝑥

and Put 𝑢 = cos 𝑥

2. If 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, then

Use: cos 2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥

and Put 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
 If 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, then use either 1 or 2 process.
But better use process 1.

 Then either you replace 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 with: sin2 𝑥 = 1 − cos 2 𝑥 or cos 2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥
respectively.

3. If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are both 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.

 If 𝑚 = 𝑛, then use:

sin 2𝑥 1 − cos 2𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin2 𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 =
2 2 2

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The method used in each case is shown by the following illustrative examples:

1. ‫ ׬‬sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ ׬‬sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace sin2 𝑥 = 1 − cos 2 𝑥

= ∫(1 − cos 2 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
𝑢3
= − cos 𝑥 + +𝑐 Back-substitute
3
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥
= − cos 𝑥 + +𝑐
3

2. ‫ ׬‬cos 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ ׬‬cos 4 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace cos 2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥

1. If 𝑚 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, then

= ∫(cos 2 𝑥)2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(1 − sin2 𝑥)2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 + sin4 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sin4 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2sin3 𝑥 sin5 𝑥
= sin 𝑥 − + +𝑐
3 5

3. ‫ ׬‬sin3 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ ׬‬sin2 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace sin2 𝑥 = 1 − cos 2 𝑥

= ∫(1 − cos 2 𝑥) cos 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ cos 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 5 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = −sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= − ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢

2. If 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑢4 𝑢6 then

= − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟,
+ +𝑐 Back-substitute
4 6
𝑐𝑜𝑠4 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥
=− + +𝑐
4 6

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𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼: ∫ tan𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ cot𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

where 𝑛 is a 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.

1. If ‫ ׬‬tan𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, then strip 2 tangent out and replace tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1 and put 𝑢 = sec 𝑥

2. If ‫ ׬‬cot 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, then strip 2 cotangent out and replace cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 − 1 and put
𝑢 = csc 𝑥

Illustrative Example: Evaluate the following:

1. ∫ tan4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1

= ∫ tan2 𝑥(sec 2 𝑥 − 1 )𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ tan2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 Replace tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1

= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1 )𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

tan3 𝑥
= − tan 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑐
3

2. ∫ cot 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cot 𝑥 cot 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 − 1

= ∫ cot 𝑥 (csc 2 𝑥 − 1 )𝑑𝑥

= ∫ cot 𝑥 csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − − ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

cos 𝑥
= ∫ cot 𝑥 csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 Replace cot 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Let 𝑢 = cot 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = −csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. And let 𝑣 = sin 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
cot 2 𝑥
=− − ln(sin 𝑥) + 𝐶
2

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𝑛 ∫ csc 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼: ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟

where 𝑛 is a positive 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.

1. If 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, then
→ strip 2 secant out and convert the rest of the secant to tangent
using sec 2 𝑥 = tan2 𝑥 + 1, use 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥.

→ strip 2 cosecant out and convert the rest of the cosecant to cotangent
using csc 2 𝑥 = cot 2 𝑥 + 1, use 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥.

2. If 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑, then
 Let 𝑢 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and use integration by parts: ‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬.
then convert tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1

 Let 𝑢 = csc 𝑛−2 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐sc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and use integration by parts: ‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬.
then convert cot 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 − 1
2

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Perform integration on the following:

1. ∫ sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 + 1

= ∫(tan2 𝑥 + 1 ) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

tan3 𝑥 Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

= + tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
3

2. ∫ 𝑐sc 6 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
=∫ c𝑠𝑐 424𝑥
∫(csc csc2 csc
4𝑥) 2 4𝑥2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 Replace 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 4𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 + 1
= ∫(c𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 + 1)2 csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫(c𝑜𝑡 4 4𝑥 + 2 c𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 + 1)csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ c𝑜𝑡 4 4𝑥 csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ c𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = cot 4𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = −4𝑐sc 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥. And let 𝑣 = 4𝑥 and𝑑𝑣 = 4𝑑𝑥
1 1 1
= − ∫ c𝑜𝑡 4 4𝑥 (−4csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥) + 2 ∙ (− ) ∫ c𝑜𝑡 2 4𝑥 (−4csc 2 4𝑥𝑑𝑥) + ∫ csc 2 4𝑥(4𝑑𝑥)
4 4 4
1 cot 5 𝑥 1 cot 3 𝑥 1 1 1 1
=− ∙ − ∙ − cot 4𝑥 + 𝑐 = − cot 5 4𝑥 − cot 3 4𝑥 − cot 4𝑥 + 𝑐
4 5 2 3 4 20 6 4

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𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑉: ∫ tan𝑚 𝑥 sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 ∫ cot 𝑚 𝑥 csc 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠.

1. If 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, then
→ strip 2 secant out and convert the rest of the secant to tangent using sec 2 𝑥 = tan2 𝑥 + 1,
use 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥.

2. If 𝑚 = odd, then
→ strip one secant out and one tangent out and convert the rest of the tangent to secant
using tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1, use 𝑢 = sec 𝑥.

→ strip one cosecant out and one tangent out and convert the rest of the cotangent to cosecant

3. If 𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, and 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 then

→ convert tangent to secant using tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1 and use
𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝑰𝑰𝑰 (𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅) processes to integrate.

→ convert cotangent to cosecant using cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 − 1 and use

𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝑰𝑰𝑰 (𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅) processes to integrate

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Evaluate the following:

1. ∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 + 1

= ∫ tan3 𝑥(tan2 𝑥 + 1 ) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan5 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

tan6 𝑥 tan4 𝑥
= + +𝑐
6 4

1
2. ∫ cot 4 4𝑥 𝑐sc 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ cot 4 4𝑥 (4csc 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥) Let 𝑢 = cot 4𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = −4𝑐sc 2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
4

1 cot 5 4𝑥
=− ∙ +𝑐
4 5
1
=− cot 5 4𝑥 + 𝑐
20

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3. ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1

= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1 ) sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Replace 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ∫ sec 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
sec 2 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
2 ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 divide both side by 2
sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
1 1 sec 2 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥,
2 2 sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
1 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ∫
2 2 𝑢
1 1
∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 | + 𝑐
2 2
1 1
‫ ׬‬sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 2 ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 | + 𝑐 and

‫ ׬‬sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝑐 , then

∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 | − ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 | + c
2 2
𝟏 𝟏
∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒍𝒏|𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙| + 𝐂
𝟐 𝟐

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𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 V: ∫ sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠.

For any combination, use:

1 1
sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 = cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 − cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥
2 2
1 1
cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥
2 2
1 1
sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = sin(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + sin(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥
2 2
1 1
cos 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 = sin(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥 − sin(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥
2 2

Solve the following integrals:

1 1
1. ‫ ׬‬sin 5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Use sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 = cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 − cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥
2 2
1 1
1 1 sin 5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 = cos(5 − 2)𝑥 − cos(5 + 2)𝑥
∫ sin 5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( cos 3𝑥 − cos 7𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 2 2
1 1
2 2 sin 5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 = cos 3𝑥 − cos 7𝑥
2 2
1 1
= ∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 7𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑑𝑥 and Let 𝑣 = 7𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 7𝑑𝑥.
1 1 1 1
= ∙ ∫ cos 3𝑥 (3𝑑𝑥) − ∙ ∫ cos 7𝑥 (7𝑑𝑥)
2 3 2 7
1 1
= sin 3𝑥 − sin 7𝑥 + 𝑐
6 14

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
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1 1
2. ‫ ׬‬sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Use sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = sin(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + sin(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥
2 2
1 1
1 1 sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = sin(4 − 3)𝑥 + sin(4 + 3)𝑥
∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( sin 𝑥 + sin 7𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 2 2
2 2 1 1
sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + sin 7𝑥
2 2
1 1
= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sin 7𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
Let 𝑢 = 7𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 7𝑑𝑥.
1 1 1
= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∙ ∫ sin 7𝑥 (7𝑑𝑥)
2 2 7
1 1
= − cos 𝑥 − cos 7𝑥 + 𝑐
2 14

The Wallis’ Formula

 
This formula is for definite integrals of powers of sine and cosine functions over the interval 0, .
 2 

2/ m  1m  3m  5... n  1n  3n  5...   
2 2

 xdx 
m n 1 1
sin x cos
0 m  nm  n  2m  n  4...12

where  , if m and n are both even, and   0, otherwise.
2

This formula is attributed to the English mathematician John Wallis who first introduced it on 1656.
We have the following results for small values of m and n :
 

By symmetry:  cos n xdx   2 sin n xdx

2

0 0
 
1  3  5...k  1 
If n is even:  cos n xdx   2 sin n xdx  
2

0 0 2  4  6...k 2

 
2  4  6...k  1
If n is odd:  cos n xdx   2 sin n xdx  1
2

0 0 1  3  5...k

Verification of these results is left to you as an exercise.

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

For small values of n , these are the results:

   
1  
 cos xdx   2 sin xdx  1  cos 2 xdx   2 sin 2 xdx   
2 2

0 0 0 0 2 2 4


1  3  5  7  35
Example 1. Find:  cos 8 xdx   
2

0 246 2 32


2  4  6  8  10 1,280
Example 2. Evaluate:  sin 11 ydy  1 
2

0 1  3  5  7  9  11 3,465


2/ 5  3  16  4  2 16
Example 3. Solve:  0
sin 6 x cos 7 xdx 
13  11  9  7  5  3  1
1 
3,003

Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key)

Evaluate the following trigonometric integrals:

 /2
1)  /4
cos 2 ydy 
2) tan 4 w sec 4 wdw 3)  sin 5x sin 3xdx

Activity 5: Check for Understanding

Evaluate:
 /4
a)  sin v cos vdv b) 
4 3
cos 5 x cos 3xdx
 /4

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #9 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

FAQs
1) How are you going to transform trigonometric integrals into simpler integrals?
Using trigonometric identities.

2) What are the basic rules and formulas applicable in solving integration problems involving
powers and products of trigonometric functions?

A. Pythagorean Identities Derived from B2):

1  cos 2 x
1) sin x  cos x  1 1) sin  x    sin x
2 2
1) cos x 
2

2
1  cos 2 x
2) tan x  1  sec x 2) cos x   cos x
2 2
2) sin x 
2

2
3) cot x  1  csc x 3) tan  x    tan x
2 2

A. Double-Angle Identities C. Product Identities

1) sin (2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x) 1) sin A cos B 

1
sin  A  B   sin  A  B 
2
2) cos A cos B  cos A  B   cos A  B 
1
2) cos (2x) = cos2(x) – sin2(x)
2
3) sin A sin B   cos A  B   cos A  B 
1
cos (2x) = 1 – 2 sin2(x)
2
cos (2x) = 2 cos2(x) – 1

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

1  2 tan 7 w tan 5 w 1 1

Activity #3 1)    0.1427 2)  C 3) sin 2 x  sin 8 x  C
4 8 8 7 5 4 16

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 Mat 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Lesson Title: Techniques of Integration: Integration by Materials:

Trigonometric Substitutions Textbook, scientific calculator
Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, should be able to:
1. Identify what appropriate substitution to use to simplify References:
integrands containing radical expressions, and Differential and Integral Calculus
2. Solve various integration problems using the technique of by Love and Rainville
trigonometric substitution. Calculus by James Stewart
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu.
https://www.math.ucdavis.edu

Productivity Tip:

Practice makes perfect (PMP)! Only by experience and practice can one develop skill in doing integration.
So, practice, practice, and practice more….

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction

You learned from past lessons that integrals which seem to look very difficult to evaluate can be
modified into very simple forms that you can integrate easily using the simple substitution rule (u-
substitution). In this lesson, we will look at integrals that require the use of a substitution involving
trigonometric functions and how they are evaluated. This type of a substitution technique is applicable
to radical quadratic expressions of a binomial, particularly, a sum or difference of two squares, and is
called integration by trigonometric substitution.

The method of trig substitution may be called upon when other more common and easier-to-use
methods of integration have failed. Trig substitution assumes that you are familiar with standard
trigonometric identities, the use of derivatives, integration using u-substitution, and the integration of
trigonometric functions.

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 Mat 076: CALCULUS 2
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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

B. MAIN LESSON

Often, integrals involving a  x , a  x , x  a , and any other radical expressions of similar

2 2 2 2 2 2

forms occur where integration by simple substitution do not work. These integrals can be evaluated by
substituting a trigonometric function of x. The main idea is to determine a substitution that would allow
us to reduce the binomial under the root into a single term (monomial) thus making it possible to
eliminate the root easily. This is possible if we make use of the following trigonometric identities in place
of the binomial terms:

1  sin 2   cos 2  a2  x2
b) tan   1  sec  for a  x
2 2 2 2
a) for

c) sec   1  tan  for x  a

2 2 2 2

Now, the following substitutions are promising:

1.) When the integrand involves a 2  x 2 , try x  a sin  .
2.) When the integrand involves a 2  x 2 , try x  a tan .
3.) When the integrand involves x 2  a 2 , try x  a sec .

Note:  must be limited to the range of the inverse trigonometric function.

Let us examine the reason underlying the first substitution choice.

From the trigonometric identity 1  sin   cos  , if x is chosen as a sin  , then

2 2

a 2  x 2  a 2  a 2 sin 2 
 
 a 2 1  sin 2  , thus, we get a monomial
 a cos  , which is a perfect square
2 2

 a cos  ,
2

This means that if the expression a 2  x 2 is under a root, the root can be eliminated easily.

Notice that in the simple substitution (u-substitution) method, we assign a new variable as a function of
the old one (say, let 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)), but here we assign an old variable as a function of the new one (that
is,put x  a sin  ). This kind of substitution is called Reverse Substitution or more commonly known as
the trigonometric Substitution. This reverse substitution is made provided that it defines a one-to-one
function, that is,  lies in the interval.

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Below is a table of trigonometric substitutions.

Table of Trigonometric Substitutions
Pythagorean Identities Binomial Terms Trigonometric Interval
(under the radical expressions) Substitution
1  sin 2   cos 2  a2  x2 x  a sin    
 2 , 2 
tan 2   1  sec 2  a2  x2 x  a tan   
 , 
 2 2
sec 2   1  tan 2  x2  a2 x  a sec    3 
0, 2  or  , 2 

Figure1. Reference right triangles for the three basic substitutions

Each of the substitutions is illustrated in the examples that follow.
𝑥2 16 sin2 𝜃 (4 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃)
1. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
ξ16−𝑥2 4 cos 𝜃

= න 16 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 Let 𝑢2 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 =16

Replace 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 =
2 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑎=4
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= 16 න 𝑑𝜃 = 8 න 𝑑 𝜃 − 8 න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 8𝜃 − 4(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
2
𝑥 𝑥 ξ16 − 𝑥 2
= 8𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) − 8 ∙
4 4 4
𝑥
4
where: 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 ( ) 𝑥
4

𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝒙√𝟏𝟔−𝒙𝟐
∫ = 𝟖 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( ) − +𝑪
√𝟏𝟔−𝒙 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
√16 − 𝑥 2

𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 √16−𝑥 2 = 4 cos 𝜃

𝑥 2 = 16𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

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𝟐. ∫
ξ9𝑥 2 −4
𝑑𝑥 =∫
2 tan 𝜃(3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃𝑑𝜃) let 𝑢2 = 9𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 = 4
𝑥 2
sec 𝜃 𝑢 = 3𝑥, 𝑎=2 3𝑥 √9𝑥 2 − 4
3

= 2 න tan2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 Replace 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1

2
= 2 න(sec 2 𝜃 − 1)𝑑𝜃
3𝑥 = 2 sec 𝜃 √9𝑥 2 − 4 = 2 tan 𝜃
2
= 2 න sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 2 න 𝑑𝜃 𝑥 = sec 𝜃 1
3 √9𝑥 2 − 4 = tan 𝜃
2 2
= 2 tan 𝜃 − 2𝜃 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ξ9𝑥 2 − 4
3 tan−1 ቆ ቇ=𝜃
2 2
where ξ𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 = 𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 and 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
ξ9𝑥 2 − 4
tan−1 ቆ ቇ=𝜃
2
ξ𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒
= √𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 − 𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ቆ ቇ+𝑪
𝟐

𝑑𝑥 2 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝟑. න =න
ξ𝑥2 + 4 2 sec 𝜃 Let 𝑢2 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 = 4
= න sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑎=2 √4 + 𝑥 2
𝑥
= lnȁsec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 ȁ + 𝑐
𝑥 ξ4+𝑥 2 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝜃
where: tan 𝜃 = and sec 𝜃 = 2
2 2

ξ4 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ln ቤ + ቤ+𝑐
2 2
√4 + 𝑥 2 = 2 sec 𝜃

ξ4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
= ln ቤ ቤ+𝑐
2

= ln ቚ√4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥ቚ − ln 2 + 𝑐

= 𝐥𝐧 ቚ√𝟒 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙ቚ + 𝑪

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Rationalizing Substitution

sin x
Example: Evaluate I   1  sin xdx

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Activity 3: Skill-building Activities

dx 4  x 2 dx 4/5 25 y 2  4
Evaluate: 1) x 2
9  x2
2)  x
3) 
2/5 y
dy

Activity 5: Check for Understanding

2 v 2 16
Find: a) 
0
4  x 2 dx b)  v
dv

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 Mat 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

FAQs

1. How do you do trigonometric substitution in integration?

Use:

2. What is the necessary basic knowledge you must have acquired for you to do integration by
trigonometric substitution?

The trigonometric identities can be used to test certain integrals involving trigonometric functions.
This allows the integrand to be written in an alternate form which could be more comprehensive.
On occasions a trigonometric substitution will require evaluation of an integral.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Activity #3
9  x2 1 2 1 2 2
1)  C 2) x 2  4  ln x  4 1  x  4  2  C 3) 2 3   1.3697
9x 2 2 3

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #11 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Lesson Title: Techniques of Integration: Integration of Rational Materials:

Functions by Partial Fractions Textbook, scientific calculator
Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Recognize simple linear factors, repeated linear factors, and References:
quadratic factors in a rational function. Differential & Integral Calculus
2. Integrate complicated rational functions by the method of by Love & Rainville
partial fractions. Calculus by James Stewart
https://www.math24.net
www.sosmath.com

Productivity Tip:
Don’t forget algebra and trigonometry. It all comes back with the addition of calculus.
So, go back to the basics-recall, recall, and recall…

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction

We have learned that integrals involving specific rational functions may be evaluated that leads to
powers, logarithms, to an arctangent and by a trigonometric substitution. However, there are certain
types of quotients that all those methods mentioned will not allow us to integrate successfully.

In this lesson, we will deal with the problem of integrating a complicated rational function, that is, the
quotient of two polynomials, by expressing it as sum of integrals of simpler functions called partial
fractions that can be evaluated easily. This process of taking a rational expression and decomposing it
into simpler rational expressions that we can add or subtract to get the original rational expression is
called partial fraction decomposition. This technique is called integration of rational functions by partial
fractions.

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Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

B. MAIN LESSON

Integration of rational functions by partial fractions is a technique that allows the integral
𝑃(𝑥)
of a seemingly complicated fractional expression to decompose into the sum of integrals of
𝑄(𝑥)
simpler fractions. It is extremely important to keep in mind that this method is applicable only to
a proper algebraic fraction, that is, a fraction whose degree of the numerator is lower than that
of the denominator. Recall that, for a polynomial in𝑥, the degree is the highest power of 𝑥. The
𝑥 2 +3
rational function 3 is a proper algebraic fraction because the numerator 𝑥 2 + 3 is of 2nd
𝑥 −3𝑥−10
degree and the denominator 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 10 is a polynomial of degree 3. If the rational function
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = is improper (deg(P(x))≥deg(Q(x)), then we carry out the indicated long division until
𝑄(𝑥)
the numerator becomes of lower degree than the denominator. Thus, we have
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
= 𝑔(𝑥) + , where 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 and
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑃(𝑥)
where we can do partial fraction decomposition on .
𝑄(𝑥)

Algebra shows that every proper rational fraction can be broken-up into so-called partial
fractions of the forms
𝐴 𝐴(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝐴 𝐴
𝑛 , 2 𝑛 , 2 , .
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
2

The integrals of these rational functions can then be evaluated by the following rules:
a. Considering the first two forms
i.) Uses the power rule if 𝑛 > 1,
ii.) Applies the rule leading to natural logarithms if 𝑛 = 1,
b. The third form leads to arctangent, while
c. The fourth form applies trigonometric substitution

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𝑅(𝑥)
Now, let us consider the proper rational function , the factors of 𝑄(𝑥), and the partial fraction
𝑄(𝑥)
decomposition (PFD):

Cases Factor of 𝑄(𝑥) Partial Fraction Decomposition (PFD)

Case 1 All are linear factors and 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ∙∙ 𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐴
distinct (no factor is ∙ (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 ) = + ⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
repeated)
Case 2 All are linear factors and 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2
some are repeated = + +⋯
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2
𝐴𝑛
+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
Case 3 There is a quadratic factor 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐴2
=
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Case 4 Contains repeated 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑟 𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐴2
quadratic factor =
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴3 (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐴4
+
𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴𝑛 (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐴𝑛+1
+⋯+
(𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑟

Where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛+1 are arbitrary

constants whose values are to be
determined.

The key to the process of partial fraction decomposition is being able to predict the form that the
decomposition of a rational function will take. Notice that this form is both predictable and highly
dependent on the factorization of the denominator of the rational function.

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Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Example 1 shows how to use partial fractions to integrate a rational function whose denominator has
distinct linear factors.

Example #1

𝑥 2 +1
Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −2𝑥

Solution 1: Here we need to perform division since this is an improper fraction, that is,
degree of 𝑃(𝑥) = degree of 𝑄(𝑥))

1
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 𝑥2 + 1
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 where 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 and 𝑅(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
We now have
2𝑥 + 1
2
𝑥 +1 2𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑥 − 2𝑥
2𝑥 + 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)

After factoring, the denominator of the proper fraction, we express the rational function as the sum of
partial fractions.

Note that the denominator has two distinct linear

factors.
2𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 𝑥 − 2

Multiplying both sides by the factors of the original denominator,

2𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
[ = + ] 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
𝑥 (𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 𝑥 − 2

We get
2𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵𝑥 This equation is an identity because it holds true for
all values of 𝑥.
2𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥

There are two methods for finding the coefficients A and B and these are the following: a) the method of
equating coefficients and b) the method of substitution.

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Solution a)
From algebra, the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be determined by equating coefficients on both sides of the
equation.
So, the coefficient of 𝑥: 2 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ①
Constant: 1 = −2𝐴
1 1 5
Therefore 𝐴 = − and from①: 2 = − + 𝐵, 𝐵 =
2 2 2
We plug in the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵 into the partial fractions
𝑥2 + 1 𝐴𝑑𝑥 𝐵𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ +∫
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑥 𝑥−2
1 𝑑𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ + ∫
2 𝑥 2 𝑥−2
Using the basic rules of integration,
1 5
= 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
2 2

Simplification gives
1
= 𝑥 + [5 ln|𝑥 − 2| − ln 𝑥] + 𝐶
2
𝑥
Using the property of logarithms: ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 = ln
𝑦

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟏 ( 𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝟓 (QED)
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧 +𝑪
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 𝟐 𝒙

Solution b)
Another method of solving for the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵 to 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵𝑥, is by assigning
any value to 𝑥.
1
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 0; we have 1 = −2𝐴 → 𝐴 = −
2
5
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 2; we obtain 5 = 2𝐵 → 𝐵 =
2
Plugging in the values of constants 𝐴 and 𝐵 will give us the same answer.

Summary: Steps in the integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fraction

1. Check if the rational function is a proper fraction (if not, divide first)
2. Decompose the proper fraction into partial fraction (PFD)
3. Solve for the values of the arbitrary constants
4. Evaluate the integral of the partial fractions.
5. Simplify your final answer when necessary

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Example 2 gives us the case where the denominator has repeated linear factors. The basic technique
used for solving for the coefficients is the same, but it requires more algebra to determine the
numerators of the partial fractions.

Example #2

𝑥2 + 2
2. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)3
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 : 1 = 𝐴
PFD for repeated linear factor: 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥: 0 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 ①

𝑥2 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡: −1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ②
3 = + 2 +
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)3
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
then −1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ②
Therefore, 𝑥2 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥 0 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 ① −1 = 1 + 𝐵
𝐵 = −2
−1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ②

𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: A = −1
3=𝐶
𝐶=3

𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵

𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵

𝑥2 + 2 −𝑑𝑥 −2 3
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ +∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)3
−𝑑𝑥
=∫ − 2 ∫(𝑥 + 1)−2 𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫(𝑥 + 1)−3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
(𝑥 + 1)−1 (𝑥 + 1)−2
= − ln|𝑥 + 1| − 2 +3 +𝑐
−1 −2
𝟐 𝟑
= − 𝐥𝐧|𝒙 + 𝟏| + − +𝑪
𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐

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Now let’s deal with integrating a rational expression where the denominator contains an irreducible
quadratic factor. Recall that the quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is irreducible if if b2−4ac<0.

Example #3

3𝑥 + 10
∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥: 3 = 2𝐴
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 5
3
𝐴=
PFD for Quadratic factor: 2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡: 10 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵
3𝑥 + 10 𝐴(2𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵 10 − 2𝐴 = 𝐵
= 2 3
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 10 − 2 ቀ ቁ = 𝐵
2
3𝑥 + 10 𝐴(2𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵 𝐵=7
[ 2 = 2 ] (𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 5)
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5

3𝑥 + 10 = 𝐴(2𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵
3𝑥 + 10 = 2𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵

3
3𝑥 + 10 (2𝑥 + 2) + 7
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5

Now,
3
(2𝑥 + 2) 7
= ∫ 22 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5
3 2𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 7 ∫
2 𝑥2
+ 2𝑥 + 5 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥2
2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 4
𝑑𝑢==3(2𝑥 2𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + 4
∫ 2+ 2)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 7 ∫ 2
2 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 (𝑥 + 1 )2 + 4 = ( 𝑥 + 1 ) + 4
3 1 𝑥+1
= ln|𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 5| + 7 [ arctan ( )] + 𝐶
2 2 2
𝟑 𝟕 𝒙+𝟏
= 𝐥𝐧|𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓| + 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( )+𝑪
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐


For the case where a repeated quadratic factor is found in the denominator ax 2  bx  c , we assume r

r partial fractions with linear numerators as in Example 3, and successive denominators building up
step-by-step.

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Activity 3: Skill-building Activities

Evaluate the integrals of the following rational functions:

3x  2 v2 y 2  4 y  10
1)  x 3  x 2  2 xdx 2)  v  1 2v  12 dv
  3)  y3  2y2  5y
dy

Activity 5: Check for Understanding

x3  2 1
Find: a)  x 3  x dx b)  x x  2  2
dx

FAQs
1. When can we say that a rational algebraic function is a proper fraction?

2. What are the methods for finding the values of the arbitrary constants A, B,…, D. Describe each.

3. Describe simple linear factors, repeated linear factors, and quadratic factors in a rational
function.

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KEY TO CORRECTIONS

4 1 3
Activity #3 1)  ln x  ln x  2  ln x  1  C 2) ln 2v  1  ln v  1  C
3 3 22v  1
y 1
1
  1
3) 2 ln y  ln y 2  2 y  5  arctan
2 2 2
C

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Lesson Title: Applications of Integration: Area Under Curves Materials:

Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson you should be able to: Textbook, scientific calculator
References:
1) Apply definite integration to calculate the area under a given Differential and Integral Calculus
curve. by Love and Rainville
2) Calculate the areas under the curves defined by the graphs of https://revisionmaths.com
functions in parametric equations and in polar equations. https://www.intmath.com
https://www.analyzemath.com
http://www.mathwords.com

Productivity Tip:
“Study Hard!”

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction
Integration can help us solve many types of real-world problems. In fact, many useful quantities such as
areas, volumes, arc lengths, and centroids-to mention only a few, can be obtained using definite
integrals.
This lesson discusses one of the most important physical applications of integral calculus which is
determining the area of a region in a plane, particularly in terms of areas under curves.

B. MAIN LESSON

I. From our previous lesson, recall that a definite integral is defined as the limit of a sequence
of sums (the Greek letter ‘sigma’, ∑, means sum), i.e. the summation of the areas of
approximating rectangles with height f(x i) and width ∆x, as shown on the Figure.

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When x is restricted to lie on the x-axis, the definite integral is known as a Riemann sum (an
approximation of the area under a mathematical curve between two x-values).
𝑏
The definite integral of a continuous function f over the interval [a, b], denoted by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is
the limit of a Riemann sum as the number of subdivisions approaches infinity. That is,
n
 n lim   f ( xi )x
𝑏 i 1
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
where,
𝑏−𝑎
𝛥𝑥 = , 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝛥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑖
𝑛
The definite integral as a limit of Riemann’s sums defines the area under the curve of a function. Now,
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part II not only establishes the relationship between
differentiation and integration but also gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using the
more tedious Riemann’s sums on calculating areas.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II (also known as the Evaluation Theorem)

If f is continuous over the interval [a, b] and F(x) is any derivative of f(x), then
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥)|𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).
𝑎
The application of this theorem seems too simple that the area of an entire region can be calculated by
just evaluating an anti-derivative at the first and last endpoints of an interval.

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The area under a curve is the area between the graph of the continuous function𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠,
𝑏
and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏and is given by the definite integral 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
To find the area under a curve, it is always helpful to draw a sketch of the curve for the required x-
values, and then remember to apply the key points given below.

Steps to follow when calculating the area under a curve y= f(x),

1. Sketch the region, whose area is to be found,
2. Determine the boundaries/limits a and b,
3. Set up the definite integral and simplify,
4. Evaluate the integral to obtain the required area.

Key Points:
𝑏
1.) For curves which are entirely above the x-axis, simply substitute to the formula 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2.) For curves which are entirely below the x-axis;
𝑏
a) substitute to the formula 𝐴 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where the negative sign accounts to the height f(xi)
of the rectangle that is below the horizontal axis(the y-coordinate of points below the x-axis
is negative); or
𝑏
b) simply take the absolute value of the result, i.e. 𝐴 = |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 |this account to the fact that
the area of a region is always positive.

3) For curves which are partly above and partly below the x-axis, we should calculate each area
separately, that is, for the parts of the curve above the axis, and the parts of the curve below the
axis and get the sum of the individual areas, breaking down the interval of integration into sub-
interval𝒂 < 𝒄 < 𝒃. Areas below the x-axis will come out negative so that we have to take its
absolute value.

c
A   f ( x)dx  𝒅
a |∫𝒄 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙|

4) For curves which are much easier to solve using horizontal strips/elements

If we are given𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), then we need to express it as 𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑦)and get the sum from bottom to top In some
cases, it is easier to find the area if we use horizontal slices or strips with lengths 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and widths dy and
𝑑
using the formula 𝐴 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑 𝑦.

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Now let’s take a look at these four cases in the following problems.

Case1

A curve that is entirely above the x-axis

Example 1. Find the area under the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥, from 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 2.

Sketch: (Assign x-values and obtain the corresponding values of y)

𝑏
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

2 𝑥2 2
𝐴 = ∫0 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 |0 = 22
2
𝑨 = 𝟒𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔

Alternate solution: Using the formula for the area of a right triangle A=1/2 (base times height).

The sketch shows that the triangle’s base x is equal to 2 and its height y is 4 so that the area, A, is

A=1/2[2(4)] = 4 square units

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Case2
A curve that is entirely below the x-axis

Example 1

Calculate the area under the curve y=x2- 4.

𝑏
𝐴 = |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 |
2
𝑥3 2 23 (−2)3 8 8 𝟑𝟐
𝐴 = |∫ (𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑑𝑥| = − 4𝑥 |−2 = | − 4(2) − [ − 4(−2)]| = | − 8 + − 8| = 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝟐
−2 3 3 3 3 3 𝟑

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Example 2
Solve the area bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4,y=x2−4, the x-axis and the lines x=−1 and x=2.

Since the required area is totally below the x-axis, we can use Key Point 2a) above which uses the
formula
𝑏
𝐴 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 −1
𝑥3 2
𝐴 = −∫ (𝑥 2
− 4) 𝑑𝑥 = − [ − 4𝑥]
−1 3
3 (−1)3
2 8 1
𝐴 = − [( − 4(2)) − ( − 4(−1))] = − [ − 8 + − 4] = −(−9) = 𝟗𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
3 3 3 3
𝑏
You will obtain the same result if you opt to use formula 2b) above, that is, using𝐴 = |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 |
.

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Case3
A region that is partly above and partly below the x-axis

𝑐
Splitting the interval of integration into sub-intervals and applying the formula 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 +
𝑑
|∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 |

0 2
We have 𝐴 = |∫−2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 | + ∫0 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
−2 0
𝑥4 0 𝑥4 2
𝐴=| | + |
4 4
4
(−2) 24
𝐴 = |0 − |+ −0
4 4
| |
𝐴 = −4 + 4
𝑨 = 𝟖𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔𝟐

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Case4

For curves which are much easier to solve using horizontal strips/elements

Example 1

Find the area of the region bounded by the curve𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1, the axes, and the line𝑦 = 5.
Sketch:

Now we express x as a function of y: 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1

𝑦2 = 𝑥 − 1
𝑦2 + 1 = 𝑥
𝑑 5
𝐴 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 (𝑦 2 + 1)𝑑𝑦
𝑦3 5 53
𝐴 = [ + 𝑦] 0 = +5
3 3

𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝑨= 𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝟑

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II. Area under a Curve (in Parametric Equations)

Example 1: Find the area under the first period of the cycloid 𝑥 = 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 from 𝑡 = 0 to
𝑡 = 2𝜋.

𝑡
Using the formula: 𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 (i.e. Area is equal to the integral of y times the differential of x).
1

𝑡 2𝜋
𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡) 𝑑(𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡)
1
2𝜋
𝐴 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡) (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
𝐴 = ∫ (1 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
2𝜋
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
𝐴=∫ (1 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + ) 𝑑𝑡
0 2
2𝜋
3 1
𝐴 = ∫ ( − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0 2 2
0
3 1 2𝜋
𝐴 = 𝑡 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡 |
2 4
𝑨 = 𝟑𝝅𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔𝟐

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Example 2: Determine the area of the region below the parametric curve given by the following set of
parametric equations. You may assume that the curve traces out exactly once from right to left for the
given range of t.

𝑥 = 4𝑡 3 − 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 2 1≤𝑡≤3

𝑏
Solving for the area under the curve using the formula: 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑦𝑑𝑥

3
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 2 ) 𝑑(4𝑡 3 − 𝑡 2 )
1
3
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 2 ) (12𝑡 2 − 2𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1
3
𝑡7 𝑡6 𝑡5 3
𝐴 = ∫ (12𝑡 6 − 2𝑡 5 + 24𝑡 4 − 4𝑡 3 ) 𝑑𝑡 = (12 − 2 + 24 − 𝑡 4 ) |1
1 7 6 5
12 36 − 16 24 5
𝐴 = [ (37 − 17 ) − + (3 − 15 ) − (34 − 14 ]
7 3 5
481,568
𝐴= = 𝟒, 𝟓𝟖𝟔. 𝟑𝟔𝟏𝟗𝒔. 𝒖.
105

III. Area under a Curve (in Polar Coordinates)

The area enclosed by the graph of 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) and between the rays θ = α and θ = β (where α ≤ β), is
given by

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

𝝅 𝝅
Example1. Find the area enclosed by the lemniscate 𝑟 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃between the rays 𝜽 = − and 𝜽 = .
𝟔 𝟒

𝛽1
𝐴 = ∫𝛼 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
2
𝜋/4
1
𝐴=∫ (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
−𝜋/6 2
𝜋/4
=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
−𝜋/6
𝜋/4
𝐴 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃] |−𝜋/6
𝜋 −𝜋
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 6
√2 1 √𝟐+𝟏
𝐴= − (− ) = 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝟐
2 2 𝟐

Example 2. Determine the area of the enclosed region defined by 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃.

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Activity 3: Skill-building Activities

Solve the following problems:

1. Calculate the area under the curve 𝑦 = 7 − 𝑥 2 , from x = -1 to x=2.

2. Find the total area of the finite region bounded by 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 =
2𝜋.

3. Find the area bounded by the curve y=x2-4, the line x=4, and the x-axis.

4. Find the area inside the cardioid 𝑟 = 4 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜃 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 = 2𝜋.

5. Determine the area under the parametric curve defined by the equations x=t 2−4 and y=t on
the interval [0, 3].

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Activity 5: Check for Understanding

Solve the following problems:

a) Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 =
1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 3.

b) Determine the area under the parametric curve given by the following parametric
equations.
𝑥 = 2(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), 𝑦 = 2(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

c) Find the area inside the cardioid 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜃 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 = 2𝜋.

FAQs

1. How do we know that the curve is above or below the x-axis?

.
By sketching the region whose area is to be found

2. How do we identify the boundaries or limits of integration when the interval is not given?

The boundaries are obtained directly from the graph

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 MAT 076: CALCULUS 2
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

32 41𝜋 54
Act #3 1) 𝐴 = 18𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2) 𝐴 = 4𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 3)𝐴 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2 4) A= 𝑠. 𝑢. 5) 𝐴 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
3 2 3

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